Introduction To Mechanical Technologies and Processes

Machine Translated by Google
DEMI
Industrial Technology Center
Introduction to Mechanical Technologies and Processes

Class T3 – Metallic Materials, Properties and Treatments
Miguel A. Machado
Telmo G. Santos
J. Pamies Teixeira
What?
- How exactly is the crystalline structure of metallics?
- What are the 3 ways to improve your properties?
-What is the difference between Alloy and Pure Metal?
-How are leagues created?

-What is a Phase Diagram?
- What are the different microstructures of steel?
- What are the main Thermal Treatments?
- Can I “feel” the effect of the Tempera TT?
- Can I “see” the effect of changing the steel's microstructure?
two
Learning Outcomes
- Know the different crystalline structures, their factors of

packaging and the respective materials that materialize them, estimating their
theoretical densities;
- Recognize hardening, alloying elements and TT as forms of

improve the properties of metallic materials;
- Distinguish between a substitutional and interstitial alloy, knowing the conditions

for each one. Give concrete examples of these materials. Describe the
effects of alloying elements on crystalline structure, and the impact on
metal properties.
- Relate cooling curves with phase equilibrium diagram and explain the
difference between pure metal and alloys, in terms of cooling curves.
- Know the phase diagram of Iron-Carbon and identify the different

microstructures of steel.
- Know the main heat treatments of steels, their temperatures and the impact on
the microstructure and properties of steel.
3
ITPM: Discipline Program
• Materials:
- Know the main engineering materials and their basic properties:
Metals (ferrous and non-ferrous)
Polymers (thermoplastics, thermosets, elastomers)
ceramics
- Foundry
Composites (MMCc, CMCc, PMCs) - Pulverotechnology
- Processing of polymers
(Moulding, Injection, Insufflation…)
- Forging
- Extrusion
• Technological processes - Rolling
- Bending
- Basic operating principle; - Stamping
- Main parameters and types of defects; - Calendering
- Types of materials possible to process; - Machining

- Turning
- Types of products (geometries / properties) obtained; - Break-in cutting, Drilling
- Equipment - Rectification
- thermal cut
- Welding
(MIG, TIG, ER, Laser, SFL…)
- Brazing -
Adhesives
• Quality control
- Mechanical connection (Riveted / Screwed)
- Metrology
- Destructive and Non-Destructive Testing - Other / special processes
(Coatings, Rapid Prototyping…)
- Normalization
4
Crystalline structure
A central atom at the center of the unit cell and 8 CCC Structure - Body Centered Cubic
additional atoms at the corners of the cube. body-centered cubic (BCC)
structural unit
Examples:
• Iron (Fe) •
Single crystal with many
ball model Molybdenum (Mo)
structural units
Swiss Steel AG, Switzerland, 2008
• Tungsten (W) •
Chromium
Coordination number =8 corresponds to the number of nearest neighbor
atoms ?
(Cr) • Vanadium (V)
Number of atoms
ÿ Volume of the atom For a sense of the extremely small
ÿ
packaging factor size of unit cells: In iron, at
Unit cell volume room temperature, the unit cell edge is
0.287 nm. 1 mm of unit cells
arranged in a row contains 3.48 x 106
unit cells!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y-eEV6WqAwg
5
CCC Structure - Body Centered Cubic

body-centered cubic (BCC)
4ÿ R ÿ 3 ÿ ao
4Rÿ 4 3ÿ ÿ R
ÿ ÿ
to the
3 3
4
Swiss Steel AG, Switzerland, 2008 two ÿÿÿ ÿ R3
Volume occupied by spheres 3
packing factor ÿ ÿ
3
ÿ
Unit cell volume The

O
8 8
ÿ ÿÿ R3 ÿ ÿÿ R3
3
ÿ
3
ÿ
3
ÿ
0.68
ÿ 43
ÿÿ R ÿ 3 64ÿ ÿ3ÿ 3 R
ÿÿÿ
3 27
ÿÿÿ
6
CFC Structure - Cubic Face Centered

Each atom is surrounded by 12 neighboring atoms
Face-centered cubic (FCC)
Examples:
• Copper
(Cu) • Gold
(Au) • Silver
Single crystal with many (Ag) • Nickel
ball model
Steel
swiss AG,2008
Switzerland,
structural unit structural units (Ni) • Aluminum (Al)
4ÿRÿ2ÿa 4 3
O 4ÿÿÿ ÿ R
ÿ
Volume occupied by spheres ÿ
3 ÿ
packing factor 3
Unit cell volume to
4 R 42 R
the
ÿ ÿÿ
to the
ÿ ÿ
22
ÿÿÿ R
two two
16 3 16 3
ÿ ÿÿ R ÿ ÿÿ R
3
ÿ
3
ÿ
3
ÿ
0.74
ÿ ÿÿ
22 R ÿ 3 ÿ8ÿ2ÿ 2 R
Coordination number = 12
7
HC Structure - Compact Hexagonal

Hexagonal close-packed (HCP)
Single crystal with many

structural units
structural unit
Examples:
Packing factor = 0.74 = CFC • Zinc (Zn) •
Coordination number = 12 = CFC Magnesium (Mg)
Total number of atoms = 6 • Titanium (Ti)
8
Density
Density
• Knowledge of the crystalline structure allows the calculation

of the theoretical density (ÿ):
at
ÿ
ÿ
You NA
N – Number of atoms in the unit cell

A – Atomic weight
Vc – unit cell volume
NA - Avogadro's Number (6.023x1023 at/mole)
9
Engineering Materials
Iron-Carbon System
alloying
Tempera,
elements
Ferrous and Ferrous Treatment tempered,
castings Annealing,
Metals Thermal
Normalization
leagues
pure
non-ferrous and Treatment
Solubilization, precipitation,
stainless steel
Thermal aging, etc.
phase diagrams
Microstructures
Substitutional solid solutions
Interstitial solid solutions
Intermetallic compounds
10
Structure of Metallic Materials
“Solid-state” devices
Solidification
monocrystalline turbine blades
Metal Unit
crystals
cast Structural
Clips, Screws, Springs, I-
polycrystalline beams, etc. etc.
body centered cubic crystal lattice

Face centered cubic
imperfections Grain Limits
compact hexagon Displacements
plastic deformation
Allotropism
anisotropy
• 90% of metallic elements crystallize upon solidification into three compact crystalline
structures: • Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) – alpha iron, chromium, molybdenum, tantalum,
tungsten and vanadium. • Face centered cubic (CFC) – gamma iron (austenite), aluminum, copper, nickel,
lead, silver, gold and platinum. • Compact Hexagon (HC) - beryllium, cadmium, cobalt, magnesium, alpha titanium, zinc and zirconium.
11
leagues
Impurities in solids
A metal considered pure always has impurities (foreign atoms) 99.99%
The presence of impurities promotes the formation of punctual defects.
12
Solid Solutions
• Combination of two materials:

• The most abundant is the SOLVENT
• The one with the least amount is the
SOLUTE (addition element)
• Two types of solid solution • Effect on the structure
Substitutional
Solvent
Solute
• Interstitial
Technologies and Mechanical Processes 13

leagues
metallic alloys
Sometimes impurities are intentionally added (alloying elements) in order

to change:
• Mechanical strength;
• Corrosion resistance;
• Electrical conductivity;
• Hardness;
• The melting point;

• Etc.
Switzerland,
Swiss Steel AG,
2008
14
leagues
Solid Solutions
Combination of two materials:
The most abundant is the SOLVENT
Substitutional solid solutions
The least amount is the SOLUTE (addition element)
Fundamental conditions for the formation of solid solutions

(Hume-Rothery rules):
• The atomic diameters of the solute and the solvent cannot differ by
more than 15%:
Solvent
R ÿ
R
% diff ÿ solute solvent ÿ100 ÿ15% Solute
R
solvent
• The crystal structure of the solute and solvent must be similar.

• Complete solubilization occurs when the solvent and solute have the Effect on the structure
same valency. A metal dissolves one of higher valency more than
one of lower valence.
Example: Ni + Cu:
- Same structure (CFC);
- Similar radii (124 vs 128 pm);
-> all proportions are possible.
15
leagues
Solid Solutions
Combination of two materials:
Interstitial solid solutions
The most abundant is the SOLVENT
The least amount is the SOLUTE (addition element)
Fundamental conditions for the formation

of solid solutions
(Hume-Rothery rules):
Interstitial solid solutions: Solvent
1. The solute atoms must be Solute
smaller than the lattice interstitial

sites. (Rsolute < 0.59 Rsolvent)
2. The electronegativities of the solute Effect on the structure

and solvent must be similar.
16
leagues
Effect of alloying elements

What is the effect of alloying elements on Mechanical Strength?
Conclusion:
Mechanical
resistance increases!
(either with solid phase,
or with
intermetallics)
Mechanical properties
of copper with additions
of Ni and Zn. The Zn Curves
are shorter since the
maximum solubility of
Zn in copper is 40%
17
leagues
When there are no conditions for interstitial or
substitutional solid solutions…
When two or more elements are added, intermetallic

compounds can form.
Difference between solid solution and intermetallic compound:
The solute and solvent atoms in the solid solution are randomly distributed. The
overall crystal lattice is that of the solvent material.
But the structure of intermetallics is different from the structure of solvent.
Example: CuZn.
Ordered cubic
Ordered tetragonal
structure of TiAl structure of Ni3Al
Intermetallic compounds have properties of great interest such as relatively high melting point compared
to the melting point of metallic materials, low density and good resistance to high temperatures.
18
leagues
The mechanical properties are conditioned

by this alteration of the solid phase.
Example of a nickel superalloy

with small additions of Al, Ti and Nb
Cr, Ta, Hf, Nb and W form carbides

Co, Fe, Cr, Nb, Ta, Mo, W, V, Ti, B, Zr, Al reinforces the matrix
A superalloy is a metal alloy that has high mechanical strength and creep resistance at high temperatures, good
surface stability, and resistance to corrosion and oxidation.
19
Composite Production
Demonstration: Temperature variation in

tin alloy cooling
20
Cooling of Pure Metal from liquid state
What is the difference between heating/cooling an alloy and a pure metal?
Behavior of: Cu-Ni Alloy
Cooling Curves Phase equilibrium diagram
Construction of the Cu-Ni phase equilibrium diagram from liquid-solid cooling curves.
21
Cooling of Pure Metal from liquid state
Behavior of:
pure metal
(a) Cooling curve during solidification of pure metals. Note that during solidification the temperature is constant (heat
latent: heat required to change phase).
(b) Density change during solidification.
22
leagues
Cooling an alloy from its

liquid state
Conclusion:
Alloys DO
NOT have a
well-
determined
melting
point: they
have a melting range
Technologies
Mechanical
Processes
and
Simple case of total solubility
Phase diagram for the nickel-copper alloy obtained with very slow cooling. Note that pure nickel and pure
copper have a well-defined melting point. The uppermost circle represents crystal nucleation. The second
shows the formation of dendrites and the last one shows the complete grains, where the grain boundaries are seen.
23
leagues
What is a phase diagram (DF)?
It is a graphical representation of the Example of a phase diagram: Water

equilibrium conditions
between the thermodynamically distinct
phases of a given material.
Common components of a DF: -

balance lines: mark
conditions in which multiple phases
can coexist in equilibrium. Phase
transitions occur along equilibrium
lines.
- Triple points: they mark conditions in
which 3 phases ÿ can coexist.
Swiss Steel AG, Switzerland,

2008 The solidus: temperature below
which the substance is stable in the solid state.
The liquidus: temperature above which

the substance is stable in a liquid state.
Note: There may be a gap

between solidus and liquidus;
in this range the material
is a mixture of solid+liquids.
24
Alloys - Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
Effect of alloying elements

Example of interstitial solid solution: Fe-Fe3C alloys
Important note:
The solubility of
C in Fe is
limited: Max 6- 7%
In steel: only up
to 2%
More than 2%: Iron
cast
Technologies
Mechanical
Processes
and
Metastable iron-cementite (Fe-FeC) phase diagram. Due to the importance of Steel

as an engineering material this is the most important phase diagram ever!
25
What is a phase diagram (DF)?
Solid phase of Fe in
CFC (NOT Magnetic)
Cementite is an Intermetallic: Fe
Carbide (Fe3C) in orthorhombic crystalline
liquid structure.
It has 6.67% C and 93.33% Fe. It is hard and fragile.
ÿ + liquid
Point
ÿ (austenite) eutectic
ÿ + Fe3C
Point (austenite + cementite)
eutectoid
ÿ + Fe3C
ÿ (ferrite) (ferrite + cementite)
Fe3C (cementite)
solid phase of
Fe (pure) in
CCC
(Magnetic)
26
Demonstration of thermally induced CCC-

CFC allotropic transformation (at 727ºC
by Joule effect) in 0.77%C eutectoid
steel (AISI 1018).
27
leagues
28
Typical Steel Microstructures
Steel is a material with a VERY wide range of properties, depending on the % of C. (not
counting the possibility of heat treatments or the addition of other alloying elements…)
hypoeutectoids eutectoids hypereutectoids
ferrite Cementite
+ flanking the steel
cementite grains
Lamellar structure: Fe3C “eats” the

C -> becomes Fe in the form of ferrite -> …
29
Fe-C Stable Diagram

(cast irons)
When is the C content highest?
In this case, the tendency is

for C to precipitate in the form
of lamellar carbon (graphite),
instead of forming Fe3C:
Cast Irons.
Stable diagram of Iron-carbon where graphite precipitates instead of FeC (cementite)
Allotropic variety of carbon (hexagonal crystalline structure).
30
leagues
Possible Microstructures of Cast Iron (FF):
FF ferritic gray with Nodular FF (Ductile Malleable FF (Ductile Ferritic). After

Ferritic) in which graphite heat treatment it decomposes into
graphite flakes.
precipitates in nodules.
secondary ferrite and graphite.
Magnification: 100x.
31
Demonstration of steel
TT in water with Joule effect
32
Thermal treatments and microstructure control
What is the Purpose of Thermal Treatments (TT)?

Changing the microstructures and, as a consequence, the mechanical properties
of metallic alloys:
• Eliminate internal tensions;
• Increase or decrease in hardness;
• Increased mechanical strength;
• Better ductility;
• Better machinability;
• Better wear resistance;
• Better corrosion resistance;
• Better heat resistance;
• Improved electrical and magnetic properties.
33
Thermal treatments and microstructure control
What are the main heat treatments?
Normalization
Annealing
temper
Tempered
Aging
34
Main heat treatments
Normalization - Normalizing
Heat treatment consisting of heating the steel to a
temperature above the critical zone (ie the
temperature at which Austenite forms -> see Fe-C
diagram), remaining at that temperature for a
certain time, followed by cooling in air.
Goals:
• Refining the grain
• Improve microstructure uniformity
Normalizing is still used as a

preliminary treatment to quenching
and tempering, precisely to
produce a more uniform structure.
35
Annealing - Annealing
Thermal treatment in which the metal undergoes controlled heating until
it reaches a certain temperature, remains at that temperature for a certain
time and undergoes slow cooling in the furnace itself.
Goals:
• Remove internal stresses due to mechanical treatments
• Decrease hardness to improve machinability

• Changing mechanical properties such as strength and ductility
• Adjust grain size
• Improve electrical and magnetic properties
36
Quenching - Quenching
Heat treatment consisting of rapid cooling of steel from a temperature
above its critical temperature.
Goals:
Obtain a martensitic structure that promotes:

• Increase in hardness
• Increased tensile strength

• Reduction of tenacity
Quenching generates stresses ÿ after
tempering treatment can be carried out.
37
martensite
Martensite: Single-phase
Tetragonal Body Centered (TCC) structure
Metastable phase of
iron supersaturated with carbon.
Product of a diffusionless
(athermic) transformation of austenite.
It is formed when austenitized iron-

carbon alloys are quenched
rapidly or sharply (as in tempering
heat treatment).
(a) Martensite hardness as a function of carbon content. (b) Micrograph of martensite

with 0.8% carbon. The gray acicular zones are the martensite; they have the same
composition as the white zones (original austenite) Magnification: 1000x.
38
Tempering – Tempering
Heat treatment that consists of reheating the quenched part at a temperature
much lower than that of quenching. The longer the time and/or the temperature,
the more ductile the steel will become. It is followed by air cooling.
Goals:
• Relieves or removes tension;
• Corrects hardness and brittleness, increasing hardness and tenacity.

This treatment is carried out right after tempering, to mitigate the negative effects.
39

Typical microstructure of a treated
eutectoid steel
Subsequently, the properties of the steel can be changed with heat treatments:
Microstructure of a eutectoid steel. Spheroidite

is formed by tempering at 700ºC (Magnification:
1000x.)
This microstructural state confers high

hardness and tenacity compared to the
Swiss Steel normalized microstructure.
AG, Switzerland, 2008
Cementite (Fe3C) in lamellae turns

into spheres. The matrix remains
ferritic but with cementite nodules
(Fe3C). Therefore, the material is
less hard and more ductile (increases
toughness)
40
Aging – Aging
Heat treatment consisting of heating the piece to a relatively low temperature
and keeping it for several hours.
This is the acceleration of a process that would occur naturally at room

temperature, but over a much longer period.
Goal:
Swiss Steel AG,
Switzerland, 2008 • Eliminate internal tensions.
41
EXTRA - Documentation
42
The following slides present different information about some properties of some of the most
important engineering materials.
These slides are examples/reference proposals for students to acquire familiarity with the properties
of engineering materials.
Another useful reference source is: http://www.matweb.com/

43
leagues
Martensite hardness as a function of

tempering time
Hardness of tempered martensite as a function of tempering time for 1080

steel quenched at 65HRC. The decrease in hardness is due to the coalescence of the
particles, with the consequent increase in the distance between particles of the softer ferrite.
44
leagues
Steel hardness as a function of

carbon content
Hardness of normalized and tempered steels, as a function of carbon content.
45
leagues
Mechanical Properties of (Steels) as

a function of Temperature
Mechanical properties
of oil-quenched 4340
steel as a function
of tempering temperature.
This behavior occurs in

all materials
46
leagues
Carbon and Alloy Steels
47
leagues
Typical Mechanical Properties of Steels
48
leagues
Application Properties of
stainless steel
49
leagues
Tool Steels
50
leagues
Non-Ferrous Materials
51
leagues
aluminum alloys
Properties of some aluminum alloys at room temperature
1xxx – Commercially pure Al.

2xxx – Addition of
Copper 3xxx – Addition of
Manganese 4xxx –
Addition of Silicon 5xxx –
Addition of Magnesium
6xxx – Addition of Mg and Si 7xxx – Addition of Zinc
52
leagues
Some league applications

Aluminum
Manufacturing Properties and Typical Applications
53
leagues
An example of an all-aluminum vehicle
Illustration of the structure of the Audi A8 which is entirely made of aluminum,

showing various components made by extrusion, stamping and casting.
54
leagues
Magnesium Alloys
Some characteristics of Magnesium Alloys
XX YYZ - Tn – Two-letter prefix (XX) indicating alloying elements;

Two numerical digits (YY) indicating, respectively, the compositions in % of these elements;
One letter indicating minor variations in composition (excluding I and O)
T followed by a number indicating the heat treatment
55
leagues
Copper Alloys (Brass)

Some characteristics of Cu-Zn Alloys
56
leagues
Copper Alloys (Bronzes)
Some characteristics of Copper Alloys (bronzes)
57
leagues
Nickel Alloys
Some characteristics of Nickel Alloys
58
leagues
nickel superalloys
Some features of Super Leagues
59
leagues
titanium alloys
Typical Properties and Applications of Titanium Alloys at Various Temperatures
60
leagues
Polymers (Plastic Materials)
61
leagues
Structure
62
leagues
Structure the molecules of

polymers
(The) (B)
(w)
Basic structure of polymer
molecules: (a) Ethylene molecule;
(b) polyethylene, linear chain of
many ethylene molecules; (c)
molecular structure of various
Swiss Steel AG, Switzerland, 2008 polymers. These are examples of
the basic “building blocks” of plastics.
63
leagues
Polymer Chains
Polymeric Chain Schemes:
(a) Linear structure – thermoplastics
(acrylics, nylons, polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride).
(b) Branched structure (HD polyethylene).
(c) Cross structure (rubbers or
elastomers – rubber
vulcanization produces this structure)
(d) Network structure – high density cross
structure (thermoset plastics such as
epoxies and phenolics.
These structures are determinant for the properties

that these materials exhibit.
64
leagues
Types of Plastics – Current Terminology
65
leagues
Effect of temperature on the ÿÿÿ curve

Example: Cellulose acetate
Note the large drop in strength and the huge increase in ductility with a relatively small increase in temperature.
66
leagues
Stress-strain curves (Ex. Polycarbonate)
67
leagues
Mechanical properties of
plastics
68
leagues
Recommendations according to the Application
69
leagues
Current Designations
70
leagues
Composite materials
71
leagues
Boeing 757
72
leagues
Reinforcement Methods
Schematic illustration of methods of reinforcing plastics (matrix) with:

(a) particles, (b) short, long or flake fibers; (c) continuous fibers; (d)
Structures may be sandwich laminated with foam or honeycomb.
73
leagues
Characteristics of Composites
74
leagues
Resistance and Modulus

Fiber Elasticity
Specific Tensile Strength (ÿR /ÿ) and specific modulus of elasticity (E/ÿ) for
various fibers used in plastic reinforcement. Note the wide range of values for
these specific properties.
75
leagues
Reinforcement Fiber Properties
76
leagues
Examples of Composite Cross

Sections
(a) Example of a tennis racket, showing graphite and aramid (Kevlar) fibers
(b) Aluminum composite reinforced with boron fibers (the tungsten filaments serve as a
support for fiber growth and boron
77
leagues
Fracture surfaces of an epoxy matrix

composite
(The) (B)
(a) Fracture of a fiberglass composite. The fibers are 10ÿm in diameter and randomly oriented. (B)
Fracture of a graphite fiber composite. The fibers are 9 to 11 ÿm in diameter, they are in
bunches aligned in the same direction.
78

Introduction To Mechanical Technologies and Processes

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Introduction To Mechanical Technologies and Processes

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Machine Translated by Google

Industrial Technology Center

Introduction to Mechanical Technologies and Processes

- What are the 3 ways to improve your properties?

-What is the difference between Alloy and Pure Metal?

-How are leagues created?

- Know the different crystalline structures, their factors of

- Recognize hardening, alloying elements and TT as forms of

- Distinguish between a substitutional and interstitial alloy, knowing the conditions

- Know the phase diagram of Iron-Carbon and identify the different

ITPM: Discipline Program

- Types of materials possible to process; - Machining

CCC Structure - Body Centered Cubic

Unit cell volume The

CFC Structure - Cubic Face Centered

HC Structure - Compact Hexagonal

Single crystal with many

• Knowledge of the crystalline structure allows the calculation

N – Number of atoms in the unit cell

Structure of Metallic Materials

body centered cubic crystal lattice

Swiss Steel AG, Switzerland, 2008

A metal considered pure always has impurities (foreign atoms) 99.99%

The presence of impurities promotes the formation of punctual defects.

• Combination of two materials:

Technologies and Mechanical Processes 13

Sometimes impurities are intentionally added (alloying elements) in order

• The melting point;

The least amount is the SOLUTE (addition element)

Fundamental conditions for the formation of solid solutions

• The crystal structure of the solute and solvent must be similar.

-> all proportions are possible.

Fundamental conditions for the formation

Interstitial solid solutions: Solvent

1. The solute atoms must be Solute

smaller than the lattice interstitial

2. The electronegativities of the solute Effect on the structure

Effect of alloying elements

Swiss Steel AG, Switzerland, 2008

When two or more elements are added, intermetallic

Swiss Steel AG, Switzerland, 2008

The mechanical properties are conditioned

Example of a nickel superalloy

Swiss Steel AG, Switzerland, 2008

Cr, Ta, Hf, Nb and W form carbides

Demonstration: Temperature variation in

Cooling of Pure Metal from liquid state

What is the difference between heating/cooling an alloy and a pure metal?

Behavior of: Cu-Ni Alloy

Swiss Steel AG, Switzerland, 2008

Cooling Curves Phase equilibrium diagram

Cooling of Pure Metal from liquid state

What is the difference between heating/cooling an alloy and a pure metal?

Swiss Steel AG, Switzerland, 2008

Cooling an alloy from its

Swiss Steel AG, Switzerland, 2008

Simple case of total solubility

What is a phase diagram (DF)?

It is a graphical representation of the Example of a phase diagram: Water

Common components of a DF: -

Swiss Steel AG, Switzerland,

The liquidus: temperature above which