Thermofluids 3

Heat Radiation

1
Thermofluids 3

Objectives

• Classify electromagnetic radiation, and identify thermal

radiation,
• Understand the idealized blackbody,
• Develop an understanding of the properties: emissivity,
absorptivity, reflectivity, and transmissivity,
• Apply Kirchhoff law’s law to determine the absorptivity
of a surface when its emissivity is known,
• Understand the view factor

2
Thermofluids 3

Introduction
• Unlike conduction and convection, radiation does not
require the presence of a material medium to take place.
• Electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic radiation
─ represent the energy emitted by matter as a result of the
changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or
molecules.
• Electromagnetic waves are characterized by their frequency
 or wavelength 
c
=

• c ─ the speed of propagation of a wave in that medium.

3
Thermofluids 3

Thermal Radiation
• Engineering application concerning
electromagnetic radiation covers a wide range of
wavelengths.
• Of particular interest in the study of heat transfer
is the thermal radiation emitted as a result of
energy transitions of molecules, atoms, and
electrons of a substance.
• Temperature is a measure of the strength of these
activities at the microscopic level.
• Thermal radiation is defined as the spectrum that
extends from about 0.1 to 100 mm.
• Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon.
However, frequently it is more convenient to treat
it as a surface phenomenon.

4
Thermofluids 3

Blackbody Radiation
• A body at a thermodynamic (or absolute)
temperature above zero emits radiation in
all directions over a wide range of
wavelengths.
• The amount of radiation energy emitted
from a surface at a given wavelength
depends on:
– the material of the body and the condition of its surface,
– the surface temperature.
A blackbody:
• emits the maximum amount of radiation by a surface at a given
temperature and wavelength.
• absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wavelength and direction.
• emits radiation energy uniformly in all directions per unit area normal
to direction of emission.

5
Thermofluids 3

• The radiation energy emitted by a blackbody per unit time and per unit
surface area (Stefan–Boltzmann law)

Eb (T ) =  T 4 ( W/m 2 )
 =5.67 X 10-8 W/m2·K4.
• Examples of approximate blackbody:
– snow,
– white paint,
– a large cavity with a small opening.
• The spectral blackbody emissive power

Eb (  , T ) =
C1
 5 exp ( C2 T ) − 1
( W/m 2
 μm )
C1 = 2 hc02 = 3.74177 108 ( W  μm 4 m 2 )
C2 = hc0 / k = 1.43878 104 ( μm  K )
6
Thermofluids 3

Irradiation and Radiosity

Irradiation G – The radiation flux

incident on a surface from all
directions

Radiosity J – The rate at which

radiation energy leaves a unit area
of a surface in all directions

7
Thermofluids 3

Radiative Properties
• Many materials encountered in practice, such as metals,
wood, and bricks, are opaque to thermal radiation, and
radiation is considered to be a surface phenomenon for such
materials.
• In these materials thermal radiation is emitted or absorbed
within the first few microns of the surface.
• Some materials like glass and water exhibit different behavior
at different wavelengths:
– Visible spectrum ─ semi-transparent,
– Infrared spectrum ─ opaque.

8
Thermofluids 3

Emissivity
• Emissivity of a surface ─ the ratio of the radiation
emitted by the surface at a given temperature to the
radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same
temperature.
• The emissivity of a surface is denoted by , and it varies
between zero and one, 0≤ ≤1.
• The emissivity of real surfaces varies with:
– the temperature of the surface,
– the wavelength, and
– the direction of the emitted radiation.
• Spectral directional emissivity ─ the most elemental
emissivity of a surface at a given temperature.
9
Thermofluids 3

• The total hemispherical emissivity

E (T )
 (T ) =
Eb (T )

• Since Eb(T)=T4 the total hemispherical emissivity can

also be expressed as

E (T )    (  , T ) Eb (  , T ) d 
 (T ) = = 0
Eb (T ) T 4
• To perform this integration, we need to know the
variation of spectral emissivity with wavelength at the
specified temperature.

10
Thermofluids 3

Gray and Diffuse Surfaces

• Diffuse surface ─ a surface

which properties are
independent of direction.

• Gray surface ─ surface

properties are independent of
wavelength.

11
Thermofluids 3

Absorptivity, Reflectivity, and Transmissivity

• When radiation strikes a surface,
part of it:
– is absorbed (absorptivity, α),
– is reflected (reflectivity, ),
– and the remaining part, if any, is
transmitted (transmissivity, τ).
Absorbed radiation Gabs
• Absorptivity: = =
Incident radiation G
Reflected radiation Gref
• Reflectivity: = =
Incident radiation G
Transmitted radiation Gtr
• Transmissivity:  = =
Incident radiation G
12
Thermofluids 3

• The first law of thermodynamics requires that the sum of

the absorbed, reflected, and transmitted radiation be
equal to the incident radiation.

Gabs + Gref + Gtr = G

• Dividing each term of this relation by G yields

 +  + = 1
• For opaque surfaces, τ =0, and thus
 +  =1

• These definitions are for total hemispherical properties.

13
Thermofluids 3

Kirchhoff’s Law

• Consider a small body of surface area

As, emissivity , and absorptivity α at
temperature T contained in a large
isothermal enclosure at the same
temperature.
• Recall that a large isothermal enclosure forms a blackbody cavity
regardless of the radiative properties of the enclosure surface.
• The body in the enclosure is too small to interfere with the
blackbody nature of the cavity.
• Therefore, the radiation incident on any part of the surface of the
small body is equal to the radiation emitted by a blackbody at
temperature T.

G=Eb(T)=T4
14
Thermofluids 3

• The radiation absorbed by the small body per unit of its

surface area is
Gabs =  G =  T 4
• The radiation emitted by the small body is

Eemit =  T 4

• Considering that the small body is in thermal equilibrium

with the enclosure, the net rate of heat transfer to the body
must be zero.
As T 4 = As T 4
• Thus, we conclude that
 (T ) =  (T )
15
Thermofluids 3

• The restrictive conditions inherent in the derivation are:

– the surface irradiation correspond to emission from a blackbody,

– Surface temperature is equal to the temperature of the source of
irradiation,
– Steady state.

• The derivation above can also be repeated to obtain the spectral form
of Kirchhoff’s law:
• This relation is valid when the irradiation or the emitted radiation is
independent of direction.

  (T ) =   (T )
• The form of Kirchhoff’s law that involves no restrictions is the spectral
directional form
  , (T ) =   , (T )
16
Thermofluids 3

The View Factor

• Radiation heat transfer between surfaces depends on the
orientation of the surfaces relative to
each other as well as their radiation
properties and temperatures.
• View factor is defined to account for the
effects of orientation on radiation heat
transfer between two surfaces.
• View factor is a purely geometric
quantity and is independent of the surface properties and
temperature.
• Diffuse view factor ─ view factor based on the assumption that
the surfaces are diffuse emitters and diffuse reflectors.
• Specular view factor ─ view factor based on the assumption that
the surfaces are specular reflectors.
• Here we consider radiation exchange between diffuse surfaces
only, and thus the term view factor simply means diffuse view
factor.
17
Thermofluids 3

• When j=i:
Fi→i=the fraction of radiation leaving surface i
that strikes itself directly.

– Fi→i=0: for plane or convex surfaces and

– Fi→i≠0: for concave surfaces

• The value of the view factor ranges between

zero and one.

– Fi→j=0 ─ the two surfaces do not have a

direct view of each other,
– Fi→j=1─ surface j completely surrounds
surface.

18
Thermofluids 3

View Factors
Tables for Selected Geometries (analytical form)

19
Thermofluids 3

View Factors
Figures for Selected Geometries (graphical form)

20
Thermofluids 3

View Factor Relations

• Radiation analysis on an enclosure consisting of N
surfaces requires the evaluation of N2 view factors.
• Fundamental relations for view factors:
– the reciprocity relation,
– the summation rule,
– the superposition rule,
– the symmetry rule.

21
Thermofluids 3

The Reciprocity Relation

• We have shown earlier that the pair of view
factors Fi→j and Fj→i are related to each other by

Ai Fi→ j = Aj Fj →i

• This relation is referred to as the reciprocity

relation or the reciprocity rule.
• Note that:
Fj →i = Fi → j when Ai = Aj
Fj →i  Fi → j when Ai  Aj

22
Thermofluids 3

The Summation Rule

• The conservation of energy principle
requires that the entire radiation
leaving any surface i of an enclosure
be intercepted by the surfaces of the
enclosure.
• Summation rule ─ the sum of the
view factors from surface i of an
enclosure to all surfaces of the
enclosure, including to itself, must
equal unity.

F
j =1
i→ j =1

23
Thermofluids 3

• The summation rule can be applied to each surface of an

enclosure by varying i from 1 to N.
• The summation rule applied to each of the N surfaces of
an enclosure gives N relations for the determination of the
view factors.
• The reciprocity rule gives 1/2N(N-1) additional relations.
• The total number of view factors that need to be evaluated
directly for an N-surface enclosure becomes

 1  1
N −  N + N ( N − 1)  = N ( N − 1)
2

 2  2

24
Thermofluids 3

Worked example 1

Determine the view factors associated with an enclosure formed by

two spheres, shown in Figure. Assume the surfaces are diffuse
emitters and reflectors.

25
Thermofluids 3

Worked example 1

We need to determine N2 view factors, but:

1 1
𝑁 𝑁−1 = ×2× 2−1 =1
2 2
𝐹11 = 0

𝐹12 = 1

For the reciprocity rule:

𝐴1 × 𝐹12 = 𝐴2 × 𝐹21

For the summation rule on second surface:

𝐹21 + 𝐹22 = 1

26
Thermofluids 3

The Superposition Rule

• Sometimes the view factor associated with a given
geometry is not available in standard tables and charts.
• Superposition rule ─ the view factor from a surface i to
a surface j is equal to the sum of the view factors from
surface i to the parts of surface j.
• Consider the geometry shown in the figure below.
• The view factor from surface 1 to the combined surfaces of
2 and 3 is
F1→( 2,3) = F1→2 + F1→3
• From the chart in Tables:
– F1→2 and F1→(2,3)
and then from :
– F 1→ 3
27
Thermofluids 3

Worked example 2

Determine the fraction of the

radiation leaving the base of the
cylindrical enclosure shown in
Figure that escapes through a
coaxial ring opening at its top
surface. The radius and the length
of the enclosure are r1 = 10 cm and
L = 10 cm, while the inner and
outer radii of the ring are r2 = 5
cm and r3 = 8 cm, respectively.

28
Thermofluids 3

Worked example 2

By the superposition rule, the view factor from surface 1 to surface

3 is:
𝐹1→3 = 𝐹1→2 + 𝐹1→𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

F1->3 and F1->2 can

be determined
from following
graph

29
Thermofluids 3

Worked example 2

By the superposition rule, the view factor from surface 1 to surface

3 is:

𝐿
=
𝑟1

𝑟2
=
𝐿

𝑟3
=
𝐿

30
Thermofluids 3

Worked example 2

31
Thermofluids 3

Worked example 2

𝐹1→2 =

𝐹1→3 =

𝐹1→𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐹1→3 − 𝐹1→2 =

32
Thermofluids 3

The Symmetry Rule

• Symmetry rule ─ two (or

more) surfaces that possess
symmetry about a third
surface will have identical
view factors from that surface.
• If the surfaces j and k are symmetric about the surface i
then
Fi→ j = Fi →k
• Using the reciprocity rule, it can be shown that

Fj →i = Fk →i
33
Thermofluids 3

Worked example 3

Determine the view factors from the base of the pyramid shown in
Figure to each of its four side surfaces. The base of the pyramid is a
square, and its side surfaces are isosceles triangles.

34
Thermofluids 3

Worked example 3

For the symmetry rule we have:

𝐹12 = 𝐹13 = 𝐹14 = 𝐹15

For the summation rule, on surface 1, we have:

𝐹11 + 𝐹12 + 𝐹13 + 𝐹14 + 𝐹15 = 1

𝐹11 =

𝐹12 = 𝐹13 = 𝐹14 = 𝐹15 =

35
Thermofluids 3

View Factors between Infinitely Long

Surfaces: The Crossed-Strings Method
• The view factor between two-dimensional surfaces can
be determined by the simple crossed-strings method
developed by H. C. Hottel in the 1950s.
• Consider the geometry shown in the figure.
• Hottel has shown that the view factor
F1→ 2 can be expressed in terms of
the lengths of the stretched strings as

F1→2 =
( L5 + L6 ) − ( L3 + L4 )
2 L1

36
Thermofluids 3

Radiation Heat Transfer: Black Surfaces

• Consider two black surfaces of arbitrary shape
maintained at uniform temperatures T1 and T2.
• The net rate of radiation heat transfer
from surface 1 to surface 2 can be expressed as
Radiation leaving Radiation leaving
Q1→2 = the entire surface 1 - the entire surface 2
that strikes surface 2 that strikes surface 1

= A1 Eb1 F1→2 − A2 Eb 2 F2→1 (W)

• Applying the reciprocity relation A1F1→2=A2F2→1 yields

(
Q1→2 = A1 F1→2 T14 − T24 ) (W)
• For enclosure consisting of N black surfaces

( )
N N
Qi =  Qi → j =  Ai Fi → j Ti 4 − T j4 (W)
j =1 j =1
37
Thermofluids 3

Worked example 4

Consider the 5-m x 5-m x 5-m cubical furnace shown in Figure,

whose surfaces closely approximate black surfaces. The base, top,
and side surfaces of the furnace are maintained at uniform
temperatures of 800 K, 1500 K, and 500 K, respectively. Determine
(a) the net rate of radiation heat transfer between the base and the
side surfaces, (b) the net rate of radiation heat transfer between the
base and the top surface, and (c) the net radiation heat transfer from
the base surface.

38
Thermofluids 3

Worked example 4

The net rate of radiation from surface 1 to 3 is:

𝑄ሶ 1→3 = 𝐴1 𝐹1→3 𝜎 𝑇14 − 𝑇34

𝐹1→3 = ?

For the summation rule, on surface 1, we have:

𝐹1→1 + 𝐹1→2 + 𝐹1→3 = 1

𝐹1→3 = 1 − 𝐹1→1 + 𝐹1→2 =

39
Thermofluids 3

Worked example 4

𝐹1→1 =

𝐹1→2 =

𝐹1→3 = 1 − 𝐹1→1 + 𝐹1→2 =

40
Thermofluids 3

Worked example 4

41
Thermofluids 3

Worked example 4

𝐹1→1 =

𝐹1→2 =

𝐹1→3 = 1 − 𝐹1→1 + 𝐹1→2 =

𝑄ሶ 1→3 = 𝐴1 𝐹1→3 𝜎 𝑇14 − 𝑇34 =

𝑄ሶ 1→2 = 𝐴1 𝐹1→2 𝜎 𝑇14 − 𝑇24 =

𝑄ሶ 1 = 𝑄ሶ 1→1 + 𝑄ሶ 1→2 + 𝑄ሶ 1→3 =

42
Thermofluids 3

Radiation Heat Transfer:

Diffuse, Gray Surfaces

• To make a simple radiation analysis possible, it is

common to assume the surfaces of an enclosure are:
– opaque (nontransparent),
– diffuse (diffuse emitters and diffuse reflectors),
– gray (independent of wavelength),
– isothermal, and
– both the incoming and outgoing radiation are uniform
over each surface.

43
Thermofluids 3

• For a surface i that is gray and

opaque (i=αi and αi+i=1), the
radiosity can be expressed as

J i =  i Ebi + i Gi
=  i Ebi + (1 −  i ) Gi (W/m 2 )
where:
Ebi =  Ti 4
• For a surface that can be approximated as a blackbody
(i=1), the radiosity relation reduces to:
J i = Ebi =  Ti 4 (blackbody)

44
Thermofluids 3

Net Radiation Heat Transfer to or from a

Surface
• The net rate of radiation heat transfer from a surface i of surface
area Ai is expressed as

Radiation leaving Radiation incident

Qi = entire surface i
- on entire surface i

= Ai ( J i − Gi ) (W)

• Which yields

 J i −  i Ebi  Ai i
Qi = Ai  J i − = ( Ebi − J i ) (W)
 1-  i  1-  i

45
Thermofluids 3

• In an electrical analogy to Ohm’s law, it can be rearranged as

Ebi − J i
Qi = (W)
Ri
where surface resistance to
radiation is

1-  i
Ri =
Ai i

46
Thermofluids 3

• Reradiating surface ─ an adiabatic surface:

– when convection effects is negligible,

– under steady-state conditions.

• Reradiating surface must lose as much radiation energy

as it gains, thus:
Qi = 0
𝐸𝑏𝑖 − 𝐽𝑖
0= (W)
𝑅𝑖

J i = Ebi =  Ti 4 (W/m2 )

47
Thermofluids 3

Net Radiation Heat Transfer between Any

Two Surfaces
• Consider two diffuse, gray, and opaque
surfaces of arbitrary shape maintained
at uniform temperatures.
• The net rate of radiation heat transfer
from surface i to surface j can be
expressed as
Radiation leaving Radiation leaving
Qi → j = the entire surface i - the entire surface j
that strikes surface j that strikes surface i

= Ai J i Fi → j − Aj J j Fj →i (W)
48
Thermofluids 3

• Applying the reciprocity relation AiFi→j= AjFj→i

yields

Qi → j = Ai Fi → j ( J i − J j ) (W)

• In analogy to Ohm’s law

Ji − J j
Qi → j = (W)
Ri → j
where space resistance to radiation is

1
Ri → j =
Ai Fi → j

49
Thermofluids 3

• In an N-surface enclosure, the conservation of energy principle

requires
Ji − J j
Qi =  Qi → j =  Ai Fi → j ( J i − J j )=
N N N
(W)
j =1 j =1 j =1 Ri → j
• Which means,

N J −J
Ebi − J i
=
i j
(W)
Ri j =1 Ri → j

50
Thermofluids 3

Radiation Heat Transfer in Two-Surface

Enclosures
• Consider an enclosure consisting of two opaque surfaces
at specified temperatures.
• Need to determine the net rate of
radiation heat transfer.
• Known: T1, T2, 1, 2, A1, A2, F12.
• Surface resistances:
two surface resistances, one space resistance.
Eb1 − Eb 2
Q12 = = Q1 = −Q2
R1 + R12 + R2
 (T14 − T24 )
Q12 =
(1 − 1 ) A11 + 1 A1 F12 + (1 −  2 ) A2 2
51
Thermofluids 3

52
Thermofluids 3

Radiation Heat Transfer in Three-Surface Enclosures

• Consider an enclosure consisting of three opaque, diffuse, and

gray surfaces. Known: T1, T2, T3, 1, 2, 3, A1, A2, A3, F12.
• Since the temperatures are known Eb1, Eb2, and Eb3 are
considered known.
• Need to determine
the radiosities
J1, J2, and J3.

53
Thermofluids 3

• The three equations for the determination of these three

unknowns are obtained from the requirement that the
algebraic sum of the currents (net radiation heat
transfer) at each node must equal zero.
Eb1 − J1 J 2 − J1 J 3 − J1
+ + =0
R1 R12 R13
J1 − J 2 Eb 2 − J 2 J 3 − J 2
+ + =0
R12 R2 R23
J1 − J 3 J 2 − J 3 Eb 3 − J 3
+ + =0
R13 R23 R3

• Once the radiosities J1, J2, and J3 are available, the net
rate of radiation heat transfers at each surface can be
determined.
54
Thermofluids 3

Radiation Shields and the Radiation Effects

• Radiation heat transfer between two surfaces can be

reduced greatly by inserting a thin, high-reflectivity (low-
emissivity) sheet of material (radiation shields)
between the two surfaces.
• Radiation heat transfer between two large parallel plates of
emissivities 1 and 2 maintained at uniform temperatures
T1 and T2 is given by:

Q12,no shield =
(
A T14 − T24 )
1 1
+ −1
1 2
55
Thermofluids 3

• Consider a radiation shield placed between these two

plates.

Radiation
network:

• The rate of radiation heat transfer is

Eb1 − Eb 2
Q12,one shield =
1 − 1 1 1 −  3,1 1 −  3,2 1 1− 2
+ + + + +
A11 A1 F13 A3 3,1 A3 3,2 A3 F32 A2 2
56
Thermofluids 3

• Noting that F13=F23=1 and A1=A2=A3=A for infinite

parallel plates, Eq. 13–42 simplifies to

Q12,one shield =
(
A T14 − T24 )
1 1   1 1 
 + − 1 +  + − 1
 1  2    3,1  3,2 
No shield resistance shield resistance

• The radiation heat transfer through large parallel plates

separated by N radiation shields

Q12,N shield =
(
A T14 − T24 )
1 1   1 1   1 1 
 + − 1 +  + − 1 + +  + − 1
 1  2    3,1  3,2    N ,1  N ,2 
No shield resistance shield 1 resistance shield N resistance
57
Thermofluids 3

Worked example 5

A thin aluminum sheet with an

emissivity of 0.1 on both sides is
placed be-tween two very large
parallel plates that are maintained at
uniform temperatures
T1 = 800 K and T2 = 500 K and have
emissivities ε1 = 0.2 and ε2 = 0.7,
respectively, as shown in Figure.
Determine the net rate of radiation
heat transfer between the two plates
per unit surface area of the plates
and compare the result to that
without the shield.
Assume the surfaces to be opaque,
diffuse, and gray.

58
Thermofluids 3

Worked example 5

𝐴𝜎 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
𝑄ሶ 12,one shield = =
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + + −1
𝜀1 𝜀2 𝜀3,1 𝜀3,2

The net rate of radiation heat transfer between these two plates
without the shield is 3625 W/m2.

59
Thermofluids 3

Paragraphs

12-1: Introduction
12-2: Thermal radiation
12-3: Blackbody radiation
12-5: Radiative properties
13-1: The view factor
13-2: View factor relations
13-3: Radiation heat transfer: black surfaces
13-4: Radiation heat transfer: diffuse, gray surfaces
13-5: Radiation shields and the radiation effects

60