The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Sciences 25 (2022) 751–764

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The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Sciences

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Research Paper

Analysis of spatial and temporal variation of precipitable water vapor

using COSMIC radio occultation observations over Egypt
Abd Elrahman Yassien b, Ashraf El-Kutb Mousa c, Mostafa Rabah a, Ahmed Saber a,⇑, Mohamed Zhran d
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Benha Faculty of Engineering, Benha University, Egypt
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Civil Engineering Department, Mansoura Higher Institute for Engineering and Technology, Mansoura, Egypt
c
National Research Institute of Astronomy and Geophysics (NRIAG), Helwan, Egypt
d
Public Works Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Precipitable water vapor (PWV) is a meteorological variable that impacts the major atmospheric pro-
Received 10 March 2022 cesses. It is a non-homogeneous variable that differs spatially and temporally. The spatial and temporal
Revised 18 June 2022 variability of the PWV in Egypt is investigated in this study using Global Navigation Satellite Systems
Accepted 3 July 2022
(GNSS) Radio Occultation (RO) from 2006 to 2021. The GNSS RO technique was used to obtain PWV val-
Available online 11 July 2022
ues; the validation results agree with the radiosonde technique. From the statistical results, the mean
bias is 0.1846 mm. The PWV has a latitudinal style in which it is inversely proportional to latitude. So,
Keywords:
it is evident that higher PWV occurs at low latitudes. However, some PWV values are higher over sites
COSMIC data
Precipitable water vapor
near the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. No clear and direct relationship is found between PWV and lon-
GNSS gitude. So, PWV is mainly dependent on latitude. The annual mean PWV values over Egypt range from
Radio occultation 9.23 mm to 13.51 mm. The higher values of PWV are in the summer season between 10.74 mm and
Radiosonde 21.55 mm. While the PWV values are in the winter season range from 6.84 mm to 9.94 mm. The highest
values of PWV occur in August between 12.35 mm and 23.35 mm and the lowest values of PWV are in
January and February ranging from 5.62 mm to 11.05 mm. PWV values are higher during the day and
lower at night.
Ó 2022 National Authority of Remote Sensing & Space Science. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open
access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction Ground-based approaches like RS fail to represent the continual

Water vapor is an atmospheric component that contributes to
the environmental humidity and the greenhouse effect (Barnes
et al., 1998; Arraut and Satyamurty, 2009; Berrisford et al.,
2011a; Berrisford et al., 2011b; Al-Mashagbah and Al-Farajat,
2013). PWV is the quantity of water vapor that can be transformed
into precipitation once integrated along the atmospheric column.
PWV is a variable that fluctuates according to a specific location’s
geographical and temporal parameters.
To detect atmospheric PWV, a variety of approaches and plat-
forms are now available; in general, there are two types of devices
or sensors: ground-based and space-based. PWV can be detected
by ground-based methods such as radiosonde (RS), and solar pho-
tometry. On the other hand, radio occultation, Moderate Resolution
Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), and Atmospheric Infrared
Sounder (AIRS) are examples of space-based observation technolo-
gies (AIRS).
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Ahmed.soliman@bhit.bu.edu.eg (A. Saber).
changes in PWV due to their poor, nonuniform geographical alloca-
tion and limited temporal obtainability. On the other hand, the RS
is a helpful reference tool for atmospheric sounding (Gong et al.,
2018). While the ground-based GNSS technology offers a number
of benefits: it is widely regarded as a reliable tool for measuring
PWV change in real-time. It has the ability to monitor and sense
continuously (Bevis et al., 1992; Jiang et al., 2016; Lu et al., 2016;
Shangguan et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2017; Dong and Jin, 2018).
However, GNSS stations, such as those operated by the Interna-
tional GNSS Service (IGS), have a low spatial resolution, especially
in the ocean. Other traditional PWV estimation methods, such as
sun photometry and microwave radiometry, are applied in some
cases. However, these sensors cannot be used extensively owing
to cost and observing condition limitations, and it is hard to collect
a continuous and diverse set of observations.
In recent years, space-based methods like RO and microwave
satellite-borne passive microwave detectors have allowed meteo-
rological parameters and PWV dispersion to be measured from
space (Kursinski et al., 1997; Mears et al., 2015). They offer several
advantages when compared to traditional techniques. For example,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrs.2022.07.001
1110-9823/Ó 2022 National Authority of Remote Sensing & Space Science. Published by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
A. Elrahman Yassien, A. El-Kutb Mousa, M. Rabah et al. Egypt. J. Remote Sensing Space Sci. 25 (2022) 751–764

Fig. 1. COSMIC-2 radio occultation events distribution (from 2019 to 2021) over Fig. 2. COSMIC-1 radio occultation events distribution (from 2006 to 2020) over
Egypt. Egypt.

RO has a high vertical resolution, and its measurements are unaf-

fected by clouds and precipitation (Anthes et al., 2008; Wick
et al., 2008; Anthes, 2011; Ho et al., 2018); furthermore, it has a
worldwide observation coverage, unconstrained by land or ocean
and sea, thus RO is used to calculate PWV around the world under
all conditions of weather (Jacob, 2001; Li et al., 2014; Meng et al.,
2017).
Globally, radiosonde balloon measurements are launched,
albeit coverage is limited in several places. Most radiosonde sites
are on land. Some radiosonde observations are conducted aboard
ships crossing seas, although this is difficult and inconvenient for
users. The RS may obtain precise atmospheric measurements with
a high vertical resolution from zero height to 30 km in height. Data
quality varies substantially depending on the sensor; currently, a
large range of sensors are used across the world, each having its
own set of known and undiscovered biases. Furthermore, the types
of sensors used at different locations change over time, leading to
erroneous trends or jumps. Most stations offer two observations
every day, one at 00:00 and the other at 12:00, while some stations
might provide up to four times per day (Zhang et al., 2018a).
The previous study on the validity of GNSS RO and radiosonde
retrieved PWV has proven that these observations may be used
in weather and climate research. PWV has latitudinal and seasonal
differences in general. The average PWV is highest around the
equator, around 40 mm, and subsequently drops to 10 mm in the
polar area. In both hemispheres, PWV levels are higher when the
weather is warmer and lower when the weather is colder. The
water vapor source and the surface temperature are demonstrated
to be tightly linked to regional and seasonal changes in PWV
(Zhang et al., 2018b).
The primary goal of this study is to offer a preliminary look at Fig. 3. COSMIC-1 and COSMIC-2 radio occultation events distribution (from 2006 to
the spatial and temporal variations of PWV over Egypt in recent 2021) over Egypt.

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Fig. 4. COSMIC-1 radio occultation events distribution (in 2007) over Egypt.
decades, applying radio occultation observations from 2006 to
2021. The methodology is described in Section 2 and the dataset
processing and validation by radiosonde stations. The results of
Fig. 5. COSMIC-1 and COSMIC-2 radio occultation events statistics (from 2006 to 2021) over Egypt.
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PWV changes over Egypt are presented in Section 3. Finally, the
study’s main conclusions and recommendations are presented in
Section 4.
2. Methodology
2.1. Study area
Egypt is located between 22° and 32° N in latitudes and
between 24° and 37° E in longitudes. A total area of
1,000,000 km2 is divided into two geographic regions: shore and
land. In this study, the data was collected over Egypt with an
extension range of latitude-longitude difference ± 5°/±5°.
2.2. Datasets
The weather worldwide data of atmospheric wet profiles are
provided by the Constellation Observing System for Meteorology,
Ionosphere, and Climate (COSMIC) radio occultation soundings
from a satellite-based global positioning system. The COSMIC
satellites’ GNSS radio occultation sensors monitor the phase delay
of radio signals from satellites when they are occulted by the
Earth’s atmosphere. The signal bending angles in different atmo-
spheric layers may be used to calculate atmospheric refractivity
profiles. The GNSS RO obtained profiles of temperature, pressure,
and refractivity from the COSMIC Data Analysis and Archive Center
(CDAAC). It has roughly 5000 daily profiles dispersed around the
world with an altitude resolution of about 50 m for COSMIC-2
and every profile has a length of more than 40 km. COSMIC-1 com-
prises around 1000 daily profiles with an altitude resolution of
about 100 m that are disseminated around the world.
2.3. Datasets distributions and statistics
The CDAAC website has radio occultation data for COSMIC-1
and COSMIC-2 (https://cdaac-www.cosmic.ucar.edu/cdaac/index.
html). The data was collected from 2006 to 2021 and filtered to
A. Elrahman Yassien, A. El-Kutb Mousa, M. Rabah et al.
Fig. 6. COSMIC-2 GNSS RO retrieved wet profiles analysis procedures.
cover the Egypt area. Fig. 1 shows the COSMIC-2 radio occultation
events distribution from 2019 to 2021 over Egypt. Fig. 2 presents
the COSMIC-1 radio occultation events distribution from 2006 to
2020 over Egypt. Fig. 3 illustrates the COSMIC-1 and COSMIC-2
radio occultation events distribution from 2006 to 2021 over
Egypt. Fig. 4 describes the COSMIC-1 radio occultation events dis-
tribution (in 2007) over Egypt as a year sample.
Fig. 5 shows COSMIC-1 and COSMIC-2 radio occultation events
from 2006 to 2021 over Egypt’s different statistics. It should be
noted that the data for the year 2021 was downloaded up to Jun.
7, 2021 (analysis start date). COSMIC-1 datasets are available from
April 22, 2006, to the 116th day of 2020, and COSMIC-2 datasets
are available from Oct. 1, 2019.
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2.4. Datasets analysis procedures
Under the spherical symmetry assumption, the analyzed RO
data may be used to produce atmospheric refractivity (N) based
on the bending angles (Kursinski et al., 2000). Temperature is
mainly determined by refractivity in the upper and middle tropo-
sphere. Because atmospheric refractivity is highly related to water
vapor change more than to temperature change, especially in the
minimum tropospheric altitudes, refractivity information is pri-
marily utilized to extract water vapor (Ho et al., 2007). According
to Teng et al. (2013), the water vapor pressure may be computed
using Eq. (1).
A. Elrahman Yassien, A. El-Kutb Mousa, M. Rabah et al. Egypt. J. Remote Sensing Space Sci. 25 (2022) 751–764

Fig. 7. COSMIC-1 GNSS RO retrieved wet profiles analysis procedures.

Table 1
Radiosonde stations distribution over Egypt.

Name ID Latitude Longitude Elevation First year Last year

CAIRO 62,366 30.1333 31.5667 74.0 1933 1960
EL ARISH 62,337 31.0733 33.8358 36.9 1950 2020
MERSA MATRUH 62,306 31.3253 27.2217 29.0 1934 –
SOUTH OF VALLEY UNIVERSITY 62,403 26.2003 32.7467 96.0 2003 –
HELWAN 62,378 29.8628 31.3492 139.3 1920 –
FARAFRA 62,423 27.0583 27.9892 82.2 1953 –
ASSWAN 62,414 23.9644 32.8200 201.8 1936 –

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Where e is a constant (e ¼ 0:622g:kg 1 ).

Apply Eq. (3), the PWV value of a single wet profile is calculated
by integrating the specific humidity with the altitudes from zero to
the highest obtained altitude.
Z
1 Ps
1X0
w¼ qdp ¼  qDP ð3Þ
qg 0 g Ps

Where W denotes the PWV value in millimeters, q is the liquid

water density, P is air pressure, Ps is the surface air pressure, and
g is the gravitational acceleration value.
Negative refractivity might result from the super-refraction in
the lower tropospheric altitudes (Xie et al., 2010), which leads to
humidity biases and void data from zero altitude to the minimum
altitude. So, some profiles were excluded from this analysis
because PWV is higher at lower altitudes.
The GNSS RO retrieved wet profiles were collected from CDAAC
and processed. Figs. 6 and 7 depict the COSMIC-1 and COSMIC-2
datasets analysis procedures.

2.5. Analysis verification

Fig. 8. Radiosonde stations distribution over Egypt.

As illustrated in section 1, the radiosonde is a helpful reference

P e tool for atmospheric sounding. All available radiosonde balloon
N ¼ 77:6 þ 3:73  105 2 ð1Þ
T T data over Egypt was downloaded from http://weather.uwyo.edu/
Where N is the refractivity, T is the temperature in Kelvins, P is the upperair/sounding.html. Radiosonde measurements offer pressure,
air pressure in hectopascal, and e is the water vapor pressure in temperature, relative humidity, wind direction, and wind speed.
hectopascal: Then Eqs. (2) and (3) are used to determine the PWV in each
Apply Eq. (2); the specific humidity (q) may be computed using location.
water vapor and air pressure (Wang and Zhang, 2008). In Egypt, just seven RS stations are located. These stations can
be summarized in Table 1. Fig. 8 shows the radiosonde stations dis-
ee
q¼ ð2Þ tribution over Egypt.
P  ð1  eÞe The pressure, temperature, and water vapor obtained by GNSS
RO are evaluated by radiosonde. The most close-matching RO

Fig. 9. Comparison of the retrieved COSMIC atmospheric profiles and the radiosonde profiles in Asswan station on the fifth of march 2020 (a) Pressure, (b) Temperature, and
(c) Vapor pressure.

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Fig. 9 (continued)

Fig. 9 (continued)

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Table 2
Verifications of COSMIC-2 results with radiosonde.

Name ID Year Month Day Hour PWVRS (mm) Difference (PWVCOSMIC-2 - PWVRS)
(mm)
HELWAN 62,378 2019 10 14 12 11.8572 3.1207
MERSA MATRUH 62,306 2019 10 20 12 24.9109 0.4207
EL ARISH 62,337 2019 12 15 12 14.3900 1.6286
HELWAN 62,378 2020 1 27 12 6.2690 2.9810
ASSWAN 62,414 2020 3 5 12 5.2232 0.9115
HELWAN 62,378 2020 4 28 12 11.0717 0.1507
FARAFRA 62,423 2020 4 28 12 6.2741 1.5214
FARAFRA 62,423 2020 5 10 12 6.4962 0.4119
ASSWAN 62,414 2020 5 30 12 8.1408 0.6602
ASSWAN 62,414 2020 6 9 12 18.5678 0.9283
MERSA MATRUH 62,306 2020 6 23 12 11.4798 0.5402
HELWAN 62,378 2020 6 29 12 7.0465 1.1398
MERSA MATRUH 62,306 2020 7 7 12 13.6121 0.4904
ASSWAN 62,414 2020 7 31 12 31.6724 1.0192
FARAFRA 62,423 2020 8 7 12 13.8374 0.7820
HELWAN 62,378 2020 8 17 12 5.6138 0.9289
HELWAN 62,378 2020 9 8 0 10.4685 1.2292
MERSA MATRUH 62,306 2020 10 16 0 18.8817 0.3901
ASSWAN 62,414 2020 11 5 12 8.4157 0.2105
ASSWAN 62,414 2020 11 17 0 7.2319 0.4308
ASSWAN 62,414 2020 12 6 0 7.8340 0.3502
MERSA MATRUH 62,306 2021 1 8 0 16.1053 1.1392
MERSA MATRUH 62,306 2021 1 25 0 7.4410 0.8598
FARAFRA 62,423 2021 1 25 12 5.9823 0.3304
ASSWAN 62,414 2021 2 3 12 14.0232 0.5316
ASSWAN 62,414 2021 2 7 0 5.0491 0.7610
ASSWAN 62,414 2021 2 8 12 7.2036 0.6619
FARAFRA 62,423 2021 2 8 12 7.5994 0.2607
ASSWAN 62,414 2021 2 9 15 10.0716 0.5108
ASSWAN 62,414 2021 2 10 12 13.5979 0.7906
FARAFRA 62,423 2021 2 13 12 6.6597 0.2285
FARAFRA 62,423 2021 2 22 0 5.4566 0.8583
ASSWAN 62,414 2021 2 23 12 3.4223 0.1617
MERSA MATRUH 62,306 2021 2 24 0 5.3403 0.7198
MERSA MATRUH 62,306 2021 2 25 0 12.0564 0.1312
MERSA MATRUH 62,306 2021 2 26 0 10.1330 0.1113
FARAFRA 62,423 2021 2 27 0 7.6772 1.5620
MERSA MATRUH 62,306 2021 3 2 0 5.2487 0.2780
ASSWAN 62,414 2021 3 13 12 6.4048 0.0911
ASSWAN 62,414 2021 3 27 12 6.4744 0.6706
MERSA MATRUH 62,306 2021 4 3 12 10.9256 1.4195

Table 3
Statistics of verifications of COSMIC-2 results with radiosonde.

Name ID Max Bias (mm) Min Bias (mm) Mean Bias (mm)
HELWAN 62,378 3.1207 1.2292 0.4925
MERSA MATRUH 62,306 0.5402 1.4195 0.2120
EL ARISH 62,337 1.6286 1.6286 1.6286
ASSWAN 62,414 0.9115 1.0192 0.3197
FARAFRA 62,423 1.562 0.8583 0.4727

and RS data is located in Asswan station on the fifth of March 2020.
The latitude difference is 0.0454°, the longitude difference is 0.197°
and the temporal difference is about 1 hr. the following Fig. 9 pre-
sents the retrieved COSMIC atmospheric profiles and the radio-
sonde profiles.
Fig. 9(a-c) shows a highly similar pattern for all obtained atmo-
spheric variables by radiosonde and COSMIC RO observations. The
RS profiles have the lowest perigee height of about 0.1 km and the
COSMIC-2 RO profiles almost have the lowest perigee height more
than the RS profiles which might result in lower PWV results than
the true values because PWV is higher at lower altitudes (Fig. 9(c)).
In our study, the available COSMIC-2 RO profiles are 26,238 pro-
files. They have the lowest perigee height starting from zero alti-
tudes to 14.15 km. on the other hand, the RS profiles elevations
start from 26 m to 201 m. We apply the following rules to obtain
close-matching RO and RS data for comparison and statistical anal-
ysis since PWV is sensitive to geographical and temporal precision.
We set the latitude and longitude disparities between radiosonde
observation sites and radio occultation events that created sites
with a latitude-longitude difference of less than ± 1°/±1° for spatial
resolution. We restrict the temporal resolution to a ± 1 hr. differ-
ence. If we utilize 12:00 radiosonde observations, the relevant

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Fig. 10. PWV (mm) variation with latitudes (degree) COSMIC-2 GNSS RO. Fig. 13. PWV (mm) variation with longitudes (degree) COSMIC-1 GNSS RO.

radio occultation events must occur between 11:00 and 13:00.

Also, for a more accurate comparison of the obtained PWV by RO
and RS, the two sets of PWV need to be integrated with the same
altitudes from the same starting height and to the same end height.
Table 2 summarizes verifications of COSMIC-2 results with the
above spatial and temporal conditions. It must be noticed that
the PWV by RS is calculated from the starting height and to the
end height of the close-matching RO profile in Table 2.
As a result, we may obtain statistics. The mean bias is
0.1846 mm, the maximum bias is 3.1207 mm, and the minimum
bias is 1.6286 mm. Table 3 demonstrates the verification statis-
tics of COSMIC-2 results with radiosonde. Also, the statistical ‘‘F-
Test” is applied between the retrieved values of PWV using RO
and the retrieved values of PWV using RS. The test shows that
F = 1.04 < Fcritical = 1.69, which means that the RO technique is
accepted.

3. Results and discussions

Fig. 11. PWV (mm) variation with latitudes (degree) COSMIC-1 GNSS RO.
The results are divided into two main topics: spatial analysis
and temporal analysis. It should be noted that statistics of results
(means and standard deviations) were applied only to the Egypt
area, which extended between 22° and 31° 360 N in latitudes and
between 24° and 37° E in longitudes.

3.1. Spatial analysis

3.1.1. Precipitable water vapor (PWV) versus latitude

Precipitable water vapor (PWV) values are plotted according to
their latitudes for COSMIC-2 and COSMIC-1 (Figs. 10 and 11). Gen-
erally, it is shown from the figures that PWV inversely correlates
with latitude. So, it is evident that the higher PWV occurs at low
latitudes.
The PWV has a latitudinal style in which it is inversely propor-
tional to latitude. The larger PWV amounts are associated with
higher latitudes and the smaller amounts with lower latitudes.
However, some PWV values are higher over sites near the coast
of the Mediterranean Sea.

3.1.2. Precipitable water vapor (PWV) versus longitude

Precipitable water vapor (PWV) values are plotted according to
Fig. 12. PWV (mm) variation with longitudes (degree) COSMIC-2 GNSS RO. their longitudes for COSMIC-2 and COSMIC-1, as presented in
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Fig. 14. Annual mean precipitable water vapor (PWV) over Egypt with the standard deviation.

3.2.1. Annual precipitable water vapor (PWV)

Table 4
Annual mean PWV over Egypt and their mean standard deviations. Statistics are applied to the retrieved PWV values for COSMIC-1
and COSMIC-2 annually. Fig. 14 displays the annual mean precip-
Year Mean (mm) rm (mm)
itable water vapor (PWV) values over Egypt with the standard
2021 9.2401 ±0.1021 deviation.
2020 12.6762 ±0.0975
The annual mean PWV values over Egypt range from 9.23 mm
2019 12.6027 ±0.2442
2018 13.5123 ±0.4519 to 13.51 mm. Table 4 offers Egypt’s annual PWV values and the
2017 11.6486 ±0.2803 mean standard deviations.
2016 13.2428 ±0.2222
2015 11.1214 ±0.2161
2014 9.9329 ±0.1833
2013 9.6818 ±0.1521 3.2.2. Precipitable water vapor (PWV) versus seasons
2012 10.0359 ±0.1649 To discuss the seasonal variation of PWV, every year is split into
2011 9.5034 ±0.1724 three-month seasons: December–January–February (DJF, in short;
2010 10.5363 ±0.1856
winter), June–July–August (JJA, in short; summer), March–April–
2009 9.7931 ±0.1387
2008 9.3945 ±0.1398 May (MAM, in short; spring), and September–October–November
2007 9.2337 ±0.1269 (SOM, in short; autumn) (SON, in short; autumn). Fig. 15 presents
2006 10.7134 ±0.2576 the seasonal mean precipitable water vapor (PWV) over Egypt.
Fig. 15 shows that the higher values of PWV are in the summer
season between 10.74 mm and 21.55 mm and the lower values of
Figs. 12 and 13. It is shown from the figures that no clear and direct
PWV are in the winter season ranging from 6.84 mm to 9.94 mm.
relationship is found between PWV and longitude. So, PWV is
mainly dependent on latitude.

3.2.3. Monthly precipitable water vapor (PWV)

3.2. Temporal analysis Fig. 16 displays the monthly mean PWV over Egypt.
The highest values of PWV are in August between 12.35 mm
Temporal analysis of PWV results is divided into four main and 23.35 mm. The lowest values of PWV are in January and Febru-
topics: annual, seasonal, monthly, day-night and diurnal. ary ranging from 5.62 mm to 11.05 mm as shown in Fig. 16.

Fig. 15. Seasonal mean precipitable water vapor (PWV) over Egypt.

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Fig. 16. Monthly mean precipitable water vapor (PWV) over Egypt.

Table 5
The selected days for day and night PWV behavior.

# Day Proposed Location Season

Latitude (°) Longitude (°)
1 14-5-2021 25◦ N 34◦ E Spring
2 23-1-2021 28◦ N 27◦ E Winter
3 3-8-2020 23◦ N 26◦ E Summer
4 3-10-2020 25◦ N 35◦ E Autumn

Fig. 17. Day and night PWV around 25◦ N in latitudes and 34◦ E in longitudes (14-5-2021).

3.2.4. Day-night precipitable water vapor (PWV)
To discuss the day and night variations of PWV, four days (illus-
trated in Table 5) of GNSS RO events were considered (one day per
season). The days’ selection is based on the number of GNSS RO
events and the temporal distribution around the day. We set the
latitude and longitude disparities between occultation events that
created sites with a latitude-longitude difference of less
than ± 2°/±2°. Also, local time is taken into consideration.
3.2.5. Diurnal precipitable water vapor (PWV)
As illustrated in section 3.1.1, the PWV has a latitudinal
style, the Egyptian area was stripped with latitude, and each
strip has 2° of latitudes starting from 22° N to 32° N then
we choose a middle strip for diurnal analysis between 26° N
to 28° N. Also, the retrieval RO PWV bias is significantly high
because RO PWV is very sensitive to the lowest (Figs. 17, 18,
19, and 20)perigee height. So, we exclude the RO profiles

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Fig. 18. Day and night PWV around 28◦ N in latitudes and 27◦ E in longitudes (23-1-2021).

Fig. 19. Day and night PWV around 23◦ N in latitudes and 26◦ E in longitudes (3-8-2020).

having the lowest perigee height of more than 0.5 km for more
accurate diurnal variations. As diurnal variations by
(Ningombam et al., 2016; Ningombam et al., 2018), we compute
the hourly averaged PWV over 16 years of the study period
from 2006 to 2021 in the middle strip of Egypt. Also, the
hourly averaged PWV over 16 years was calculated seasonally
and presented in Fig. 21.
As is shown in the previous figure (Fig. 21), the diurnal variation
of PWV during all the seasons and over the study period. diurnal
variations are 4.17 mm in winter, 3.71 in spring, 7.89 in summer,
and 4.46 in autumn. diurnal cycle peaks at about 16.04 mm at
18 h of the day (between late afternoon and mid-evening) which
ensure the results in section 3.2.4 and the lowest value is
12.68 mm at midnight. According to (Ningombam et al., 2016),
the diurnal variability correlates to daytime surface temperature
for all seasons.
Overall, Egypt has limited spatial and temporal PWV measure-
ments and climate studies. So, this study can contribute to weather
forecasting with high spatial and temporal resolution. Besides the
obtained results can represent a guide for decision-makers. The
biggest advantage of the RO technique is its high vertical
resolution.

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Fig. 20. Day and night PWV around 25◦ N in latitudes and 35◦ E in longitudes (3-10-2020). As is shown in the previous figures, the higher values of PWV during the day and
the lower values of PWV at night.
Fig. 21. Diurnal variations of PWV of the Egyptian middle strip between 26° N to 28° N (from 2006 to 2021).
4. Conclusion and recommendation
This research is one of the first studies to look at the spatial and
temporal variability of PWV over the Egyptian region, and the fol-
lowing conclusions can be summarized: The GNSS RO technique
was used to obtain PWV values. The validation results show good
agreement with the radiosonde technique. From the statistical
results, the mean bias is 0.1846 mm while the statistical ‘‘F-test”
shows accepted values of the RO technique at 95% level of signifi-
cance. The PWV has a latitudinal style in which it is inversely pro-
portional to latitude. So, it is evident that higher PWV occurs at low
latitudes. However, some PWV values are higher over sites near the
coast of the Mediterranean Sea. No clear and direct relationship is
found between PWV and longitude. So, PWV is mainly dependent
on latitude.
In addition, the max annual mean precipitable water vapor
(PWV) values over Egypt for 16 years of the study period from
2006 to 2021 is 13.51 mm in 2018. The higher values of PWV
are in the summer season and the maximum seasonal mean is
21.55 mm in summer 2019, and the lower values of PWV are in
763
Egypt. J. Remote Sensing Space Sci. 25 (2022) 751–764
the winter season and the minimum seasonal mean is 6.84 in
winter 2008. The highest values of PWV are in August specifi-
cally August 2019 about 23.35 mm and the lowest values of
PWV are in February 2013 about 5.62 mm. PWV values are
higher during the day and lower at night. Finally, the diurnal
variability correlates to daytime surface temperature for all
seasons.
For future study, it is recommended to incorporate the ground-
based GNSS technique which will provide more PWVs than the RS
with a much higher temporal resolution even with a very sparse
distribution. Also, PWV validation with other techniques or plat-
forms can be discussed in addition to creating a prediction model
for investigating PWV values over Egypt.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
A. Elrahman Yassien, A. El-Kutb Mousa, M. Rabah et al. Egypt. J. Remote Sensing Space Sci. 25 (2022) 751–764

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