Volume 7, Number 3
2002 – October 2002
Olympiad Corner
The 43rd International Mathematical
Olympiad 2002.
Problem 1. Let n be a positive integer.
Let T be the set of points (x, y) in the
plane where x and y are non-negative
integers and x + y < n. Each point of T is
colored red or blue. If a point (x, y) is
red, then so are all points (x′, y′ ) of T
with both x′ ≤ x and y′ ≤ y. Define an
X-set to be a set of n blue points having
distinct x-coordinates, and a Y-set to be a
set of n blue points having distinct
y-coordinates. Prove that the number of
X-sets is equal to the number of Y-sets.
Problem 2. Let BC be a diameter of the
circle Γ with center O. Let A be a point
on Γ such that 0° < ∠AOB < 120°. Let D
be the midpoint of the arc AB not
containing C. The line through O parallel
to DA meets the line AC at J. The
perpendicular bisector of OA meets Γ at
E and at F. Prove that J is the incentre of
the triangle CEF.
Problem 3. Find all pairs of integers
such that there exist infinitely many
positive integers a for which
(continued on page 4)
Editors:
  (CHEUNG Pak-Hong), Munsang College, HK
   (KO Tsz-Mei)
  (LEUNG Tat-Wing)
Mathematical Games (I)
Kin Y. Li
An invariant is a quantity that does not
change. A monovariant is a quantity that
keeps on increasing or keeps on
decreasing. In some mathematical
games, winning often comes from
understanding the invariants or the
monovariants that are controlling the
games.
Example 1. (1974 Kiev Math Olympiad)
Numbers 1, 2, 3, l , 1974 are written on
a board. You are allowed to replace any
two of these numbers by one number,
which is either the sum or the difference
of these numbers. Show that after 1973
times performing this operation, the only
number left on the board cannot be 0.
Solution. There are 987 odd numbers
on the board in the beginning. Every
time the operation is performed, the
number of odd numbers left either stay
the same (when the numbers taken out
are not both odd) or decreases by two
(when the numbers taken out are both
odd). So the number of odd numbers left
on the board after each operation is
always odd. Therefore, when one
July 2002
2002
black pieces in the row or in the column
will become 8 – k, a change of (8 – k) –
k = 8 – 2 k black pieces on the board.
Since 8 – 2 k is even, the parity of the
number of black pieces stay the same
before and after the move. Since at the
start, there are 32 black pieces, there
cannot be 1 black piece left at any time.
Example 3. Four x’s and five o’s are
written around the circle in an arbitrary
order. If two consecutive symbols are the
same, then insert a new x between them.
Otherwise insert a new o between them.
Remove the old x’s and o’s. Keep on
repeating this operation. Is it possible to
get nine o’s?
Solution. If we let x = 1 and o = – 1,
then note that consecutive symbols are
replaced by their product. If we consider
the product P of the nine values before
and after each operation, we will see that
the new P is the square of the old P.
Hence, P will always equal 1 after an
operation. So nine o’s yielding P = – 1
can never happen.
Example 4. There are three piles of
  (LI Kin-Yin), Dept. of Math., HKUST number is left, it must be odd and so it
stones numbering 19, 8 and 9,

  (NG Keng-Po Roger), ITC, HKPU cannot be 0.
respectively. You are allowed to choose
Artist:    (YEUNG Sau-Ying Camille), MFA, CU
two piles and transfer one stone from
Acknowledgment: Thanks to Elina Chiu, Math. Dept., HKUST Example 2. In an 8 × 8 board, there are each of these two piles to the third piles.
for general assistance.
32 white pieces and 32 black pieces, one After several of these operations, is it
On-line: http://www.math.ust.hk/mathematical_excalibur/
piece in each square. If a player can possible that each of the three piles has
The editors welcome contributions from all teachers and
students. With your submission, please include your name,
change all the white pieces to black and 12 stones?
address, school, email, telephone and fax numbers (if available). all the black pieces to white in any row
Electronic submissions, especially in MS Word, are encouraged.
or column in a single move, then is it Solution. No. Let the number of stones
The deadline for receiving material for the next issue is
November 2, 2002. possible that after finitely many moves, in the three piles be a, b and c,
For individual subscription for the next five issues for the 01-02 there will be exactly one black piece left respectively. Consider (mod 3) of these
academic year, send us five stamped self-addressed envelopes.
on the board? numbers. In the beginning, they are 1, 2,
Send all correspondence to:

Dr. Kin-Yin LI 0. After one operation, they become 0, 1,

Department of Mathematics Solution. No. If there are exactly k 2 no matter which two piles have stones
The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong
black pieces in a row or column before a transfer to the third pile. So the
Fax: (852) 2358 1643
move is made to that row or column, remainders are always 0, 1, 2 in some
Email: makyli@ust.hk then after the moves, the number of order. Therefore, all piles having 12
Mathematical Excalibur,
Excalibur Vol. 7, No. 3, Jul 02- Oct 02
stones are impossible.
Example 5. Two boys play the
following game with two piles of
candies. In the first pile, there are 12
candies and in the second pile, there are
13 candies. Each boy takes turn to
make a move consisting of eating two
candies from one of the piles or
transferring a candy from the first pile
to the second. The boy who cannot
make a move loses. Show that the boy
who played second cannot lose. Can he
win?
Solution. Consider S to be the number
of candies in the second pile minus the
first. Initially, S = 13 – 12 = 1. After
each move, S increases or decreases by
2. So S (mod 4) has the pattern 1, 3, 1,
3, l . Every time after the boy who
played first made a move, S (mod 4)
would always be 3. Now a boy loses if
and only if there are no candies left in
the second pile, then S = 1 – 0 = 1. So
the boy who played second can always
make a move, hence he cannot lose.
Since either the total number of
candies decreases or the number of
candies in the first pile decreases, so
eventually the game must stop, so the
boy who played second must win.
Example 6. Each member of a club has
at most three enemies in the club. (Here
enemies are mutual.) Show that the
members can be divided into two
groups so that each member in each
group has at most one enemy in the
group.
Solution. In the beginning, randomly
divide the members into two groups.
Consider the number S of the pairs of
enemies in the same group. If a
member has at least two enemies in the
same group, then the member has at
most one enemy in the other group.
Transferring the member to the other
group, we will decrease S by at least
one. Since S is a nonnegative integer, it
cannot be decreased forever. So after
finitely many transfers, each member
can have at most one enemy in the
same group.
(Continued on page 4)
IMO 2002
Kin Y. Li
The International Mathematical
Olympiad 2002 was held in Glasgow,
United Kingdom from July 19 to 30.
There were a total of 479 students from 84
countries and regions participated in the
Olympiad.
The Hong Kong team members were
Chao Khek Lun (St. Paul’s College)
Chau Suk Ling (Queen Elizabeth School)
Cheng Kei Tsi (La Salle College)
Ip Chi Ho (St. Joseph’s College)
Leung Wai Ying (Queen Elizabeth School)
Yu Hok Pun (SKH Bishop Baker
Secondary School).
The team leader was K. Y. Li and the
deputy leaders were Chiang Kin Nam and
Luk Mee Lin.
The scores this year ranged from 0 to
42. The cutoffs for medals were 29 points
for gold, 24 points for silver and 14 points
for bronze. The Hong Kong team received
1 gold medal (Yu Hok Pun), 2 silver
medals (Leung Wai Ying and Cheng Kei
Tsi) and 2 bronze medals (Chao Khek Lun
and Ip Chi Ho). There were 3 perfect
scores, two from China and one from
Russia. After the 3 perfect scores, the
scores dropped to 36 with 9 students! This
was due to the tough marking schemes,
which intended to polarize the students’
performance to specially distinguish those
who had close to complete solutions from
those who should only deserve partial
points.
The top five teams are China (212),
Russia (204), USA (171), Bulgaria (167)
and Vietnam (166). Hong Kong came in
24th (120), ahead of Australia, United
Kingdom, Singapore, New Zealand, but
behind Canada, France and Thailand this
year.
One piece of interesting coincidence
deserved to be pointed out. Both Hong
Kong and New Zealand joined the IMO in
Page 2
1988. Both won a gold medal for the
first time this year and both gold
medallists scored 29 points.
The IMO will be hosted by Japan
next year at Keio University in Tokyo
and the participants will stay in the
Olympic village. Then Greece, Mexico,
Slovenia will host in the following
years.
Addendum. After the IMO, the
German leader Professor Gronau sent
an email to inform all leaders about his
updated webpage
http://www.Mathematik-Olympiaden.de/
which contains IMO news and facts.
Clicking Internationale Olympiaden
on the left, then on that page, scrolling
down and clicking Top-Mathematikern,
Die erfolgreichsten IMO-Teilnehmer in
blue on the right, we could find the
following past IMO participants who
have also won the Fields medals, the
Nevanlinna prizes and the Wolf prizes:
Richard Borcherds (1977 IMO silver,
1978 IMO gold, 1998 Fields medal)
Vladmir Drinfeld (1969 IMO gold,
1990 Fields medal)
Tim Gowers (1981 IMO gold, 1998
Fields medal)
Laurent Lafforgue (1984 IMO silver,
1985 IMO silver, 2002 Fields medal)
Gregori Margulis (1959 IMO member,
1962 IMO silver, 1978 Fields medal)
Jean-Christoph Yoccoz (1974 IMO
gold, 1994 Fields medal)
Alexander Razborov (1979 IMO gold,
1990 Nevanlinna prize)
Peter Shor (1977 IMO silver, 1998
Nevanlinna prize)
László Lovász (1963 IMO silver, 1964
IMO gold, 1965 IMO gold, 1966 IMO
gold, 1999 Wolf prize)
Mathematical Excalibur,
Excalibur Vol. 7, No. 3, Jul 02- Oct 02
Problem Corner
We welcome readers to submit their
solutions to the problems posed below
for publication consideration.
Solutions should be preceded by the
solver’s name, home (or email)
address and school affiliation. Please
send submissions to Dr. Kin Y. Li,
Department of Mathematics, The Hong
Kong University of Science &
Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon.
The deadline for submitting solutions
is November 2, 2002.
Problem 156. If a, b, c > 0 and
a 2 + b 2 + c 2 = 3, then prove that
1 1 1 3
+ + ≥ .
1 + ab 1 + bc 1 + ca 2
Problem 157. In base 10, the sum of
the digits of a positive integer n is 100
and of 44n is 800. What is the sum of
the digits of 3n?
Problem 158. Let ABC be an isosceles
triangle with AB = AC. Let D be a point
on BC such that BD = 2DC and let P
be a point on AD such that ∠BAC =
∠BPD. Prove that
∠BAC = 2 ∠DPC.
Problem 159. Find all triples (x, k, n)
of positive integers such that
3k − 1 = x n .
Problem 160. We are given 40
balloons, the air pressure inside each of
which is unknown and may differ from
balloon to balloon. It is permitted to
choose up to k of the balloons and
equalize the pressure in them (to the
arithmetic mean of their respective
pressures.) What is the smallest k for
which it is always possible to equalize
the pressures in all of the balloons?
*****************
Solutions
*****************
Problem 151. Every integer greater
than 2 can be written as a sum of
distinct positive integers. Let A(n) be
the maximum number of terms in such
a sum for n. Find A(n). (Source: 1993
German Math Olympiad)
Solution. CHEUNG Yun Kuen (Hong
Kong Chinese Women’s Club College,
Form 5), Antonio LEI (Colchester Royal
Grammar School, UK, Year 12), LEUNG
Chi Man (Cheung Sha Wan Catholic
Secondary School, Form 6), Poon Ming
Fung (STFA Leung Kau Kui College, Form
5), SIU Tsz Hang (STFA Leung Kau Kui
College, Form 7), Tsui Ka Ho (CUHK,
Year 1), Tak Wai Alan WONG (University
of Toronto) and WONG Wing Hong (La
Salle College, Form 5).
Let a m = m (m+1) /2. This is the sum of
1, 2,  , m and hence the sequence
a m is strictly increasing to infinity. So
for every integer n greater than 2, there is
a positive integer m such that a m ≤ n <
a m + 1 . Then n is the sum of the m positive
integers
1, 2,  , m – 1, n – m ( m – 1) / 2.
Assume A(n) > m. Then
a m + 1 = 1 + 2 + ⋯ + ( m + 1) ≤ n ,
a contradiction. Therefore, A(n) = m.
Solving the quadratic inequality
a m = m ( m + 1) / 2 ≤ n ,
we find m is the greatest integer less than
( )
or equal to − 1 + 8 n + 1 / 2 .
Other commended solvers: CHU Tsz
Ying (St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School,
Form 7).
Problem 152. Let ABCD be a cyclic
quadrilateral with E as the intersection of
lines AD and BC. Let M be the intersection
of line BD with the line through E parallel
to AC. From M, draw a tangent line to the
circumcircle of ABCD touching the circle
at T. Prove that MT = ME. (Source: 1957
Nanjing Math Competition)
Solution. CHEUNG Yun Kuen (Hong
Kong Chinese Women’s Club College,
Form 5), CHU Tsz Ying (St. Joseph’s
Anglo-Chinese School, Form 7), Antonio
LEI (Colchester Royal Grammar School,
UK, Year 12), Poon Ming Fung (STFA
Leung Kau Kui College, Form 5), SIU Tsz
Hang (STFA Leung Kau Kui College, Form
7), TANG Sze Ming (STFA Leung Kau Kui
College), Tsui Ka Ho (CUHK, Year 1) and
WONG Wing Hong (La Salle College,
Form 5).
Since ME and AC are parallel, we have
∠MEB = ∠ACB=∠ADB=∠MDE.
Also, ∠BME=∠EMD. So triangles BME
and EMD are similar. Then
MB / ME = ME / MD.
Page 3
So ME 2 = MD ⋅ MB . By the
intersecting chord theorem, also
MT 2 = MD ⋅ MB . Therefore, MT =
ME.
Problem 153. Let R denote the real
numbers. Find all functions f : R → R
such that the equality
f ( f (x) + y) = f (x² – y) + 4 f (x) y
holds for all pairs of real numbers x, y.
(Source: 1997 Czech-Slovak Match)
Solution. CHU Tsz Ying (St. Joseph’s
Anglo-Chinese School, Form 7) and
Antonio LEI (Colchester Royal
Grammar School, UK, Year 12),
Setting y = x², we have
f ( f (x) + x² ) = f ( 0 ) + 4 x² f ( x ).
Setting y = – f ( x ), we have
f ( 0 ) = f ( f ( x ) + x² ) + 4 f ( x ) ² .
Comparing these, we see that for each x,
we must have f (x) = 0 or f (x) = x².
Suppose f (a) = 0 for some nonzero a.
Putting x = a into the given equation,
we get
f ( y ) = f ( a² – y).
For y ≠ a² / 2, we have
y² ≠ ( a² – y ) ² ,
which will imply f (y) = 0. Finally,
setting x = 2a and y = a² / 2, we have
f ( a² / 2 ) = f ( 7 a² / 2) = 0.
So either f (x) = 0 for all x or f (x) = x²
for all x. We can easily check both are
solutions.
Comments: Many solvers submitted
incomplete solutions. Most of them got
∀ x (f (x) = 0 or x²), which is not the
same as the desired conclusion that
( ∀ x f (x) = 0) or ( ∀ x f (x) = x²).
Problem 154. For nonnegative
numbers a, d and positive numbers b, c
satisfying b + c ≥ a + d, what is the
b c ?
minimum value of +
c+d a+b
(Source: 1988 All Soviet Math
Olympiad)
Solution. Without loss of generality,
we may assume that a ≥ d and b ≥ c.
From b + c ≥ a + d, we get
Mathematical Excalibur,
Excalibur Vol. 7, No. 3, Jul 02- Oct 02 Page 4

b + c ≥ ( a + b + c + d ) / 2. a i . Hence b is divisible by M. Since M is a Mathematical Games (I)

Now multiple of b, so b = M, a contradiction to (Continued from page 2)
having 1997 distinct integers.
b c Remarks. This method of proving is
+ To get an example of 9 pairwise relatively known as the method of infinite descent.
c+d a+b
prime integers among them, let p n be the It showed that you cannot always
n-th prime number, a i = p i (for i = 1, 2, decrease a quantity when it can only
l , 8), a 9 = p 9 p 10 m p 1988 and have finitely many possible values.
= b + c − c  1 − 1 
c+d c+d a+b
bi = p1 p 2 m p1988 / p i Example 7. (1961 All-Russian Math
a+b+c+d Olympiad) Real numbers are written in
≥ an m × n table. It is permissible to
2 (c + d ) for i = 1, 2, l , 1988. It is easy to see that
reverse the signs of all the numbers in
the a i ’s are pairwise relatively prime and
 1 1  any row or column. Prove that after a
− ( c + d ) −  any 10 of these 1997 numbers have the same number of these operations, we can
c + d a + b least common multiple. make the sum of the numbers along
Other commended solvers: SIU Tsz Hang each line (row or column) nonnegative.
a + b c + d 1
= + − (STFA Leung Kau Kui College, Form 7).
2(c + d ) a + b 2
Solution. Let S be the sum of all the mn
numbers in the table. Note that after an
a + b c + d 1
≥ 2 ⋅ − operation, each number stay the same
2 (c + d ) a + b 2
or turns to its negative. Hence there are
Olympiad Corner
1 at most 2 mn tables. So S can only have
= 2− , (continued from page 1) finitely many possible values. To make
2
the sum of the numbers in each line
Problem 3. (cont.) nonnegative, just look for a line whose
where the AM-GM inequality was used to numbers have a negative sum. If no
get the last inequality. Tracing the equality am + a −1 such line exists, then we are done.
conditions, we need b + c = a + d, c = c + an + a2 −1 Otherwise, reverse the sign of all the
d and a + b = 2 c. So the minimum is an integer. numbers in the line. Then S increases.
Since S has finitely many possible
2 − 1 / 2 is attained, for example, when
values, S can increase finitely many
a = 2 + 1, b = 2 − 1 , c = 2, d = 0. Problem 4. Let n be an integer greater than times. So eventually the sum of the
1. The positive divisors of n are numbers in every line must be
Other commended solvers: CHEUNG d 1 , d 2 , l , d k where nonnegative.
Yun Kuen (Hong Kong Chinese
Women’s Club College, Form 5) and 1 = d 1 < d 2 < m < d k = n.
SIU Tsz Hang (STFA Leung Kau Kui Define Example 8. Given 2n points in a plane
College, Form 7). with no three of them collinear. Show
D = d 1 d 2 + d 2 d 3 + m + d k −1 d k . that they can be divided into n pairs
Problem 155. We are given 1997 such that the n segments joining each
distinct positive integers, any 10 of (a) Prove that D < n 2 . pair do not intersect.
which have the same least common (b) Determine all n for which D is a divisor
multiple. Find the maximum possible of n 2 . Solution. In the beginning randomly
pair the points and join the segments.
number of pairwise relatively prime
Problem 5. Find all functions f from the Let S be the sum of the lengths of the
numbers among them. (Source: 1997
set ℝ of real numbers to itself such that segments. (Note that since there are
Hungarian Math Olympiad) finitely many ways of connecting 2n
( f ( x ) + f ( z ) )( f ( y ) + f ( t ) )
Solution. Antonio LEI (Colchester points by n segments, there are finitely
= f ( xy − zt ) + f ( xt + yz ) many possible values of S.) If two
Royal Grammar School, UK, Year 12)
and WONG Wing Hong (La Salle for all x, y, z, t in ℝ. segments AB and CD intersect at O,
College, Form 5). then replace pairs AB and CD by AC
Problem 6. Let Γ1 , Γ 2 , l , Γn be circles
and BD. Since
The answer is 9. Suppose there were 10 of radius 1 in the plane, where n ≥ 3.
pairwise relatively prime numbers Denote their centers by AB + CD = AO + OB + CO + OD
a 1 , a 2 , l , a 10 among them. Being O1 , O 2 , l , O n respectively. Suppose > AC + BD
pairwise relatively prime, their least that no line meets more than two of the
common multiple is their product M. circles. Prove that by the triangle inequality, whenever
Then the least common multiple of there is an intersection, doing this
b , a 2 , l , a10 for any other b in the set is 1 ( n − 1)π replacement will always decrease S.
also M. Since a 1 is relatively prime to ∑
1≤ i < j ≤ n O i O j
≤
4
. Since there are only finitely many
each of a 2 , l , a 10 , so b is divisible by possible values of S, so eventually
there will not be any intersection.
a 1 . Similarly, b is divisible by the other
Volume 8, Number 4 August 2003 – October 2003

Olympiad Corner 利用 GW-BASIC 繪畫曼德勃羅集的方法

The 2003 International Mathematical
梁子傑老師
Olympiad took place on July 2003 in 香港道教聯合會青松中學
Japan. Here are the problems.

Problem 1. Let A be a subset of the set S = 已知一個複數 c0，並由此定義一 170 IF J >= 6 AND J < 9 THEN
{1, 2, …, 1000000} containing exactly 個複數數列 { cn }，使 cn+1 = cn2 + c0， COLOR 1 : REM BLUE
101 elements. Prove that there exist 其中 n = 0, 1, 2, ……。如果這個數列 180 IF J >= 9 AND J < 12 THEN
numbers t1, t2, … , t100 such that the sets 有界，即可以找到一個正實數 M，使 COLOR 2 : REM GREEN
190 IF J >= 12 AND J < 15 THEN
對於一切的 n，| cn | < M，那麼 c0 便屬
aj = {x + tj | x∊A } for j = 1, 2, … , 100 COLOR 15 : REM WHITE
於曼德勃羅集（Mandelbrot Set）之內。 200 IF J >= 15 THEN
are pairwise disjoint. COLOR 12 : REM RED
210 PSET (X + LEFT, (TOP – Y)* M)
Problem 2. Determine all pairs of 220 NEXT X
positive integers (a, b) such that 230 NEXT Y
240 COLOR 15 : REM WHITE
a2 250 LINE (LEFT, (TOP – W / 2) * M)
2 ab − b 3 + 1
2
– (W + LEFT, (TOP – W / 2) * M)
260 LINE (W / 2 + LEFT, (TOP – W)
is a positive integer. * M) – (W / 2 + LEFT, TOP * M)
270 END
Problem 3. A convex hexagon is given
in which any two opposite sides have the 以下是這程序的解釋：
following property: the distance between
their midpoints is 3 / 2 times the sum 可以將以上定義寫成一個 W 紀錄在電腦畫面上將要畫出
of their lengths. Prove that all the angles GW-BASIC 程序（對不起！我本人始 圖形的大小。現將 W 設定為 360（見
of the hexagon are equal. (A convex 終都是喜歡最簡單的電腦語言，而且 第 10 行），表示打算在電腦畫面上一
hexagon ABCDEF has three pairs of 我認為將 GW-BASIC 程序翻譯成其他 個 360 × 360 的方格內畫出曼德勃羅集
opposite sides: AB and DE, BC and EF, 電腦語言亦不難），方法如下： （見第 50 及 60 行）。
CD and FA.)
10 LEFT = 150 : TOP = 380 : LEFT 是繪圖時左邊的起點，TOP
(continued on page 4) W = 360 : M = .833 是圖的最低的起點（見第 210、250 及
Editors: 張 百 康 (CHEUNG Pak-Hong), Munsang College, HK 20 R = 2.64 : S = 2 * R / W 260 行）。注意：在 GW-BASIC 中，畫
高 子 眉 (KO Tsz-Mei) 30 RECEN = 0 : IMCEN = 0 面坐標是由上至下排列的，並非像一
梁 達 榮 (LEUNG Tat-Wing) 40 SCREEN 9 : CLS
般的理解，將坐標由下至上排，因此
李 健 賢 (LI Kin-Yin), Dept. of Math., HKUST 50 FOR Y = 0 TO W
吳 鏡 波 (NG Keng-Po Roger), ITC, HKPU 60 FOR X = 0 TO W 要以 “TOP − Y” 的方法將常用的坐標
Artist: 楊 秀 英 (YEUNG Sau-Ying Camille), MFA, CU 70 REC = S * (X – W / 2) + RECEN : 轉換成電腦的坐標。
Acknowledgment: Thanks to Elina Chiu, Math. Dept., HKUST IMC = S * (Y – W / 2) + IMCEN
for general assistance. 80 RE = REC : IM = IMC 由於電腦畫面上的一點並非正
On-line: http://www.math.ust.hk/mathematical_excalibur/ 90 RE2 = RE * RE : IM2 = IM * IM : 方形，橫向和縱向的大小並不一樣，
The editors welcome contributions from all teachers and J=0 故引入 M（= 5
）來調節長闊比（見
100 WHILE RE2 + IM2 <= 256 AND 6
students. With your submission, please include your name,
address, school, email, telephone and fax numbers (if available). J < 15 第 10、210、250 及 260 行）。
Electronic submissions, especially in MS Word, are encouraged.
The deadline for receiving material for the next issue is
110 IM = 2 * RE * IM + IMC
120 RE = RE2 – IM2 + REC 留意 W 祇是「畫面上」的大小，
November 30, 2003.
For individual subscription for the next five issues for the 03-04 130 RE2 = RE * RE : 並非曼德勃羅集內每一個複數點的實
academic year, send us five stamped self-addressed envelopes. IM2 = IM * IM : J = J + 1 際坐標，故需要作出轉換。R 是實際
Send all correspondence to: 的數值（見第 20 行） ，即繪畫的範圍
140 WEND
Dr. Kin-Yin LI
150 IF J < 3 THEN GOTO 220 實軸由 −R 畫至 +R，同時虛軸亦由 −R
Department of Mathematics
The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology 160 IF J >= 3 AND J < 6 THEN 畫至 +R。S 計算 W 與 R 之間的比例，
Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong COLOR 14 : REM YELLOW 並應用於後面的計算之中（見第 20 及
Fax: (852) 2358 1643 70 行）。
Email: makyli@ust.hk
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 8, No. 4, Aug 03- Oct 03
RECEN 和 IMCEN 用來定出中心 IMO 2003
點的位置，現在以 (0, 0) 為中心（見
第 30 行）。我們可以通過更改 R、 T. W. Leung
RECEN 和 IMCEN 的值來移動或放
大曼德勃羅集。
The 44th International Mathematical
Olympiad (IMO) was held in Tokyo,
第 40 行選擇繪圖的模式及清除
Japan during the period 7 - 19 July 2003.
舊有的畫面。
Because Hong Kong was declared cleared
from SARS on June 23, our team was able
程序的第 50 及 60 行定出畫面上 to leave for Japan as scheduled. The Hong
的坐標 X 和 Y，然後在第 70 行計 Kong Team was composed as follows.
算出對應複數 c0 的實值和虛值。
Chung Tat Chi (Queen Elizabeth School)
注意：若 c0 = a0 + b0 i，cn = an + bn i， Kwok Tsz Chiu (Yuen Long Merchants
則 Assn. Sec. School)
cn+1 = cn2 + c0 Lau Wai Shun (T. W. Public Ho Chuen
= (an + bn i)2 + (a0 + b0 i) Yiu Memorial College)
= an2 − bn2 + 2anbn i + a0 + b0 i Siu Tsz Hang (STFA Leung Kau Kui
= (an2 − bn2 + a0) College)
+ (2anbn + b0)i。 Yeung Kai Sing (La Salle College)
Yu Hok Pun (SKH Bishop Baker
所以 cn+1 的實部等於 an2 − bn2 + a0，
Secondary School)
而虛部則等於 2anbn + b0。
Leung Tat Wing (Leader)
Leung Chit Wan (Deputy Leader)
將以上的計算化成程序，得第
110 及 120 行。REC 和 IMC 分別是 Two former Hong Kong Team
c0 的實值和虛值。RE 和 IM 分別是 members, Poon Wai Hoi and Law Ka Ho,
cn 的實值和虛值。RE2 和 IM2 分別 paid us a visit in Japan during this period.
是 cn 的實值和虛值的平方。
The contestants took two 4.5 Hours
J 用來紀錄第 100 至 140 行的循 contests on the mornings of July 13 and 14.
環的次數。第 100 行亦同時計算 cn Each contest consisted of three questions,
模的平方。若模的平方大於 256 或 hence contest 1 composed of Problem 1 to
者循環次數多於 15，循環將會終 3, contest 2 Problem 4 to 6. In each
止。這時候，J 的數值越大，表示 contest usually the easier problems come
first and harder ones come later. After
該數列較「收斂」，即經過多次計
normal coordination procedures and Jury
算後，cn 的模仍不會變得很大。第
meetings cutoff scores for gold, silver and
150 至 200 行以顏色將收斂情況分 bronze medals were decided. This year
類，紅色表示最「收歛」的複數， the cutoff scores for gold, silver and
其次是白色，跟著是綠色、藍色和 bronze medals were 29, 19 and 13
黃色，而最快擴散的部分以黑色表 respectively. Our team managed to win
示。第 210 行以先前選定的顏色畫 two silvers, two bronzes and one
出該點。 honorable mention. (Silver: Kwok Tsz
Chiu and Yu Hok Pun, Bronze: Siu Tsz
曼德勃羅集繪畫完成後，以白色 Hang and Yeung Kai Sing, Honorable
畫出橫軸及縱軸（見第 240 至 260 Mention: Chung Tat Chi, he got a full
行）
，以供參考。程序亦在此結束。 score of 7 on one question, which
accounted for his honorable mention, and
執行本程序所須的時間，要視乎 his total score is 1 point short of bronze).
Among all contestants three managed to
電腦的速度，以現時一般的電腦而
obtain a perfect score of 42 on all six
言，整個程序應該可以 1 分鐘左右
questions. One contestant was from
完成。 China and the other two from Vietnam.
參考書目 The Organizing Committee did not
Heinz-Otto Peitgen, Hartmut Jürgens give official total scores for individual
and Dietmar Saupe (1992) Fractals countries, but it is a tradition that scores
for the Classroom Part Two: between countries were compared. This
Introduction to Fractals and Chaos. year the top five teams were Bulgaria,
NCTM, Springer-Verlag. China, U.S.A., Vietnam and Russia
Page 2
respectively. The Bulgarian contestants
did extremely well on the two hard
questions, Problem 3 and 6. Many
people found it surprising. On the
other hand, despite going through war
in 1960s Vietnam has been strong all
along. Perhaps they have participated
in IMOs for a long time and have a
very good Russian tradition.
Among 82 teams, we ranked
unofficially 26. We were ahead of
Greece, Spain, New Zealand and
Singapore, for instance. Both New
Zealand and we got our first gold last
year. But this year the performance of
the New Zealand Team was a bit
disappointing. On the other hand, we
were behind Canada, Australia,
Thailand and U.K.. Australia has been
doing well in the last few years, but this
year the team was just 1 point ahead of
us. Thailand has been able to do quite
well in these few years.
IMO 2004 will be held in Greece,
IMO 2005 in Mexico, IMO 2006 in
Slovenia. IMO 2007 will be held in
Vietnam, the site was decided during
this IMO in Japan.
For the reader who will try out the
IMO problems this year, here are some
comments on Problem 3, the hardest
problem in the first day of the
competitions.
Problem 3. A convex hexagon is
given in which any two opposite sides
have the following property: the
distance between their midpoints is
3 / 2 times the sum of their lengths.
Prove that all the angles of the
hexagon are equal. (A convex
hexagon ABCDEF has three pairs of
opposite sides: AB and DE, BC and
EF, CD and FA.)
The problem is hard mainly because
one does not know how to connect the
given condition with that of the interior
angles. Perhaps hexagons are not as
rigid as triangles. It also reminded me
of No. 5, IMO 1996, another hard
problem of polygons.
The main idea is as follows. Given a
hexagon ABCDEF, connect AD, BE
and CF to form the diagonals. From
the given condition of the hexagon, it
can be proved that the triangles formed
by the diagonals and the sides are
actually equilateral triangles. Hence
the interior angles of the hexagons are
120 o . Good luck.
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 8, No. 4, Aug 03- Oct 03
Problem Corner
We welcome readers to submit their
solutions to the problems posed below
for publication consideration. The
solutions should be preceded by the
solver’s name, home (or email) address
and school affiliation. Please send
submissions to Dr. Kin Y. Li,
Department of Mathematics, The Hong
Kong University of Science &
Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon.
The deadline for submitting solutions
is November 30, 2003.
Problem 186. (Due to Fei Zhenpeng,
Yongfeng High School, Yancheng City,
Jiangsu Province, China) Let α, β, γ be
complex numbers such that
α + β + γ = 1,
α + β2 + γ2 = 3,
2
α3 + β3 + γ3 = 7.
Determine the value of α21 + β21 + γ21 .
Problem 187. Define f (n) = n!. Let
a = 0. f (1) f (2) f (3) … .
In other words, to obtain the decimal
representation of a write the numbers
f(1), f (2), f (3), … in base 10 in a row.
Is a rational? Give a proof.
Problem 188. The line S is tangent to
the circumcircle of acute triangle ABC
at B. Let K be the projection of the
orthocenter of triangle ABC onto line S
(i.e. K is the foot of perpendicular from
the orthocenter of triangle ABC to S).
Let L be the midpoint of side AC. Show
that triangle BKL is isosceles.
Problem 189. 2n + 1 segments are
marked on a line. Each of the segments
intersects at least n other segments.
Prove that one of these segments
intersect all other segments.
Problem 190. (Due to Abderrahim
Ouardini) For nonnegative integer n,
let ⌊x⌋ be the greatest integer less than
or equal to x and
[ n + n +1 + ]
f ( n) = n+2
− [ 9n + 1 ].
Find the range of f and for each p in the
range, find all nonnegative integers n
such that f (n) = p.
*****************
Solutions
****************
Problem 181. (Proposed by Achilleas
PavlosPorfyriadis, AmericanCollege of
Thessaloniki “Anatolia”, Thessaloniki,
Greece) Prove that in a convex polygon,
there cannot be two sides with no common
vertex, each of which is longer than the
longest diagonal.
Proposer’s Solution.
Suppose a convex polygon has two sides,
say AB and CD, which are longer than the
longest diagonal, where A, B, C, D are
distinct vertices and A, C are on opposite
side of line BD. Since AC, BD are
diagonals of the polygon, we have AB >
AC and CD > BD. Hence,
AB + CD > AC + BD.
By convexity, the intersection O of
diagonals AC and BD is on these
diagonals. By triangle inequality, we have
AO + BO > AB and CO + DO > CD.
So AC + BD > AB + CD, a contradiction.
Other commended solvers: CHEUNG
Yun Kuen (Hong Kong Chinese
Women’s Club College, Form5), John
PANAGEAS (Kaisari High School,
Athens, Greece), POON Ming Fung
(STFA Leung Kau Kui College, Form 6),
SIU Tsz Hang (CUHK, Math Major, Year 1)
and YAU Chi Keung (CNC Memorial
College, Form 6).
Problem 182. Let a0, a1, a2, … be a
sequence of real numbers such that
an+1 ≥ an2+ 1/5 for all n ≥ 0.
Prove that an + 5 ≥ an2− 5 for all n ≥ 5.
(Source: 2001 USA Team Selection Test)
Solution. CHEUNG Yun Kuen (Hong
Kong Chinese Women’s Club College,
Form5) and TAM Choi Nang Julian
(Teacher, SKH Lam Kau Mow Secondary
School).
Adding an+1 – an2 ≥ 1 / 5 for nonnegative
integers n = k, k + 1, k + 2, k + 3, k + 4, we
get
k +4
a k + 5 − ∑ (a n2 − a n ) − a k2 ≥1.
n = k +1
Observe that
x 2 − x + 1 / 4 = ( x − 1 / 2) 2 ≥ 0
2
implies 1 / 4 ≥ −( x − x) . Applying this
to the inequality above and simplifying,
we easily get a k + 5 ≥ a k2 for nonnegative
integer k. Then a k +10 ≥ a k2 + 5 ≥ a k4 for
Page 3
nonnegative integer k. Taking square
root, we get the desired inequality.
Other commended solvers: POON
Ming Fung (STFA Leung Kau Kui
College, Form 6) and SIU Tsz Hang
(CUHK, Math Major, Year 1).
Problem 183. Do there exist 10
distinct integers, the sum of any 9 of
which is a perfect square? (Source:
1999 Russian Math Olympiad)
Solution. Achilleas Pavlos
PORFYRIADIS (American College
of Thessaloniki “Anatolia”,
Thessaloniki, Greece) and SIU Tsz
Hang (CUHK, Math Major, Year 1).
Let a1, a2, …, a10 be distinct integers and
S be their sum. For i = 1, 2, …, 10, we
would like to have S – ai = ki2 for some
integer ki. Let T be the sum of k12, …,
k102. Adding the 10 equations, we get 9S
= T. Then ai = S – (S – ai) = (T/9) – ki2.
So all we need to do is to choose integers
k1, k2, …, k10 so that T is divisible by 9.
For example, taking ki = 3i for i = 1, …,
10, we get 376, 349, 304, 241, 160,
61, –56, –191, –344, –515 for a1, …, a10.
Other commended solvers: CHEUNG
Yun Kuen (Hong Kong Chinese
Women’s Club College, Form 5).
Problem 184. Let ABCD be a
rhombus with ∠B = 60o . M is a point
inside ∆ADC such that ∠AMC =
120o . Let lines BA and CM intersect at
P and lines BC and AM intersect at Q.
Prove that D lies on the line PQ.
(Source: 2002 Belarussian Math
Olympiad)
Solution. John PANAGEAS (Kaisari
High School, Athens, Greece), and
POON Ming Fung (STFA Leung Kau
Kui College, Form 6).
Since ABCD is a rhombus and ∠ABC =
60o , we see ∠ADC, ∠DAC, ∠DCA,
∠PAD and ∠DCQ are all 60o .
Now
∠CAM+∠MCA = 180o –∠AMC = 60o
and
∠DCM + ∠MCA =∠DCA = 60o
imply ∠CAM = ∠DCM.
Since AB || CD, we get
∠APC = ∠DCM = ∠CAQ.
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 8, No. 4, Aug 03- Oct 03
Also, ∠PAC = 120o = ∠ACQ. Hence
∆APC and ∆CAQ are similar. So PA/AC
= AC/CQ.
Since AC = AD = DC, so PA/AD = DC/CQ.
As ∠PAD = 60 o = ∠DCQ, so ∆PAD and
∆DCQ are similar. Then
∠PDA + ∠ADC + ∠CDQ
=∠PDA + ∠PAD + ∠APD = 180 o .
Therefore, P, D, Q are collinear.
Other commended solvers: CHEUNG
Yun Kuen (Hong Kong Chinese Women’s
Club College, Form 5), Achilleas Pavlos
PORFYRIADIS (American College of
Thessaloniki “Anatolia”, Thessaloniki,
Greece), SIU Tsz Hang (CUHK, Math
Major, Year 1), TAM Choi Nang Julian
(Teacher, SKH Lam Kau Mow Secondary
School).
Problem 185. Given a circle of n lights,
exactly one of which is initially on, it is
permitted to change the state of a bulb
provided one also changes the state of
every d-th bulb after it (where d is a divisor
of n and is less than n), provided that all n/d
bulbs were originally in the same state as
one another. For what values of n is it
possible to turn all the bulbs on by making
a sequence of moves of this kind?
The 2003 Hong Kong IMO team from left to right: Wei Fei Fei (Guide), Leung Chit Wan (Deputy Leader), Chung Tat Chi, Siu
Tsz Hang, Kwok Tsz Chiu, Yu Hok Pun, Yeung Kai Sing, Lau Wai Shun, Leung Tat Wing (Leader).
Page 4
Solution. Olympiad Corner
Let ω = cos (2π/n) + i sin (2π/n) and the (continued from page 1)
lights be at 1, ω , ω 2 , …, ω n −1 with the
Problem 4. Let ABCD be a cyclic
one at 1 on initially. If d is a divisor of n
quadrilateral. Let P, Q and R be the feet of
that is less than n and the lights at the perpendiculars from D to the lines BC,
ω a , ω a + d , ω a + 2 d ,L, ω a +( n−d ) CA and AB respectively. Show that PQ =
QR if and only if the bisector of ∠ABC and
have the same state, then we can change
∠ADC meet on AC.
the state of these n/d lights. Note their sum
is a geometric series equal to Problem 5. Let n be a positive integer and
a n d
ω (1 − ω ) /(1 − ω ) = 0. x1, x2, … , xn be real numbers with x1 ≤ x2
≤ L ≤ xn .
So if we add up the numbers
corresponding to the lights that are on (a) Prove that
before and after a move, it will remain the 2
⎛ n n ⎞
same. Since in the beginning this number ⎜ ∑ ∑ xi − x j ⎟
⎜ i =1 j =1 ⎟
is 1, it will never be ⎝ ⎠
1 + ω + ω 2 + L + ω n −1 = 0. 2(n 2 − 1) n n 2
≤ ∑ ∑ ( xi − x j ) .
Therefore, all the lights can never be on at 3 i =1 j =1
the same time.
(b) Show that equality holds if and only if
Comments: This problem was due to x1, x2, …, xn is an arithmetic sequence.
Professor James Propp, University of
Wisconsin, Madison (see his website Problem 6. Let p be a prime number.
http://www.math.wisc.edu/~propp/ ) and Prove that there exists a prime number q
was selected from page 141 of the highly such that for every integer n, the number
recommended book by Paul Zeitz titled n p − p is not divisible by q.
The Art and Craft of Problem Solving,
published by Wiley.
Volume 9, Number 3
Olympiad Corner
th
The 45 International Mathematical
Olympiad took place on July 2004.
Here are the problems.
Day 1 Time allowed: 4 hours 30
minutes.
Problem 1. Let ABC be an acute-angled
triangle with AB ≠ AC. The circle with
diameter BC intersects the sides AB and
AC at M and N, respectively. Denote by
O the midpoint of the side BC. The
bisectors of the angles BAC and MON
intersect at R. Prove that the
circumcircles of the triangles BMR and
CNR have a common point lying on the
side BC.
Problem 2. Find all polynomials P(x)
with real coefficients which satisfy the
equality
P(a-b)+P(b-c)+P(c-a) = 2P(a+b+c)
for all real numbers a, b, c such that ab +
bc + ca = 0.
Problem 3. Define a hook to be a figure
made up of six unit squares as shown in
the diagram
(continued on page 4)
Editors: ஻ Ի ஶ (CHEUNG Pak-Hong), Munsang College, HK
ଽ υ ࣻ (KO Tsz-Mei)
గ ႀ ᄸ (LEUNG Tat-Wing)
‫ ؃‬୊ ፱ (LI Kin-Yin), Dept. of Math., HKUST
֔ ᜢ ‫( ݰ‬NG Keng-Po Roger), ITC, HKPU
Artist: ྆ ‫( ़ ؾ‬YEUNG Sau-Ying Camille), MFA, CU
Acknowledgment: Thanks to Elina Chiu, Math. Dept.,
HKUST for general assistance.
On-line:
http://www.math.ust.hk/mathematical_excalibur/
The editors welcome contributions from all teachers and
students. With your submission, please include your name,
address, school, email, telephone and fax numbers (if
available). Electronic submissions, especially in MS Word,
are encouraged. The deadline for receiving material for the
next issue is October 20, 2004.
For individual subscription for the next five issues for the
03-04 academic year, send us five stamped self-addressed
envelopes. Send all correspondence to:
Dr. Kin-Yin LI
Department of Mathematics
The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Fax: (852) 2358 1643
Email: makyli@ust.hk
IMO 2004
T. W. Leung
The 45th International Mathematical
Olympiad (IMO) was held in Greece
from July 4 to July 18. Since 1988, we
have been participating in the
Olympiads. This year our team was
composed as follows.
Members
Cheung Yun Kuen (Hong Kong Chinese
Women’s Club College)
Chung Tat Chi (Queen Elizabeth
School)
Kwok Tsz Chiu (Yuen Long Merchant
Association Secondary School)
Poon Ming Fung (STFA Leung Kau Kui
College)
Tang Chiu Fai (HKTA Tang Hin
Memorial Secondary School)
Wong Hon Yin (Queen’s College)
Cesar Jose Alaban (Deputy Leader)
Leung Tat Wing (Leader)
I arrived at Athens on July 6. After
waiting for a couple of hours, leaders
were then delivered to Delphi, a hilly
town 170 km from the airport,
corresponding to 3 more hours of
journey. In these days the Greeks were
still ecstatic about what they had
achieved in the Euro 2004, and were
busy preparing for the coming Olympic
Games in August. Of course Greece is a
small country full of legend and
mythology. Throughout the trip, I also
heard many times that they were the
originators of democracy, their
contribution in the development of
human body and mind and their
emphasis on fair play.
After receiving the short-listed
problems leaders were busy studying
them on the night of July 8. However
obviously some leaders had strong
opinions on the beauty and degree of
difficulty of the problems, so selections
of all six problems were done in one
day. Several problems were not even
discussed in details of their own merits.
August 2004 – September 2004
The following days were spent on
refining the wordings of the questions
and translating the problems into
different languages.
The opening ceremony was held on July
11. In the early afternoon we were
delivered to Athens. After three hours
of ceremony we were sent back to
Delphi. By the time we were in Delphi
it was already midnight. Leaders were
not allowed to talk to students in the
ceremony.
Contests were held in the next two days.
The days following the contests were
spent on coordination, i.e. leaders and
coordinators discussed how many
points should be awarded to the answers
of the students. This year the
coordinators were in general very
careful. I heard several teams spent
more than three hours to go over six
questions. Luckily coordination was
completed on the afternoon of July 15.
The final Jury meeting was held that
night. In the meeting the cut-off scores
were decided, namely 32 points for
gold, 24 for silver and 16 for bronze.
Our team was therefore able to obtain
two silver medals (Kwok and Chung)
and two bronze medals (Tang and
Cheung). Other members (Poon and
Wong) both solved at least one problem
completely, thus received honorable
mention. Unofficially our team ranked
30 out of 85. The top five teams in order
were respectively China, USA, Russia,
Vietnam and Bulgaria.
In retrospect I felt that our team was
good and balanced, none of the
members was particularly weak. In one
problem we were as good as any strong
team. Every team members solved
problem 4 completely. Should we did
better in the geometry problems our
rank would be much higher. Curiously
geometry is in our formal school
curriculum while number theory and
combinatorics are not. In this Olympiad
we had two geometry problems, but
fittingly so, after all, it was Greece.
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 9, No. 3, Aug. 04- Sept. 04 Page 2

Extending an IMO Problem
Hà Duy Hung
Dept. of Math and Informatics
Hanoi Univ. of Education
In this brief note we give a
generalization of a problem in the 41st
International Mathematical Olympiad
notations r | s means s is divisible by r and for k = 1, 2, … By Lemma 2, we also
u ≡ v (mod m) means u – v is divisible by have
m. ⎛y ⎞
gcd ⎜ k , p k ⎟ = 1
Lemma 2. Let a, b be distinct and ⎝ p ⎠
relatively prime positive integers, and p an for k = 1, 2, …. Moreover, we have
odd prime number which divides a + b .
xk ≥ p k . This leads us to
Then for any non-negative integer k,
p −1

p k +1 | a m + b m , 2

+ ∑ [(a p ) 2i (b p ) p −1− 2i
p k ( p −1) k k
held in Taejon, South Korea in 2000. yk = b
where m = p k . i =1
IMO 2000/5. Determine whether or k k
− (a p ) 2i −1 (b p ) p − 2i ]
not there exists a positive integer n Proof. We prove the lemma by induction. k k

such that n is divisible by exactly It is clear that the lemma holds for k = 0 . > bp + ap
2000 different prime divisors, and Suppose the lemma holds for some = xk
2n + 1 is divisible by n. non-negative integer k, and we proceed to ≥ p k +1
the case k + 1 .
The answer to the question is k k
It follows that
Let x = a p and y = b p . Since
positive. This intriguing problem
yk
made me recall a well-known theorem p −1 ≥ pk > 1 .
due to O. Reutter in [1] as follows. x + y = ( x + y )∑ (−1) x
p p i p −1− i i
y , p
i =0

it suffices to show that the whole yk

Theorem 1. If a is a positive integer By Lemma 1, is an odd positive
such that a + 1 is not a power of 2, then summation is divisible by p. Since p
a n + 1 is divisible by n for infinitely x ≡ − y (mod p k +1 ), we have
integer, so we can choose an odd prime
many positive integers n. p −1

∑ (−1) x i p −1− i
yi
divisor qk of
yk
.
We frequently encounter the i =0
p
p −1
theorem in the case a = 2 . The
≡ ∑ (−1) 2i x p −1
theorem and the IMO problem i =0
We now have a sequence of odd
prompted me to think of more general ≡ px p −1 (mod p k +1 )
prime numbers {qk }k =1 satisfying the
+∞
problem. Can we replace the number 2
in the IMO problem by other positive completing the proof.
integers? The difficulty partly lies in following properties
the fact that the two original problems In the rest of this note we shall
are solved independently. After a long complete the proof of Theorem 2.
(i) gcd ( xk , qk ) = 1
time, I finally managed to prove a
Proof of Theorem 2. Without loss of
generalization as follows. (ii) gcd ( p, qk ) = 1
generality, let a > b . Since a + b is not a
power of 2, it has an odd prime factor p. (iii) qk | xk +1
Theorem 2. Let s, a, b be given
For natural number k, set
positive integers, such that a, b are (iv) xk | xk +1 .
relatively prime and a + b is not a pk pk x
xk = a + b , yk = k +1 .
power of 2. Then there exist infinitely xk We shall now show that the sequence
many positive integers n such that
Then yk is a positive integer and
{qk }k =1
+∞
• n has exactly s different prime consists of distinct prime
p −1
divisors; and
yk = ∑ (−1)i (a p ) p −1−i (b p )i
k k

• a n + b n is divisible by n. numbers and is thus infinite. Indeed, if

i =0
p −1 k0 < k1 are positive integers and
≡ ∑ (−1) 2i (a p ) p −1
k
We give a proof of Theorem 2 below.
We shall make use of two familiar i =0 qk0 = qk1 , then
p −1 k +1
lemmas. ≡ px (mod p ) qk1 = qk0 | xk0 +1 | ⋅⋅⋅ | xk1

Lemma 1. Let n be an odd positive yk by properties (iii) and (iv). But this
integer, and a, b be relative prime which implies that is a positive contradicts property (i).
p
positive integers. Then
Next, set n0 = p s q1 ...qs −1 and nk+1 =
integer. Also, we have
a +b
n n
pnk for k = 0, 1, 2, …. It is evident that
a+b yk ⎛ xk ⎞
≡b ( )
p k p −1
⎜ mod ⎟,
is an odd integer ≥ 1 , equality if and p ⎝ p ⎠ {nk }k =0 is a strictly increasing sequence
+∞

only if n = 1 or a = b = 1 .
so that
The proof of Lemma 1 is simple and is
left for the reader. ⎛x y ⎞ (continued on page 4)
gcd ⎜ k , k ⎟ = 1
Also, we remind readers the usual ⎝ p p⎠
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 9, No. 3, Aug. 04- Sept. 04
Problem Corner
We welcome readers to submit their
solutions to the problems posed below
for publication consideration. The
solutions should be preceded by the
solver’s name, home (or email) address
and school affiliation. Please send
submissions to Dr. Kin Y. Li,
Department of Mathematics, The Hong
Kong University of Science &
Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon,
Hong Kong. The deadline for
submitting solutions is October 20,
2004.
Problem 206. (Due to Zdravko F.
Starc, Vršac, Serbia and Montenegro)
Prove that if a, b are the legs and c is
the hypotenuse of a right triangle, then
(a + b) a + (a − b) b < 2 2c c.
Problem 207. Let A = { 0, 1, 2, …, 9}
and B1, B2, …, Bk be nonempty subsets
of A such that Bi and Bj have at most 2
common elements whenever i ≠ j. Find
the maximum possible value of k.
Problem 208. In ∆ABC, AB > AC > BC.
Let D be a point on the minor arc BC of
the circumcircle of ∆ABC. Let O be
the circumcenter of ∆ABC. Let E, F be
the intersection points of line AD with
the perpendiculars from O to AB, AC,
respectively. Let P be the intersection
of lines BE and CF. If PB = PC + PO,
then find ∠BAC with proof.
Problem 209. Prove that there are
infinitely many positive integers n such
that 2n + 2 is divisible by n and 2n + 1 is
divisible by n – 1.
Problem 210. Let a1 = 1 and
a 1
a n +1 = n +
2 an
for n = 1, 2, 3, … . Prove that for every
integer n > 1,
2 AD coincides with BD; BE coincides with
a 2
− 2
n
is an integer.
*****************
Solutions
****************
Problem 201. (Due to Abderrahim
OUARDINI, Talence, France) Find
which nonright triangles ABC satisfy
tan A tan B tan C
> [tan A] + [tan B] + [tan C],
where [t] denotes the greatest integer less
than or equal to t. Give a proof.
Solution. CHENG Hao (The Second
High School Attached to Beijing Normal
University), CHEUNG Yun Kuen
(HKUST, Math, Year 1) and YIM Wing
Yin (South Tuen Mun Government
Secondary School, Form 4). , Achilleas P.
PORFYRIADIS (American College of
Thessaloniki “Anatolia”, Thessaloniki,
Greece),
From
tan C = tan (180○– A – B)
= – tan (A+B)
= – (tan A + tan B)/(1– tan A tan B),
we get
tan A + tan B + tan C = tan A tan B tan C.
Let x = tan A, y = tan B and z = tan C. If
xyz ≤ [x]+[y]+[z], then x+y+z ≤ [x] + [y]
+ [z]. As [t] ≤ t, x, y, z must be integers.
If triangle ABC is obtuse, say A > 90○,
then x < 0 < 1 ≤ y ≤ z. This implies 1 ≤ yz
= (x + y + z)/x = 1 + (y + z)/x < 1, a
contradiction. If triangle ABC is acute,
then we may assume 1 ≤ x ≤ y ≤ z. Now
xy = (x+y+z)/z ≤ (3z)/z = 3. Checking the
cases xy = 1, 2, 3, we see x+y+z = xyz can
only happen when x=1, y=2 and z=3.
This corresponds to A = tan-1 1, B = tan-1
2 and C = tan-1 3. Reversing the steps,
we see among nonright triangles, the
inequality in the problem holds except
only for triangles with angles equal 45○
= tan-1 1, tan-1 2 and tan-1 3.
Problem 202. (Due to LUK Mee Lin, La
Salle College) For triangle ABC, let D, E,
F be the midpoints of sides AB, BC, CA,
respectively. Determine which triangles
ABC have the property that triangles ADF,
BED, CFE can be folded above the plane
of triangle DEF to form a tetrahedron with
CE; CF coincides with AF.
Solution. CHENG Hao (The Second
High School Attached to Beijing Normal
University), CHEUNG Yun Kuen
(HKUST, Math, Year 1) and YIM Wing
Yin (South Tuen Mun Government
Secondary School, Form 4).
Observe that ADEF, BEFD and CFDE are
parallelograms. Hence ∠BDE =∠BAC,
∠ADF = ∠ABC and ∠EDF = ∠BCA.
In order for AD to coincide with BD in
folding, we need to have ∠ BDE +
Page 3
∠ADF > ∠EDF. So we need ∠BAC
+ ∠ABC > ∠BCA. Similarly, for BE to
coincide with CE and for CF to coincide
with AF, we need ∠ ABC + ∠ BCA >
∠BAC and ∠BCA + ∠BAC > ∠ABC.
So no angle of ∆ABC is 90 or more.
Therefore, ∆ABC is acute.
Conversely, if ∆ABC is acute, then
reversing the steps, we can see that the
required tetrahedron can be obtained.
Problem 203. (Due to José Luis
DÍAZ-BARRERO, Universitat Politec-
nica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain)
Let a, b and c be real numbers such that
a + b + c ≠ 0. Prove that the equation
(a+b+c)x2 + 2(ab+bc+ca)x + 3abc = 0
has only real roots.
Solution. CHAN Pak Woon (Wah Yan
College, Kowloon, Form 6), CHENG Hao
(The Second High School Attached to
Beijing Normal University), CHEUNG
Hoi Kit (SKH Lam Kau Mow Secondary
School, Form 7), CHEUNG Yun Kuen
(HKUST, Math, Year 1), Murray
KLAMKIN (University of Alberta,
Edmonton, Canada), Achilleas P.
PORFYRIADIS (American College of
Thessaloniki “Anatolia”, Thessaloniki,
Greece) and YIM Wing Yin (South Tuen
Mun Government Secondary School,
Form 4).
The quadratic has real roots if and only
if its discriminant
D = 4(ab+bc+ca)2 – 12(a+b+c)abc
= 4[(ab)2+(bc)2+(ca)2–(a+b+c)abc]
= 4[(ab–bc)2 +(bc–ca)2 +(ca–ab)2 ]
is nonnegative, which is clear.
Other commended solvers: Jason CHENG
Hoi Sing (SKH Lam Kau Mow Secondary
School, Form 7), POON Ho Yin (Munsang
College (Hong Kong Island), Form 4) and
Anderson TORRES (Universidade de
Sao Paulo – Campus Sao Carlos).
Problem 204. Let n be an integer with
n > 4. Prove that for every n distinct
integers taken from 1, 2, …, 2n, there
always exist two numbers whose least
common multiple is at most 3n + 6.
Solution. CHENG Hao (The Second
High School Attached to Beijing
Normal University), CHEUNG Yun
Kuen (HKUST, Math, Year 1) and YIM
Wing Yin (South Tuen Mun
Government Secondary School, Form
4).
Let S be the set of n integers taken and k
be the minimum of these integers. If k ≤
n, then either 2k is also in S or 2k is not
in S. In the former case, lcm(k,2k) = 2k
≤ 2n < 3n+6. In the latter case, we
replace k in S by 2k. Note this will not
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 9, No. 3, Aug. 04- Sept. 04
decrease the least common multiple of
any pair of numbers. So if the new S
satisfies the problem, then the original S
will also satisfy the problem. As we
repeat this, the new minimum will
increase strictly so that we eventually
reach either k and 2k both in S, in which
case we are done, or the new S will consist
of n+1, n+2, …, 2n. So we need to
consider the latter case only.
If n > 4 is even, then 3(n+2)/2 is an integer
at most 2n and lcm(n+2, 3(n+2)/2) =
3n+6. If n > 4 is odd, then 3(n+1)/2 is an
integer at most 2n and lcm(n+1,3(n+1)/2)
= 3n+3.
Problem 205. (Due to HA Duy Hung,
Hanoi University of Education, Vietnam)
Let a, n be integers, both greater than 1,
such that an – 1 is divisible by n. Prove
that the greatest common divisor (or
highest common factor) of a – 1 and n is
greater than 1.
Solution. CHENG Hao (The Second
High School Attached to Beijing Normal
University), CHEUNG Yun Kuen
(HKUST, Math, Year 1) and YIM Wing
Yin (South Tuen Mun Government
Secondary School, Form 4).
Let p be the smallest prime divisor of n.
Then an – 1 is divisibly by p so that an ≡ 1
(mod p). In particular, a is not divisible by
p. Then, by Fermat’s little theorem, ap – 1
≡1 (mod p).
Let d be the smallest positive integer such
that ad ≡ 1 (mod p). Dividing n by d, we
get n = dq + r for some integers q, r with 0
≤ r < d. Then ar ≡ (ad)q ar = an ≡ 1 (mod
p). By the definition of d, we get r = 0.
Then n is divisible by d. Similarly,
dividing p – 1 by d, we see ap – 1 ≡ 1 (mod
2004 Hong Kong team to IMO: From left to right, Cheung Yun Kuen, Poon Ming Fung, Tang Chiu Fai, Cesar Jose Alaban
(Deputy Leader), Leung Tat Wing (Leader), Chung Tat Chi, Kwok Tsz Chiu & Wong Hon Yin.
p) implies p – 1 is divisible by d. Hence,
gcd(n, p – 1) is divisible by d. Since p is
the smallest prime dividing n, we must
have gcd(n, p – 1) = 1. So d =1. By the
definition of d, we get a – 1 is divisible by
p. Therefore, gcd(a – 1, n) ≥ p > 1.
Olympiad Corner
(continued from page 1)
or any of the figures obtained by applying
rotations and reflections to this figure.
Determine all m x n rectangles that can be
covered with hooks so that
● the rectangle is covered without gaps
and without overlaps;
● no part of a hook covers area outside the
rectangle.
Day 2 Time allowed: 4 hours 30
minutes.
Problem 4. Let n ≥ 3 be an integer. Let
t1, t2, …, tn be positive real numbers such
that
n2 + 1 > (t1 + t2 + ⋯ + tn)
⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞
× ⎜ + + L + ⎟.
⎝ t1 2
t n
t ⎠
Show that ti, tj, tk are side lengths of a
triangle for all i, j, k with 1≤ i <j <k ≤ n.
Problem 5. In a convex quadrilateral
ABCD the diagonal BD bisects neither the
angle ABC not the angle CDA. The point
P lies inside ABCD and satisfies
Page 4
∠ PBC =∠ DBA and ∠ PDC =∠BDA
Prove that ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral
if and only if AP = CP.
Problem 6. We call a positive integer
alternating if every two consecutive digits
in its decimal representation are of
different parity.
Find all positive integers n such that n has
a multiple which is alternating.
Extending an IMO Problem
(continued from page 2)
of positive integers and each term of the
sequence has exactly s distinct prime
divisors.
It remains to show that
nk | a nk + b nk
for k = 0, 1, 2, … Note that for odd
positive integers m, n with m | n , we have
a m + b m | a n + b n . By property (iii), we
have, for 0 ≤ k < s ,
n n
qk | xk +1 | xs | a n0 + b n0 | a j + b j
for j = 0, 1, 2, … . Now it suffices to show
that
p k + s | a nk + b nk
for k = 0, 1, 2, … . But this follows easily
from Lemma 2 since
p s + k | xk + s | a nk + b nk .
This completes the proof of Theorem 2.
References:
[1] O. Reutter, Elemente der Math., 18
(1963), 89.
[2] W. Sierpinski, Elementary Theory of
Numbers, English translation,
Warsaw, 1964.
Volume 14, Number 2
Olympiad Corner
The following were the problems of
the first day of the 2008 Chinese Girls’
Math Olympiad.
Problem 1. (a) Determine if the set
{1,2,⋯,96} can be partitioned into 32
sets of equal size and equal sum.
(b) Determine if the set {1,2,⋯,99} can
be partitioned into 33 sets of equal size
and equal sum.
Problem 2. Let φ(x) = ax3+bx2+cx+d be
a polynomial with real coefficients.
Given that φ(x) has three positive real
roots and that φ(x) < 0, prove that 2b3 +
9a2d − 7abc ≤ 0.
Problem 3. Determine the least real
number a greater than 1 such that for any
point P in the interior of square ABCD,
the area ratio between some two of the
triangles PAB, PBC, PCD, PDA lies in
the interval [1/a, a].
Problem 4. Equilateral triangles ABQ,
BCR, CDS, DAP are erected outside the
(convex) quadrilateral ABCD. Let X, Y,
Z, W be the midpoints of the segments
PQ, QR, RS, SP respectively. Determine
the maximum value of
XZ + YW
. C
AC + BD
Editors: 張 百 康 (CHEUNG Pak-Hong), Munsang College, HK
高 子 眉 (KO Tsz-Mei)
梁 達 榮 (LEUNG Tat-Wing)
李 健 賢 (LI Kin-Yin), Dept. of Math., HKUST
吳 鏡 波 (NG Keng-Po Roger), ITC, HKPU
Artist: 楊 秀 英 (YEUNG Sau-Ying Camille), MFA, CU
Acknowledgment: Thanks to Elina Chiu, Dept. of Math.,
HKUST for general assistance.
On-line:
http://www.math.ust.hk/mathematical_excalibur/
The editors welcome contributions from all teachers and
students. With your submission, please include your name,
address, school, email, telephone and fax numbers (if
available). Electronic submissions, especially in MS Word,
are encouraged. The deadline for receiving material for the
next issue is October 3, 2009.
For individual subscription for the next five issues for the
09-10 academic year, send us five stamped self-addressed
envelopes. Send all correspondence to:
Dr. Kin-Yin LI, Dept. of Mathematics, The Hong Kong
University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay,
Kowloon, Hong Kong
Fax: (852) 2358 1643
Email: makyli@ust.hk
© Department of Mathematics, The Hong Kong University
of Science and Technology.
Remarks on IMO 2009
Leung Tat-Wing
2009 IMO Hong Kong Team Leader
The 50th International Mathematical
Olympiad (IMO) was held in Bremen,
Germany from 10th to 22nd July 2009. I
arrived Bremen amid stormy and chilly
(16°C) weather. Our other team
members arrived three days later. The
team eventually obtained 1 gold, 2
silver and 2 bronze medals, ranked
(unofficially) 29 out of 104
countries/regions. This was the first
time more than 100 countries
participated. Our team, though not
among the strongest teams, did
reasonably well. But here I mainly want
to give some remarks about this year’s
IMO, before I forget.
First, the problems of the contest:
Problem 1. Let n be a positive integer
and let a1, a2, …, ak (k ≥ 2) be distinct
integers in the set {1,2,…,n} such that n
divides ai(ai+1−1) for i=1,…, k−1. Prove
that n does not divide ak(a1−1).
This nice and easy number theory
problem was the only number theory
problem in the contest. Indeed it is not
easy to find a sequence satisfying the
required conditions, especially when k
is close to n, or n is prime. Since adding
the condition n divides ak(a1−1) should
be impossible, it was natural to prove
the statement by contradiction. Clearly
2 ≤ k ≤ n, and we have a1 ≡ a1a2 (mod n),
a2 ≡ a2a3 (mod n), …, ak−1 ≡ ak−1ak (mod
n). The extra condition ak ≡ aka1 (mod
n) would in fact “complete the circle”.
Now a1 ≡ a1a2 (mod n). Using the
second condition, we get a1 ≡ a1a2 ≡
a1a2a3 (mod n) and so on, until we get a1
≡ a1a2⋯ak (mod n). However, in a circle
every point is a starting point. So
starting from a2, using the second
condition we have a2 ≡ a2a3 (mod n). By
the third condition, we then have a2 ≡
a2a3a4 (mod n). As now the circle is
complete, we eventually have a2 ≡
a2a3⋯aka1 (mod n). Arguing in this
manner we eventually have a1 ≡ a2 ≡ ⋯
≡ ak (mod n), which is of course a
contradiction!
May - September, 2009
Problem 2. Let ABC be a triangle with
circumcenter O. The points P and Q are
interior points of the sides CA and AB,
respectively. Let K, L and M be
midpoints of the segments BP, CQ and
PQ, respectively, and let Γ be the circle
passing through K, L and M. Suppose
that PQ is tangent to the circle Γ. Prove
that OP=OQ.
The nice geometry problem was
supposed to be a medium problem, but it
turned out it was easier than what the
jury had thought. The trick was to
understand the relations involved. A
very nice solution provided by one of
our members went as follows.
A Q
B
M
K
O
P
γ
L
As KM||BQ (midpoint theorem), we
have ∠ AQP = ∠ QMK. Since PQ is
tangent to Γ, we have ∠ QMK =
∠ MLK (angle of alternate segment).
Therefore, ∠ AQP = ∠ MLK. By the
same argument, we have ∠ APQ =
∠ MKL. Hence, ΔAPQ ~ ΔMKL.
Therefore,
AP MK 2MK BQ
= = = .
AQ ML 2ML CP
This implies AP·PC = AQ·QB. But by
considering the power of P with respect
to the circle ABC, we have
AP·PC = (R+OP)(R−OP)
= R2 − OP2,
where R is the radius of the circumcircle
of ΔABC.
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 14, No. 2, May-Sep. 09
Likewise,
AQ·QB = (R+OQ)(R−OQ)
= R2−OQ2.
These force OP2 = OQ2, or OP = OQ,
done!
Problem 3. Suppose that s1, s2, s3, …
is a strictly increasing sequence of
positive integers such that the
subsequences
ss1 , ss2 , ss3 ,... and ss1+1, ss2 +1, ss3 +1,...
are both arithmetic progressions.
Prove that the sequence s1, s2, s3, … is
itself an arithmetic progression.
This was one of the two hard
problems (3 and 6). Fortunately, it
turned out that it was still within reach.
One trouble is of course the
notation. Of course, ss1 stands for the
s1th term of the si sequence and so on.
Starting from an arithmetic progression
(AP) with common difference d, then it
is easy to check that both
ss1 , ss2 , ss3 ,... and ss1+1, ss2+1, ss3+1,...
are APs with common difference d2.
The question is essentially proving the
“converse”. So the first step is to prove
that the common differences of the two
APs ssi and ssi +1 are in fact the same,
say s. It is not too hard to prove and is
intuitively clear, for two lines of
different slopes will eventually meet
and cross each other, violating the
condition of strictly increasing
sequence. The next step is the show
the difference between two
consecutive terms of si is indeed s ,
(thus s is a square). One can achieve
this end by the method of descent, or
max/min principle, etc.
Problem 4. Let ABC be a triangle with
AB = AC. The angle bisectors of
∠ CAB and ∠ ABC meet the sides BC
and CA at D and E, respectively. Let K
be the incenter of triangle ADC.
Suppose that ∠ BEK = 45°. Find all
possible values of ∠ CAB.
This problem was also relatively
easy. It is interesting to observe that an
isosceles triangle can be the starting
point of an IMO problem. With
geometric software such as Sketchpad,
one can easily see that ∠ CAB should
be 60° or 90°. To prove the statement of
the problem, one may either use synthetic
method or coordinate method. One
advantage of using the coordinate method
is after showing the possible values of
∠ CAB, one can go back to show these
values do work by suitable substitutions.
Some contestants lost marks either
because they missed some values of
∠ CAB or forgot to check the two
possible cases do work.
Problem 5. Determine all functions f
from the set of positive integers to the set
of positive integers such that, for all
positive integers a and b, there exists a
non-degenerate triangle with sides of
lengths a, f(b) and f(b+f(a)−1). (A triangle
is non-degenerate if its vertices are not
collinear.)
The Jury worried if the word
triangle may be allowed to be degenerate
in some places. But I supposed all our
secondary school students would consider
only non-degenerate triangles. This was a
nice problem in functional inequality
(triangle inequality). One proves the
problem by establishing several basic
properties of f. Indeed the first step is to
prove f(1)=1, which is not entirely easy.
Then one proceeds to show that f is
injective and/or f(f(x)) = x, etc, and finally
shows that the only possible function is
the identity function f(x) = x for all x.
Problem 6. Let a1, a2, …, an be distinct
positive integers and let M be a set of
n−1 positive integers not containing
s=a1+a2+⋯+an. A grasshopper is to jump
along the real axis, starting from the point
O and making n jumps to the right with
lengths a1, a2, …, an in some order. Prove
that the order can be chosen in such a way
that the grasshopper never lands on any
point in M.
It turned out that this problem was one
of the most difficult problems in IMO
history. Only three of the 564 contestants
received full scores. (Perhaps it was
second to problem 3 posed in IMO 2007,
for which only 2 contestants received full
scores.)
When I first read the solution provided
by the Problem Committee, I felt I was
reading a paper of analysis. Without
reading the solution, of course I would say
we could try to prove the problem by
induction, as the cases of small n were
easy. The trouble was how to establish the
Page 2
induction step. Later the Russians
provided a solution by induction, by
separating the problem into sub-cases
min M < an or min M ≥ an, and then
applying the principle-hole principle,
etc judiciously to solve the problem.
Terry Tao said (jokingly) that the six
problems were easy. But in his blog, he
admitted that he had spent sometime
reading the problem and he even wrote
an article about it (I have not seen the
article.)
The two hard problems (3 and 6)
were more combinatorial and/or
algebraic in nature. I had a feeling that
this year the Jury has been trying to
avoid hard number theory problems,
which were essentially corollaries of
deep theorems (for example, IMO
2003 problem 6 by the Chebotarev
density theorem or IMO 2008 problem
3 by a theorem of H. Iwaniec) or hard
geometry problem using sophisticated
geometric techniques (like IMO 2008
problem 6).
The Germans ran the program
vigorously (obstinately). They had an
organization (Bildung und Begabung)
that looked after the entire event. They
had also prepared a very detailed
shortlist problem set and afterwards
prepared very detailed marking
schemes for each problem. The
coordinators were very professional
and they studied the problems well.
Thus, there were not too many
arguments about how many points
should be awarded for each problem.
Three of the problems (namely 1,
2 and 4) were relatively easy, problems
3 and 5 were not too hard, so although
problem 6 was hard, contestants still
scored relatively high points. This
explained why the cut-off scores were
not low, 14 for bronze, 24 for silver and
32 for gold.
It might seem that we still didn’t
do the hard problems too well. But
after I discussed with my team
members, I found that they indeed had
the potential and aptitude to do the hard
problems. What may still be lacking
are perhaps more sophisticated skills
and/or stronger will to tackle such
problems.
(continued on page 4)
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 14, No. 2, May-Sep. 09
Problem Corner
We welcome readers to submit their
solutions to the problems posed below
for publication consideration. The
solutions should be preceded by the
solver’s name, home (or email) address
and school affiliation. Please send
submissions to Dr. Kin Y. Li,
Department of Mathematics, The Hong
Kong University of Science &
Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon,
Hong Kong. The deadline for sending
solutions is October 3, 2009.
5 6
Problem 326. Prove that 34 + 45 is
the product of two integers, each at
least 102009.
Problem 327. Eight pieces are placed
on a chessboard so that each row and
each column contains exactly one
piece. Prove that there is an even
number of pieces on the black squares
of the board.
(Source: 1989 USSR Math Olympiad)
Problem 328. (Due to Tuan Le,
Fairmont High School, Anaheim, Ca.,
USA) Let a,b,c > 0. Prove that
a3 + b3 b3 + c3 c3 + a3
+ +
a2 + b2 b2 + c2 c2 + a2
6(ab + bc + ca)
≥ .
(a + b + c) (a + b)(b + c)(c + a)
Problem 329. Let C(n,k) denote the
binomial coefficient with value
n!/(k!(n−k)!). Determine all positive
integers n such that for all k = 1, 2, ⋯,
n−1, we have C(2n,2k) is divisible by
C(n,k).
Problem 330. In ΔABC, AB = AC = 1
and ∠ BAC = 90°. Let D be the
midpoint of side BC. Let E be a point
inside segment CD and F be a point
inside segment BD. Let M be the point
of intersection of the circumcircles of
ΔADE and ΔABF, other than A. Let N
be the point of intersection of the
circumcircle of ΔACE and line AF,
other than A. Let P be the point of
intersection of the circumcircle of
ΔAMN and line AD, other than A.
Determine the length of segment AP
with proof.
(Source: 2003 Chinese IMO team test)
*****************
Solutions
****************
Problem 321. Let AA’, BB’ and CC’ be
three non-coplanar chords of a sphere and
let them all pass through a common point
P inside the sphere. There is a (unique)
sphere S1 passing through A, B, C, P and a
(unique) sphere S2 passing through A’, B’,
C’, P.
If S1 and S2 are externally tangent at P,
then prove that AA’=BB’=CC’.
Solution. NGUYEN Van Thien (Luong
The Vinh High School, Dong Nai,
Vietnam) and Jim Robert STUDMAN
(Hanford, Washington, USA).
Consider the intersection of the 3 spheres
with the plane through A, A’, B, B’ and P.
M B'
A
P that 2n+2 is divisible by n.
B
A'
N (CUHK Math Year 1) and WONG Ka
Let MN be the common external tangent
through P to the circle through A, B, P and
the circle through A’, B’ P as shown above.
We have∠ABP = ∠APM = ∠A’PN =
∠A’B’P = ∠A’B’B = ∠BAA’ = ∠BAP.
Hence, AP=BP. Similarly, A’P = B’P. So
AA’ = AP+A’P = BP+B’P = BB’.
Similarly, BB’ = CC’.
Other commended solvers: CHUNG
Ping Ngai (La Salle College, Form 6) and
LAM Cho Ho (CUHK Math Year 1).
Problem 322. (Due to Cao Minh Quang,
Nguyen Binh Khiem High School, Vinh
Long, Vietnam) Let a, b, c be positive real
numbers satisfying the condition a+b+c =
3. Prove that
a2 (b + 1) b2 (c + 1) c2 (a + 1)
+ + ≥ 2.
a + b + ab b + c + bc c + a + ca
Solution. CHUNG Ping Ngai (La Salle
College, Form 6), NGUYEN Van Thien
(Luong The Vinh High School, Dong Nai,
Vietnam) and the proposer independently.
Observe that
a 2 (b + 1) ab
=a− . (*)
a + b + ab a + b + ab
Applying the AM-GM inequality twice,
we have
ab ab 3
ab a + b + 1
≤ 3 = ≤ . and let O2 be the circumcenter of
a + b + ab 3 a b
2 2 3 9
By (*), we have
Page 3
a 2 (b + 1) a + b + 1 8a − b − 1
≥a− = .
a + b + ab 9 9
Adding two other similar inequalities
and using a+b+c = 3 on the right, we
get the desired inequality.
Other commended solvers: LAM Cho
Ho (CUHK Math Year 1), Manh Dung
NGUYEN (Special High School for
Gifted Students, HUS, Vietnam),
Paolo PERFETTI (Math Dept,
Università degli studi di Tor Vergata
Roma, via della ricerca scientifica,
Roma, Italy), Stefan STOJCHEVSKI
(Yahya Kemal College, Skopje,
Macedonia), Jim Robert STUDMAN
(Hanford, Washington, USA) and
Dimitar TRENEVSKI (Yahya Kemal
College, Skopje, Macedonia).
Problem 323. Prove that there are
infinitely many positive integers n such
Solution. CHUNG Ping Ngai (La
Salle College, Form 6), LAM Cho Ho
Fai (Wah Yan College Kowloon, Form
4).
We will prove the stronger statement that
there are infinitely many positive even
integers n such that 2n+2 is divisible by
n and also that 2n+1 is divisible by n−1.
Call such n a good number. Note n = 2 is
good. Next, it suffices to prove that if n
is good, then the larger integer m = 2n+2
is also good.
Suppose n is good. Since n is even and m
= 2n+2 is twice an odd integer, so m = nj
for some odd integer j. Also, the odd
integer m−1 = 2n+1 = (n−1)k for some
odd integer k. Using the factorization
ai+1 = (a+1)(ai−1−ai−2+⋯+1) for positive
odd integer i, we see that
2m+2 = 2(2(n−1)k+1)
= 2(2n−1+1) (2(n−1)(k−1)−⋯ +1)
is divisible by 2(2n−1+1) = m and
2m+1 = 2nj+1 = (2n+1)(2n(j−1)−⋯+1)
is divisible by 2n+1= m−1. Therefore, m
is also good.
Problem 324. ADPE is a convex
quadrilateral such that ∠ ADP =
∠ AEP. Extend side AD beyond D to
a point B and extend side AE beyond E
to a point C so that ∠ DPB = ∠ EPC.
Let O1 be the circumcenter of ΔADE
ΔABC.
If the circumcircles of ΔADE and
ΔABC are not tangent to each other,
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 14, No. 2, May-Sep. 09
then prove that line O1O2 bisects line
segment AP.
Solution. Jim Robert STUDMAN
(Hanford, Washington, USA).
Let the circumcircle of ΔADE and the
circumcircle of ΔABC intersect at A
and Q.
Observe that line O1O2 bisects chord
AQ and O1O2⊥AQ. Hence, line O1O2
bisects line segment AP will follow if
we can show that O1O2 || PQ, or
equivalently that PQ⊥AQ.
A Problem 325. On a plane, n distinct lines
Q k-point if and only if there are exactly k of
O1
E
D
N Ping Ngai (La Salle College, Form 6)
M O2
P and YUNG Fai.
B lines divided the plane into in terms of n,
C
Let points M and N be the feet of
perpendiculars from P to lines AB and
AC respectively. Since ∠ANP = 90° =
∠AMP, points A, N, P, M lie on a circle
Г with AP as diameter. We claim that
∠MQN =∠MAN. This would imply
Q is also on circle Г, and we would
have PQ⊥AQ as desired.
Since we are given ∠ ADP = ∠ AEP,
we get ∠ BDP = ∠ CEP. This
combines with the given fact ∠ DPB =
∠ EPC imply ∆DPB and ∆EPC are
similar, which yields DB/EC =
DP/EP=DM/EN.
Since A,E,D,Q are concyclic, we have
∠ BDQ =180°− ∠ ADQ
=180°− ∠ AEQ = ∠ CEQ.
This and ∠ DBQ=∠ABQ =∠ACQ =
∠ ECQ imply ∆DQB and ∆EQC are
similar. So we have QD/QE=DB/EC.
Combining with the equation at the end
of the last paragraph, we get
QD/QE=DM/EN.
Using ∆DQB and ∆EQC are similar,
we get ∠ MDQ = ∠ BDQ = ∠ CEQ
= ∠ NEQ. These imply ∆MDQ and
∆NEQ are similar. Then ∠ MQD =
∠ NQE.
Finally, for the claim, we now have
∠ MQN = ∠ MQD + ∠ DQN
= ∠ NQE + ∠ DQN
= ∠ DQE
= ∠ DAE
= ∠ MAN.
Comments: Some solvers used a bit of
homothety to simplify the proof.
Other commended solvers: CHUNG
Ping Ngai (La Salle College, Form 6),
LAM Cho Ho (CUHK Math Year 1), NG
Ngai Fung (STFA Leung Kau Kui
College, Form 7).
are drawn. A point on the plane is called a
the n lines passing through the point. Let
k2, k3, …, kn be the numbers of 2-points,
3-points, …, n-points on the plane,
respectively.
Determine the number of regions the n
k2, k3, …, kn.
(Source: 1998 Jiangsu Province Math
Competition)
Solution. LAM Cho Ho (CUHK Math
Year 1).
Take a circle of radius r so that all
intersection points of the n lines are inside
the circle and none of the n lines is tangent
to the circle. Now each line intersects the
circle at two points. These 2n points on
the circle are the vertices of a convex
2n-gon (call it M) as we go around the
circle, say clockwise. Let the n lines
partition the interior of M into P3 triangles,
P4 quadrilaterals, ⋯, Pj j-gons, ⋯. These
polygonal regions are all convex since the
angles of these regions, which were
formed by intersecting at least two lines,
are all less than 180°. By convexity, no
two sides of any polygonal region are
parts of the same line. So we have Pj = 0
for j>3n.
Consider the sum of all the angles of these
regions partitioning M. On one hand, it is
180°(P3+2P4+3P5+⋯) by counting region
by region. On the other hand, it also
equals 360°(k2+k3+⋯+kn)+(2n−2)180° by
counting all the angles around each
vertices of the regions. Cancelling 180°,
we get
P3+2P4+3P5+⋯=2(k2+k3+⋯+kn)+(2n−2).
Next, consider the total number of all the
edges of these regions partitioned M (with
each of the edges inside M counted twice).
On one hand, it is 3P3+4P4+5P5+⋯ by
Page 4
counting region by region. On the other
hand, it is also (4k2+6k3+⋯2nkn)+4n by
counting the number of edges around
the k-points and around the vertices of
M. The 4n term is due to the 2n edges
of M and each vertex of M (being not a
k-point) issues exactly one edge into
the interior of M. So we have
3P3+4P4+5P5+⋯=4k2+6k3+⋯2nkn+4n.
Subtracting the last two displayed
equations, we can obtain
P3 + P4 + P5 +L= k2 + 2k3 + (n −1)kn + n +1.
Finally, the number of regions these n
lines divided the plane into is the limit
case r tends to infinity. Hence, it is
exactly k2+2k3+⋯+(n−1)kn+n+1.
Other commended solvers: CHUNG
Remarks on IMO 2009
(continued from page 2)
As I found out from the stronger
teams (Chinese, Japanese, Korean, or
Thai, etc.), they were obviously more
heavily or vigorously trained. For
instance, a Thai boy/girl had to go
through more like 10 tests to be
selected as a team member.
Another thing I learned from the
meeting was several countries were
interested to host the event (South-East
Asia countries and Asia-Minor
countries). In fact, one country is
going to host three international
competitions of various subjects in a
row for three years. Apparently they
think hosting these events is good for
gifted education.
The first IMO was held in Romania
in 1959. Throughout these 51 years,
only one year IMO was not held (1980).
To commemorate the fiftieth
anniversary of IMO in 2009, six
notable mathematicians related to IMO
(B. Bollabas, T. Gowers, L. Lovasz, S.
Smirnov, T. Tao and J. C. Yoccoz) were
invited to talk to the contestants. Of
course, Yoccoz, Gowers and Tao were
Fields medalists. The afternoon of
celebration then became a series of
(rather) heavy lectures (not bad). They
described the effects of IMOs on them
and other things. The effect of IMO on
the contestants is to be seen later, of
course!
Volume 16, Number 3
Olympiad Corner
Below are the problems of the 2011
International Math Olympiad.
Problem 1. Given any set A={a1, a2,
a3, a4} of four distinct positive integers,
we denote the sum a1+a2+a3+a4 by sA.
Let nA denote the number of pairs (i,j)
with 1≤i<j≤4 for which ai+aj divides
sA. Find the sets A of four distinct
positive integers which achieve the
largest possible value of nA.
Problem 2. Let S be a finite set of at
least two points in the plane. Assume
that no three points of S are collinear.
A windmill is a process that starts with
a line ℓ going through a single point P
∊S. The line rotates clockwise about
the pivot P until the first time that the
line meets some other point belonging
to S. This point, Q, takes over as the
new pivot, and the line now rotates
clockwise about Q, until it next meets a
point of S. This process continues
indefinitely.
Show that we can choose a point P in S
and a line ℓ going through P such that
the resulting windmill uses each point
of S as a pivot infinitely many times.
(continued on page 4)
Editors: 張 百 康 (CHEUNG Pak-Hong), Munsang College, HK
高 子 眉 (KO Tsz-Mei)
梁 達 榮 (LEUNG Tat-Wing)
李 健 賢 (LI Kin-Yin), Dept. of Math., HKUST
吳 鏡 波 (NG Keng-Po Roger), ITC, HKPU
Artist: 楊 秀 英 (YEUNG Sau-Ying Camille), MFA, CU
Acknowledgment: Thanks to Elina Chiu, Math. Dept.,
HKUST for general assistance.
On-line:
http://www.math.ust.hk/mathematical_excalibur/
The editors welcome contributions from all teachers and
students. With your submission, please include your name,
address, school, email, telephone and fax numbers (if
available). Electronic submissions, especially in MS Word,
are encouraged. The deadline for receiving material for the
next issue is February 28, 2012.
For individual subscription for the next five issues for the
09-10 academic year, send us five stamped self-addressed
envelopes. Send all correspondence to:
Dr. Kin-Yin LI, Math Dept., Hong Kong Univ. of Science
and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Fax: (852) 2358 1643
Email: makyli@ust.hk
© Department of Mathematics, The Hong Kong University
of Science and Technology
Remarks on IMO 2011
Leung Tat-Wing
The 52nd IMO was held in Amsterdam,
Netherlands, on 12-24, July, 2011.
Contestants took two 4½ hour exams
during the mornings of July 18 and 19.
Each exam was consisted of 3 problems
of varying degree of difficulty. The
problems were first shortlisted by the
host country, selected from problems
submitted earlier by various countries.
Leaders from 101 countries then picked
the 2011 IMO problems (see Olympiad
Corner). Traditionally an easy pair was
selected (Problems 1 and 4), then a hard
pair (Problems 3 and 6), with Problem 6
usually selected as the “anchor
problem”, and finally the intermediate
pair (Problems 2 and 5). I would like to
discuss first the problems selected, aim
to provide something extra besides
those which were provided by the
solutions. However I would discuss the
problems by slightly different grouping.
Problems 1 and 4
First the easy pair, problems 1 and 4.
The problem selection committee
thought that both problems were quite
easy. It was nice to select one as a
problem of the contest. But if both
problems were selected, then the paper
would be too easy (or even disastrous).
Indeed eventually both problems were
selected. But it was not enough for
anyone to get a bronze medal even if he
could solve both problems (earning 14
points) as the cut-off for bronze was 16.
In my opinion problem 1 is the easier of
the pair. Indeed we may without loss of
generality assume a1 < a2 < a3 < a4. So if
the sum of one pair of the ai’s divides sA,
then it will also divide the sum of the
other pair. But clearly a bigger pair
cannot divide a smaller pair, so it is
impossible that a3 + a4 dividing a1 + a2,
nor is it possible that a2 + a4 dividing a1
+ a3. Therefore the maximum possible
value of nA can only be 4. To achieve
this, it suffices to consider divisibility
conditions among the other pairs.
November 2011 -January 2012
Now as we need a1 + a4 dividing a2 + a3
and also a2 + a3 dividing a1 + a4, we
must have a1 + a4 = a2 + a3. Putting a4=
a2+a3−a1 into the equations a3 + a4 =
m(a1 + a2) and a2 + a4 = n(a1 + a3) with m
> n > 1, we eventually get (m,n) = (3,2)
or (4,2). Finally we get (a1, a2, a3, a4) =
(k, 5k, 7k, 11k) or (k, 11k, 19k, 29k),
where k is a positive integer. As the
derivation of the answers is rather
straight-forward, it does not pose any
serious difficulty.
For problem 4, it is really quite easy if
one notes the proper recurrence relation.
Indeed the weights 20, 21, 22, …, 2n−1
form a “super-increasing sequence”,
any weight is heavier than the sum of all
lighter weights. Denote by f(n) the
number of ways of placing the weights.
We consider first how to place the
lightest weight (weight 1). Indeed if it is
placed in the first move, then it has to be
in the left pan. However if it is placed in
the second to the last move, then it
really doesn’t matter where it goes,
using the “super-increasing property”.
Hence altogether there are 2n−1
possibilities of placing the weight of
weight 1. Now placing the weights 21,
22, …, 2n−1 clearly is the same as
placing the weights 20, 21, …, 2n−2.
There are f(n−1) ways of doing this.
Thus we establish the recurrence
relation f(n) = (2n−1)f(n−1). Using f(1)
= 1, by induction, we get
f(n) = (2n −1)(2n −3)(2n −5)⋯1.
The problem becomes a mere exercise
of recurrence relation if one notices how
to place the lightest weight (minimum
principle).
It is slightly harder if we consider how
to place the heaviest weight. Indeed if
the heaviest weight is to be placed in the
ith move, then it has to be placed in the
⎛n−1⎞
left pan. There are ⎜ ⎟ ways of
⎝ i −1⎠
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 16, No. 3, Nov.11 -Jan. 12
choosing the previous i−1 weights and
there are f(i−1) ways of placing them.
After the heaviest weight is placed, it
doesn’t matter how to place the other
weights, and there are (n−i)!×2n−i ways
of placing the remaining weights. Thus
n
⎛ n − 1⎞
f (n) = ∑ ⎜
⎟ f (i − 1)(n − i)!2 .
i =1 ⎝ i − 1 ⎠
Replacing n by n −1 and by comparing
the two expressions we again get f(n) =
(2n−1)f(n−1). We have no serious
difficulty with this problem.
Problems 3 and 5
In my opinion both problems 3 and 5
were of similar flavor. Both were
“functional equation” type of problems.
Problem 3 was slightly more involved
and problem 5 more number theoretic.
One can of course put in many values
and obtain some equalities or
inequalities. But the important thing is
to substitute some suitable values so
that one can derive important relevant
properties that can solve the problem.
In problem 5, indeed the condition
f(m−n) | (f(m) − f(n)) (*) poses very
serious restrictions on the image of f(x).
Putting n=0, one gets f(m) | (f(m) − f(0)),
thus f(m) | f(0). Since f(0) can only
have finitely many factors, the image
of f(x) must be finite. Putting m=0, one
gets f(−n) | f(n), and by interchanging n
and −n, one gets f(n) = f(−n). Now f(n)
| (f(2n) − f(n)), hence f(n) | f(2n), and
by induction f(n) | f(mn). Put n = 1 into
the relation. One gets f(1) | f(m). The
image of f(x) is therefore a finite
sequence f(1) = a1< a2< ⋯ < ak = f(0).
One needs to show ai | ai+1. To
complete the proof, one needs to
analyze the sequence more carefully,
say one may proceed by induction on k.
But personally I like the following
argument. Let f(x) = ai and f(y) = ai+1.
We have f(x−y) | (f(y) − f(x)) < f(y) and
f(y) − f(x) is positive, hence f (x − y) is
in the image of f(x) and therefore f(x−y)
≤ ai= f(x). Now if f(x−y) < f(x), then f(x)
− f(x −y) > 0. Thus f(y) = f(x−(x−y)) |
(f(x) − f(x −y)).
In this case the right-hand side is
positive. We have f(y) ≤ f(x) − f(x −y)) <
f(x) < f(y), a contradiction. So we have
f(x−y) = f(x). Thus f(x) | f(y) as needed.
It seems that Problem 3 is more
involved. However, by making useful
and clever substitutions, it is possible
to solve the problem in a relatively
easy way. The following solution
comes from one of our team members.
Put y = z−x into the original equation
f(x+y) ≤ yf(x) + f(f(x)), one gets f(z) ≤ z
f(x) − xf (x) + f( f(x)). By letting z = f(k) in
the derived inequality one gets f(f(k)) ≤
f(k) f(x) − xf (x) + f( f(x)).
Interchanging k and x one then gets f(f(x))
n −i
≤ f(k) f(x) − kf (k) + f( f(k)). Hence
f(x+y) ≤ y f(x) + f( f(x))
≤ f(x)f(k) −kf(k) + f(f(k)).
Letting y =f(k) − x in the inequality, we get
f(f(k)) ≤ f(k) f(x) − xf (x) +
f(k) f(x) − kf (k) + f( f(k))
or 0 ≤ 2 f(k) f(x) − xf(x) −k f(k). Finally
letting k = 2 f(x) and simplifying, we
arrive at the important and essential
(hidden) inequality 0 ≤ −xf(x). This means
for x > 0, f(x) ≤ 0, and for x < 0, f(x) ≥ 0.
But if there is an x0 < 0 such that f(x0) > 0,
then putting x = x0 and y = 0 into the
original equation, we gets 0<f(x0) ≤ f(f(x0)).
However if f(x0) > 0, then f(f(x0)) ≤ 0,
hence a contradiction. This means for all
x < 0, f(x) = 0. Finally one has to prove f(0)
= 0. We suppose first f(0) > 0. Put x = 0
and y < 0 sufficiently small into the
original equation, one gets f(y) < 0, a
contradiction. Suppose f(0) < 0. Take x, y
< 0. We get
0 = f(x+y) ≤ y f(x) + f( f(x))
= y f(x) + f(0) = f(0) < 0,
again contradiction! This implies f(0) = 0.
Problem 2
To me, problem 2 was one of a kind. The
problem was considered as “intermediate”
and should not be too hard. However at
the end only 21 out of 564 contestants
scored full marks. It was essentially a
problem of computational geometry. We
know that if there is a line that goes
through two or more of the points and
such that all other points are on the line or
only on one side of the points, then by
repeatedly turning angles as indicated in
the problem, the convex hull of the point
set will be constructed (so-called Jarvis’
march). Therefore some points may be
missed. So in order to solve the problem,
we cannot start from the “boundary”.
Thus it is natural that we start from the
“center”, or a line going through a point
that separates the other points into equal
halves (or differ by one). Indeed this idea
is correct. The hard part is how to
substantiate the argument. Many
contestants found it hard. Induction
argument does not work because adding
or deleting one point may change the
entire route. The proposer gives the
Page 2
following “continuity argument”. We
consider only the case that there are an
odd number of points on the plane. Let
l be a line that goes through one of the
points and that separates the other
points into two equal halves. Note that
such line clearly exists. Color one
half-plane determined by the line
orange (for Netherlands) and the other
half-plane blue. The color of the plane
changes accordingly while the line is
turning. Note also that when the line
moves to another pivot, the number of
points on the two sides remain the
same, except when two points are on
the line during the change of pivots. So
consider what happen when the line
turns 180°, (turning while changing
pivots). The line will go through the
same original starting point. Only the
colors of the two sides of the line
interchange! This means all the points
have been visited at least once! A
slightly modified argument works for
the case there are an even number of
points on the plane.
Problem 6
This was the most difficult problem of
the contest (the anchor problem), only
6 out of more than 564 contestants
solved the problem. Curiously these
solvers were not necessarily from the
strongest teams. The problem is hard
and beautiful, and I feel that it may be a
known problem because it is so nice.
However, I am not able to find any
further detail. It is not convenient to
reproduce the full solution here. But I
still want to discuss the main idea used
in the first official solution briefly.
Lc Lb
H A
C' C"
B'
La
B" γ
C
A'
B L
T
A"
From ΔABC and the tangent line L at T,
we produce the reflecting lines La, Lb,
and Lc. The reflecting lines meet at A”,
B” and C” respectively. Now from A,
we draw a circle of radius AT, meeting
the circumcircle γ of ABC at A’.
Likewise we have BT=BB’ and
CT=CC’ (see the figure).
(continued on page 4)
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 16, No. 3, Nov.11 -Jan. 12
Problem Corner
We welcome readers to submit their
solutions to the problems posed below
for publication consideration. The
solutions should be preceded by the
solver’s name, home (or email) address
and school affiliation. Please send
submissions to Dr. Kin Y. Li,
Department of Mathematics, The Hong
Kong University of Science &
Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon,
Hong Kong. The deadline for sending
solutions is February 28, 2012.
Problem 381. Let k be a positive
integer. There are 2k balls divided into
a number of piles. For every two piles
A and B with p and q balls respectively,
if p ≥ q, then we may transfer q balls
from pile A to pile B. Prove that it is
always possible to make finitely many
such transfers so as to have all the balls
end up in one pile.
Problem 382. Let v0 = 0, v1 = 1 and
vn+1 = 8vn−vn−1 for n = 1,2,3,….
Prove that vn is divisible by 3 if and
only if vn is divisible by 7.
Problem 383. Let O and I be the
circumcenter and incenter of Δ ABC
respectively. If AB≠AC, points D, E are
midpoints of AB, AC respectively and
BC=(AB+AC)/2, then prove that the
line OI and the bisector of ∠CAB are
perpendicular.
Problem 384. For all positive real
numbers a,b,c satisfying a + b + c = 3,
prove that
a2 + 3b2 b2 + 3c2 c2 + 3a2
+ 2 + 2 ≥ 4.
ab (4 − ab) bc (4 − bc) ca (4 − ca)
2
Problem 385. To prepare for the IMO,
in everyday of the next 11 weeks, Jack
will solve at least one problem. If every
week he can solve at most 12 problems,
then prove that for some positive
integer n, there are n consecutive days
in which he can solve a total of 21
problems.
*****************
Solutions
****************
Problem 376. A polynomial is monic
if the coefficient of its greatest degree
term is 1. Prove that there exists a
monic polynomial f(x) with integer
coefficients such that for every prime p,
f(x) ≡ 0 (mod p) has solutions in integers,
but f(x) = 0 has no solution in integers.
Solution. Alumni 2011 (Carmel Alison
Lam Foundation Secondary School),
Maxim BOGDAN (“Mihai Eminescu”
National College, Botosani, Romania),
Koopa KOO and Andy LOO (St. Paul’s
Co-educational College).
Let f(x)=(x2−2)(x2−3)(x2−6). Then f(x) = 0
has no solution in integers. For p = 2 or 3,
f(6) ≡ 0 (mod p). For a prime p > 3, if there
exists x such that x2 ≡ 2 or 3 (mod p), then
f(x) ≡ 0 (mod p) has solutions in integers.
Otherwise, from Euler’s criterion, it
follows that there will be x such that x2 ≡ 6
(mod p) and again f(x) ≡ 0 (mod p) has
solutions in integers.
Comments: For readers not familiar with
Euler’s criterion, we will give a bit more
details. For c relatively prime to a prime p,
by Fermat’s little theorem, we have
(c(p−1)/2−1)(c(p−1)/2+1) = cp−1−1≡ 0 (mod p),
which implies c(p−1)/2 ≡ 1 or −1 (mod p).
If there exists x such that x2 ≡ c (mod p),
then c(p−1)/2 ≡ xp−1 ≡ 1 (mod p). Conversely,
if c(p−1)/2 ≡ 1 (mod p), then there is x such
that x2 ≡ c (mod p). [This is because there
is a primitive root g (mod p) (see vol. 15,
no. 1, p. 1 of Math Excalibur), so we get c
≡ gi (mod p) for some positive integer i,
then gi(p−1)/2 ≡ 1 (mod p). Since g is a
primitive root (mod p), so i(p−1)/2 is a
multiple of p−1, then i must be even,
hence c ≡ (gi/2)2 (mod p).] In above, if 2
and 3 are not squares (mod p), then
6(p−1)/2=2(p−1)/23(p−1)/2 ≡ (−1)2 =1 (mod p),
hence 6 is a square (mod p).
Problem 377. Let n be a positive integer.
For i=1,2,…,n, let zi and wi be complex
numbers such that for all 2n choices of ε1,
ε2, …, εn equal to ±1, we have
n n
∑ε z
i =1
i i ≤ ∑ε w .
i =1
i i
n n
Prove that ∑ | zi |2 ≤ ∑ | wi |2 .
i =1 i =1
Solution. William PENG and Jeff PENG
(Dallas,Texas, USA).
The case n = 1 is clear. Next, recall the
parallelogram law |a+b|2+|a−b|2=2|a|2+2|b|2,
which follows from adding the + and −
cases of the identity
(a ± b)(a ± b ) = aa ± ab ± ba + bb .
For n = 2, we have
Page 3
|z1+z2|≤|w1+w2| and |z1−z2|≤|w1−w2|.
Squaring both sides of these inequalities,
adding them and applying the
parallelogram law, we get the desired
inequality. Next assume the case n=k
holds. Then for the n=k+1 case, we use
the 2k choices with ε1 = ε2 to get from the
n=k case that
| z1 + z 2 |2 + | z3 |2 +L+ | z k +1 |2
≤ | w1 + w2 |2 + | w3 |2 + L+ | wk +1 |2 .
Similarly, using the other 2k choices
with ε1 = −ε2, we get
| z1 − z 2 | 2 + | z 3 | 2 + L+ | z k +1 | 2
≤ | w1 − w2 | 2 + | w3 | 2 + L+ | wk +1 | 2 .
Adding the last two inequalities and
applying the parallelogram law, we get
the n=k+1 case.
Other commended solvers: Alumni
2011 (Carmel Alison Lam Foundation
Secondary School),Maxim BOGDAN
(“Mihai Eminescu” National College,
Botosani, Romania), O Kin Chit, Alex
(G.T.(Ellen Yeung) College) and
Mohammad Reza SATOURI
(Bushehr, Iran).
Problem 378. Prove that for all
positive integers m and n, there exists a
positive integer k such that 2k −m has at
least n distinct positive prime divisors.
Solution. William PENG and Jeff
PENG(Dallas,Texas, USA).
For the case m is odd, we will prove the
result by inducting on n. If n=1, then just
choose k large so that the odd number 2k
−m is greater than 1. Next assume there
exists a positive integer k such that j =
2k −m has at least n distinct positive
prime divisors. Let s= k+φ(j2), where
φ(j2) is the number of positive integers
at most j2 that are relatively prime to j2.
Since j is odd, by Euler’s theorem,
2 s − m ≡ 2 k × 1 − m = j (mod j 2 ).
Then 2s − m is of the form j+tj2 for
some positive integer t. Hence it is
divisible by j and (2s − m)/j is relatively
prime to j. Therefore, 2s − m has at least
n+1 distinct prime divisors.
For the case m is even, write m=2ir,
where i is a nonnegative integer and r is
odd. Then as proved above there is k
such that 2k − r has at least n distinct
prime divisors and so is 2i+k − m.
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 16, No. 3, Nov.11 -Jan. 12
Other commended solvers: Maxim
BOGDAN (“Mihai Eminescu”
National College, Botosani, Romania)
Problem 379. Let ℓ be a line on the
plane of ∆ABC such that ℓ does not
intersect the triangle and none of the
lines AB, BC, CA is perpendicular to ℓ.
Let A’, B’, C’ be the feet of the
perpendiculars from A, B, C to ℓ
respectively. Let A’’, B”, C” be the
feet of the perpendiculars from A’, B’,
C’ to lines BC, CA, AB respectively.
Prove that lines A’A”, B’B”, C’C” are
concurrent.
Solution. William PENG and Jeff
PENG (Dallas, Texas, USA) and
ZOLBAYAR Shagdar (9th Grade,
Orchlon Cambridge International
School, Mongolia).
C" B
A A lot of discussions were conducted
C principle, there would exist (a,b) ≠ (a’,b’)
B"
l a−a’=b’−b in both A−A and B−B.
A' B'
C'
A"
D
O (continued from page 1)
Let lines B’B” and C’C” intersect at D.
To show line A’A” also contains D,
since ∠ CA”A’ = 90°, it suffices to
show ∠CA”D = 90°.
Let lines BC and B’B” intersect at O.
We claim that ΔDOA” is similar to Δ
COB”. (Since ∠ OB”C = 90°, the
claim will imply ∠OA”D = 90°, which
is the same as ∠CA”D = 90°.)
For the claim, first note ∠AC”D = 90°
= ∠AB”D, which implies A,C”,B”,D
are concyclic. So ∠C”AB”=∠B”DC”.
Next, ∠BC”D = 90° =∠DA”B implies
B,C”,A”,D are concyclic. So ∠C”BA”
=∠A”DC”. Then
∠ODA”=180°−(∠A”DC”+∠B”DC”)
=180°− (∠C”BA”+∠C”AB”)
=∠ACB
=∠OCB”.
This along with ∠DOA”=∠COB”
yield the claim and we are done.
Other commended solvers: Alumni
2011 (Carmel Alison Lam Foundation
Secondary School) and Maxim
BOGDAN (“Mihai Eminescu”
National College, Botosani, Romania).
Problem 380. Let S = {1,2,…,2000}. If A
and B are subsets of S, then let |A| and |B|
denote the number of elements in A and in
B respectively. Suppose the product of |A|
and |B| is at least 3999. Then prove that
sets A−A and B−B contain at least one
common element, where X−X denotes
{s−t : s, t ∈ X and s ≠ t}.
(Source: 2000 Hungarian-Israeli Math
Competition)
Solution. Maxim BOGDAN (“Mihai
Eminescu” National College, Botosani,
Romania) and William PENG and Jeff
PENG (Dallas,Texas, USA).
Note that the set T={(a,b): a∊A and b∊B}
has |A|×|B| ≥ 3999 elements. Also, the set
W={a+b: a∊A and b∊B} is a subset of
{2,3,…4000}. If W = {2,3,…,4000}, then
2 and 4000 in W imply sets A and B both
contain 1 and 2000. This leads to A−A
and B−B both contain 1999.
If W≠{2,3,…4000}, then W has less than
3999 elements. By the pigeonhole
in T such that a+b=a’+b’. This leads to
Olympiad Corner
Problem 3. Let f : ℝ → ℝ be a
real-valued function defined on the set of
real numbers that satisfies
f(x+y) ≤ y f(x) + f( f(x))
for all real numbers x and y. Prove that f(x)
= 0 for all x ≤ 0.
Problem 4. Let n > 0 be an integer. We are
given a balance and n weights of weigh 20,
21, …, 2n−1. We are to place each of the n
weights on the balance, one after another,
in such a way that the right pan is never
heavier than the left pan. At each step we
choose one of the weights that has not yet
been placed on the balance, and place it on
either the left pan or the right pan, until all
the weights have been placed.
Determine the number of ways in which
this can be done.
Problem 5. Let f be a function from the
set of integers to the set of positive
integers. Suppose that, for any two
integers m and n, the difference f(m)−f(n)
is divisible by f(m−n). Prove that, for all
integers m and n with f(m)≤f(n), the
number f(n) is divisible by f(m).
Page 4
Problem 6. Let ABC be an acute
triangle with circumcircle γ. Let L be a
tangent line to γ, and let La, Lb and Lc be
the line obtained by reflecting L in the
lines BC, CA and AB, respectively.
Show that the circumcircle of the
triangle determined by the lines La, Lb
and Lc is tangent to the circle γ.
Remarks on IMO 2011
(continued from page 2)
The essential point is to observe that
A”B”C” is in fact homothetic to
A’B’C’, with the homothetic center at
H, a point on γ , i.e. A”B”C” is an
expansion of A’B’C’ at H by a constant
centre. This implies the circumcircle
of A”B”C” is tangent to γ at H.
concerning changing the format of the
Jury system during the IMO. At
present the leaders assemble to choose
six problems from the short-listed
problems. There are issues concerning
security and also financial matter (to
house the leaders in an obscure place
far away from the contestants can be
costly). Many contestants need good
results to obtain scholarships and enter
good universities and the leaders have
incentive for their own good to obtain
good results for their teams. For me I
am inclined to let the Jury system
remains as such. The main reason is
simply the law of large numbers, a
better paper may be produced if more
people are involved. Indeed both the
Problem Selection Group and the
leaders may make mistakes. But we get
a better chance to produce a better
paper after detailed discussion. In my
opinion we generally produce a more
balanced paper. The discussion is still
going on. Perhaps some changes are
unavoidable, for better or for worse.
Here are some remarks concerning the
performance of the teams. We keep our
standard or perhaps slightly better than
the last few years. I am glad that some
of our team members are able to solve
the harder problems. Although the
Chinese team is still ranked first
(unofficially), they are not far better
than the other strong teams (USA,
Russia, etc). In particular, the third
rank performance of the Singaporean
team this time is really amazing.
Volume 17, Number 1
Olympiad Corner
Below are the problems of the 2012
International Math Olympiad.
Problem 1. Given triangle ABC the
point J is the centre of the excircle
opposite the vertex A. This circle is
tangent to the side BC at M, and to the
lines AB and AC at K and L, respectively.
The lines LM and BJ meet at F, and the
lines KM and CJ meet at G. Let S be the
point of intersection of the lines AF and
BC, and let T be the point of intersection
of the lines AG and BC. Prove that M is
the midpoint of ST.
(The excircle of ABC opposite the vertex
A is the circle that is tangent to the line
segment BC, to the ray AB beyond B,
and to the ray AC beyond C.)
Problem 2. Let n ≥ 3 be an integer, and
let a2,a3,…,an be positive real numbers
such that a2a3⋯an =1. Prove that
(1+a2)2(1+a3)3⋯(1+an)n > nn.
Problem 3. The liar’s guessing game is
a game played between two players A
and B. The rules of the game depend on
two positive integers k and n which are
known to both players.
(continued on page 4)
Editors: 張 百 康 (CHEUNG Pak-Hong), Munsang College, HK
高 子 眉 (KO Tsz-Mei)
梁 達 榮 (LEUNG Tat-Wing)
李 健 賢 (LI Kin-Yin), Dept. of Math., HKUST
吳 鏡 波 (NG Keng-Po Roger), ITC, HKPU
Artist: 楊 秀 英 (YEUNG Sau-Ying Camille), MFA, CU
Acknowledgment: Thanks to Elina Chiu, Math. Dept.,
HKUST for general assistance.
On-line:
http://www.math.ust.hk/mathematical_excalibur/
The editors welcome contributions from all teachers and
students. With your submission, please include your name,
address, school, email, telephone and fax numbers (if
available). Electronic submissions, especially in MS Word,
are encouraged. The deadline for receiving material for the
next issue is Septembert 20, 2012.
For individual subscription for the next five issues for the
09-10 academic year, send us five stamped self-addressed
envelopes. Send all correspondence to:
Dr. Kin-Yin LI, Math Dept., Hong Kong Univ. of Science
and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Fax: (852) 2358 1643
Email: makyli@ust.hk
© Department of Mathematics, The Hong Kong University
of Science and Technology
IMO 2012 (Leader Perspective)
Tat-Wing Leung
As leader, I arrived Mar del Plata,
Argentina (the IMO 2012 site) four days
earlier than the team. Despite cold
weather, jet lag and delay of luggage, I
managed to get myself involved in
choosing the problems for the contest.
Once the “easy” pair was selected, the
jury did not have much choice but to
choose problems of possibly other
topics for the “medium” and the
“difficult” pairs. The two papers of the
contest were then set. We had to decide
the various official versions and the
marking scheme of the contest. After
that, I just had to wait for the contestants
to finish the contest and get myself
involved in the coordination to decide
the points obtained by our team. Here I
would like to discuss the problems.
(Please see Olympiad Corner for the
statements of the problems.)
A problem caused quite a bit of trouble
G
F and many students didn’t know how to
T
B
M
C tackle the problem at all. More
S
K L
w
J such as “why is there no a1?” A more
Problem 1. Really problem 1 is quite
easy, merely a lot of angle chasings and
many angles of 90° (tangents) and
similar triangles, etc, and no extra lines
or segments needed to be constructed.
First note that ∠AKJ =∠ALJ = 90°,
hence A,K,L,J lie on the circle ω with
diameter AJ. The idea is to show that F
and G also lie on the same circle.
Looking at angles around B, we see that
4∠MBJ +2∠ABC = 360°. Thus∠MBJ
= 90°− ½∠ABC. Also,∠BMF=∠CML
= ½∠ACB (as CM=CL). Then ∠LFJ =
∠MBJ −∠BMF = ½∠BAC.
May-August 2012
Thus ∠LFJ =∠LAJ. Hence, F lies on
ω. By the same token, so is G. Now AB
and SB are symmetric with respect to
the external bisector of ∠ABC, so is BK
and BM. Now SM = SB+BM = AB+BK
=AK. Similarly, TM=AL. So SM=TM.
It is relatively easy to tackle the problem
using coordinate geometry. For
instance, we can let the excircle be the
unit circle with J=(0,0), M=(0,1), BC is
aligned so that B=(b,1) and C=(c,1).
Coordinates of other points are then
calculated to verify the required
property. But one must be really careful
if he tries to use coordinate method. It
was somehow decided that if a
contestant cannot get a full solution
using coordinate method, then he will
be “seriously penalized”!
Problem 2. As it turned out, this
sophisticated inequalities such as
Muirhead do not work, since the
expression is not “homogeneous”. The
Japanese leader called the problem a
disaster. There were trivial questions
subtle issue is how to isolate a2,a3,…,an.
Clearly(1+a2)2 ≥ 22a2 by the AM-GM
inequality. But how about (1+a3)3?
Indeed the trick is to apply AM-GM
inequality to get for k=2 to n−1,
k +1
⎛1 1 ⎞
(1 + ak +1 ) k +1 = ⎜ + L + + ak +1 ⎟
⎝ k k ⎠
k +1
⎛ a ⎞ (k + 1) k +1 a k +1
≥ ⎜⎜ (k + 1) k +1 k k+1 ⎟⎟ = .
⎝ k ⎠ kk
By multiplying the inequalities, the
constants cancelled out and we get the
final inequality. That the inequality is
strict is trivial using the conditions of
AM equals GM. The above inequality
can also be used as the inductive step of
proving the equivalent inequality
(1+a2)2(1+a3)3⋯(1+an)n > nna2a3⋯an.
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 17, No. 1, May-Aug. 12
Problem 3. Comparing with problem 6,
I really found this problem harder to
approach! Nevertheless there were still
8 contestants who completely solved
the problem. Among them three were
from the US team. That was an
amazing achievement!
We can deal with this combinatorial
probabilistic problem as follows. Ask
repeatedly if x is 2k. If A answers no
k+1 times in a row, then the answer is
honest and x≠2k. Otherwise B stops
asking about 2k at the first time answer
yes. He then asks, for each i=1,2,…,k,
if the binary representation of x has a 0
in the i-th digit. Whatever the answer is,
they are all inconsistent with a certain
number y in the set {0,1,2,⋯, 2k−1}.
The answer yes to 2k is also
inconsistent with y. Hence x≠y.
Otherwise the last k+1 answers are not
honest and that is impossible. So we
find y and it can be eliminated. Or we
can eliminate corresponding numbers
with nonzero digits at higher end.
Notice we may need to do some
re-indexing and asking more questions
about the indices of the numbers
subsequently. With these questions, we
can reduce the size of the set that x lies
until it lies in a set of size 2k.
Part 2 makes use of a function so that
using the function, A can devise a
strategy (to lie or not to lie, but lying
not more than k times consecutively) so
that no extra information will be
provided to B and hence B cannot
eliminate anything for sure. Due to
limit of space, I cannot provide all
details here.
It was decided that part 1 answered
correctly alone was worth 3 points and
part 2 alone worth 5 points. But
altogether a problem is worth at most 7
points. So 3 + 5 = 7! At the end it really
did not matter. After all, not too many
students did the problem right.
The problem is noted to be related to
the Lovasz Local Lemma. See N. Alon
et al, The Probabilistic Methods, Wiley,
1992. In the book it seems that there is
an example that deals with similar
things. One may check how the lemma
and the problem are related!
Problem 4. Despite being regarded as
an easy problem, this problem is not at
all easy. It is much more involved than
expected. Also this problem eventually
caused more trouble because of the
disputes about the marking scheme. First,
by putting a=b=c=0, one gets f(0)=0. By
putting b=−a and c=0, one gets f(a) =
f(−a). More importantly, by putting
c=−(a+b) and solving f(a+b) = f(−(a+b))
as a quadratic equation of f(a) and f(b),
one gets
f (a + b) = f (a ) + f (b) ± 2 f (a) f (b).
Putting a=b and c=−2a into the original
equation, one gets f(2a)=0 or f(2a)=4f(a).
Now the problem becomes getting all
possible solutions from these two
relations. Using the two conditions, one
checks that there are four types of
solution:
(i) f1(x)≡0 , (ii) f2(x) = kx2 ,
(iii) f ( x) = ⎧⎨0, x even and
3
⎩ k , x odd
⎧ 0, x ≡ 0 (mod 4)
(iv) ⎪ 3
f 4 ( x) = ⎨ k , x ≡ ±1(mod 4) .
⎪ 4k , x ≡ 2 (mod 4)
⎩
The “k” in the solutions is essentially f(1).
Indeed if f(1)=0, then f(2)=0, one then
show by induction f(x)=0 for all x. (Or by
showing f(x) is periodic of period 1.) Now
if f(1)=k, using the condition f(2a)=0, one
can show again by induction f(x) is k for x
odd and is 0 for x even. Now if f(1)=k and
f(2)=4k, then f(4)=0 or 16k. In the first
case we get a function with period 4 and
arrive at the solution f4(x). In the second
case we get f2(x). (One needs to verify the
details.) By checking the values of a, b
and c mod 2 or 4, or other possible forms,
one can check the solutions are indeed
valid. Eventually if a contestant claimed
that all the solutions are easy to check, but
without checking, one point would be
deducted. If a contestant says nothing
about the solutions satisfy the functional
equation and check nothing, then two
points would be deducted!
H
C A'
B'
X a1,a2,…,ak are positive integers (not
K L
M
A B
D a1 a2
Problem 5. The following solution was
obtained by one of our team members.
Page 2
Extend AX to meet the circumcircle of
ABC at A’, likewise extend BX to meet
the circle at B’. Now extend AB’ and
BA’ to meet at H, which is exactly the
orthocentre of ABX and it lies on the
extension of DC.
Since BK2 = BC2 = BD·BA, we have
∆ABK~∆KBD, so ∠BKD =∠BAK =
∠ BHD, which implies B, D, K, H
concyclic. So ∠BKH =∠BDH=90°.
This implies HK2 = BH2 −BK2 = BH2−
BD·BA = BH2 − BA’·BH = HA’·HB.
Similarly HL2= HB’·HA. But HA’·HB
= HB’·HA. Hence HK=HL. Using
similar arguments as above, we have
∠ALH = 90° ( =∠BKH.) Along with
HK=HL, we see ∆MKH≅∆MLH.
Therefore, MK=ML.
Problem 6. Clearing denominators of
1 2 n
a1
+ a2 + ... + an = 1,
3 3
one gets x1+2x2+⋯+nxn=3a, where
x1,x2,…,xn are non-negative integer
powers of 3. Taking mod 2, one gets
n(n+1)/2 ≡ 1(mod 2). This is the case
only when n ≡ 1, 2 (mod 4). The hard
part is to prove the converse also holds.
The cases n=1 or 2 are easy. By trials,
for n=5, (a1,…,a5)=(2,2,2,3,3) works.
The official solution gave a systematic
analysis of how to obtain solutions by
using identities 1/2a=1/2a+1+1/2a+1 and
w/3a=u/3a+1+v/3a+1, where u+v=3w.
For n=4k+1≥5, one can arrive at the
solution a1=2=a3, a2=k+1, a4k = k+2 =
a4k+1 and am = [m/4]+3 for 4≤m<4k.
Similarly, for n=4k+2≥6, one can
arrive at the solution a1 = 2, a2 = k+1, a3
= a4 = 3, a4k+1 = k+2 = a4k+2 and am =
[(m−1)/4]+3 for 4<m≤4k. One can
check these are indeed solutions by
math induction on k. In the inductive
steps of both cases, just notice a2, an−1,
an are increased by 1 so to balance the
new an+1, an+2, an+3, an+4 terms.
This reminds me of the 1978 USAMO
problem: an integer n is called good if
we can write n=a1+a2+⋯+ak, where
necessarily distinct) satisfying
1 1 1
+ +L+ = 1.
ak
Given 33 to 73 are good, prove that all
integer greater than 33 are good. The
idea there is to show if n is good, then
2n+8 and 2n+9 are good by dividing
both sides of the above equation by 2
and adding the terms 1/4+1/4 and
1/3+1/6 respectively.
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 17, No. 1, May-Aug. 12
Problem Corner
We welcome readers to submit their
solutions to the problems posed below
for publication consideration. The
solutions should be preceded by the
solver’s name, home (or email) address
and school affiliation. Please send
submissions to Dr. Kin Y. Li,
Department of Mathematics, The Hong
Kong University of Science &
Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon,
Hong Kong. The deadline for sending
solutions is September 20, 2012.
Problem 396. Determine (with proof)
all functions f : ℝ→ℝ such that for all
real numbers x and y, we have
f (x2 + xy + f (y)) = (f(x))2 + xf(y) + y.
Problem 397. Suppose in some set of
133 distinct positive integers, there are
at least 799 pairs of relatively prime
integers. Prove that there exist a,b,c,d
in the set such that gcd(a,b) = gcd(b,c)
= gcd(c,d) = gcd(d,a) = 1.
Problem 398. Let k be positive integer
and m an odd integer. Show that there
exists a positive integer n for which the
number nn−m is divisible by 2k.
Problem 399. Let ABC be a triangle
for which ∠BAC=60°. Let P be the
point of intersection of the bisector of
∠ABC and the side AC. Let Q be the
point of intersection of the bisector of
∠ACB and the side AB. Let r1 and r2 be
the radii of the incircles of triangles
ABC and APQ respectively. Determine
the radius of the circumcircle of
triangle APQ in terms of r1 and r2 with
proof.
Problem 400. Determine (with proof)
all the polynomials P(x) with real
coefficients such that for every rational
number r, the equation P(x) = r has a
rational solution.
*****************
Solutions
****************
Problem 391. Let S(x) denote the sum
of the digits of the positive integer x in
base 10. Determine whether there exist
distinct positive integers a, b, c such
that S(a+b)<5, S(b+c)<5, S(c+a)<5,
but S(a+b+c)>50 or not.
Solution. AN-anduud Problem
Solving Group (Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia), CHEUNG Ka Wai
Page 3
(Munsang College (Hong Kong Island)), x2 − py2 = − 1.
LI Jianhui (CNEC Christian College,
F.5), LO Shing Fung (Carmel Alison Lam Solution. AN-anduud Problem
Foundation Secondary School), Andy Solving Group (Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia), Kevin LAU (St. Paul’s
LOO (St. Paul’s Co-educational College),
Co-educational College, S.3), Simon
YUEN Wai Kiu (St. Francis’ Canossian LEE (Carmel Alison Lam Foundation
College) and ZOLBAYAR Shagdar (9th Secondary School), Andy LOO (St.
grader, Orchlon International School, Paul’s Co-educational College),
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia). Corneliu MĂNESCU-AVRAM (Dept
of Math, Transportation High School,
Yes, we can try a=5,555,554,445 and
Ploiesti, Romania), Alice WONG
b=5,554,445,555 and c=4,445,555,555. (Diocesan Girls’ School) and
Then
ZOLBAYAR Shagdar (9th grader,
S(a+b)=S(11,110,000,000)=4, Orchlon International School,
S(b+c)=S(10,000,001,110)=4, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia).
S(c+a)=S(10,001,110,000)=4. Let (m,n) be the fundamental solution
Finally, (i.e. the least positive integer solution) of
S(a+b+c)=S(15,555,555,555)=51. the Pell’s equation x2 − py2 = 1 (see
Math Excal., vol. 6, no. 3, p.1). Then
Other commended solvers: Alice WONG
(Diocesan Girls’ School), Titu m2 − n2 ≡ m2 − pn2 = 1(mod 4).
ZVONARU (Comăneşti, Romania) and Then m is odd and n is even. Since
Neculai STANCIU (“George Emil 2
Palade’’ Secondary School, Buzău, m −1 m +1 ⎛n⎞
⋅ = p⎜ ⎟
Romania). 2 2 ⎝2⎠
Problem 392. Integers a0, a1, ⋯, an are all and (m−1)/2, (m+1)/2 are consecutive
greater than or equal to −1 and are not all integers (hence relatively prime), either
zeros. If
m −1 m +1
= pu 2 , = v 2 , n = 2uv
2 n
a0+2a1+2 a2+⋯+2 an = 0, 2 2
then prove that a0+a1+a2+⋯+an >0. or m − 1 = u 2 , m + 1 = pv 2 , n = 2uv
Solution. AN-anduud Problem Solving 2 2
Group (Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia), Kevin for some positive integers u and v. In
LAU (St. Paul’s Co-educational College, the former case, v2−pu2=1 with 0 < v ≤
S.3), Simon LEE (Carmel Alison Lam
v2 = (m+1)/2 < m and 0 < u = n/(2v) < n.
Foundation Secondary School), Harry NG
Ho Man (La Salle College, Form 5), This contradicts the minimality of
(m,n). So the latter case must hold, i.e.
SHUM Tsz Hin (City University of Hong
Kong), Alice WONG (Diocesan Girls’ u2−pv2 = −1.
School), ZOLBAYAR Shagdar (9th
grader, Orchlon International School, Problem 394. Let O and H be the
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia),Titu ZVONARU circumcenter and orthocenter of acute
(Comăneşti, Romania) and Neculai ΔABC. The bisector of ∠BAC meets
STANCIU (“George Emil Palade’’ the circumcircle Γ of ΔABC at D. Let
Secondary School, Buzău, Romania). E be the mirror image of D with respect
to line BC. Let F be on Γ such that DF
For all the conditions to hold, n ≠ 0. We will
is a diameter. Let lines AE and FH meet
prove by mathematical induction. For n=1,
at G. Let M be the midpoint of side BC.
if a0+2a1=0, then the conditions on a0 and a1
Prove that GM⊥AF.
imply a0 is an even positive integer. So
a0+a1 = a0/2 > 0. Suppose the case n=k is Solution 1. AN-anduud Problem
true. For the case n=k+1, the given Solving Group (Ulaanbaatar,
equation implies a0 is even, hence a0 ≥ 0. Mongolia), Kevin LAU (St. Paul’s
So a0=2b, with b a nonnegative integer. Co-educational College, S.3),
Then dividing the equation by 2 on both MANOLOUDIS Apostolos (4° Lyk.
sides, we get that (b+a1)+2a2+⋯+2kak+1 = Korydallos, Piraeus, Greece), Mihai
0. From the cases n=k and n=1 (in cases STOENESCU (Bischwiller, France),
a2=⋯=ak+1=0), we get a0+a1+a2+⋯+an ≥ ZOLBAYAR Shagdar (9th grader,
(b+a1)+a2+⋯+an > 0, ending the induction. Orchlon International School,
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia), Titu
Problem 393. Let p be a prime number ZVONARU (Comăneşti, Romania)
and p ≡ 1 (mod 4). Prove that there exist and Neculai STANCIU (“George Emil
integers x and y such that Palade’’ Secondary School, Buzău,
Romania).
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 17, No. 1, May-Aug. 12
F
A (Carmel Alison Lam Foundation Secondary
G
O
E H
M particular moment, each frog will jump to
B C
D X
As AD bisects ∠BAC, D is the
midpoint of arc BC. Hence, FD is the
perpendicular bisector of BC. Thus, (1)
FE || AH. Let line AH meet Γ again at X.
Since
∠BCX=∠BAX=90°−∠ABC=∠BCH,
H is the mirror image of X with respect
to BC. Therefore, ∠HED=∠XDE=
∠AFE. Thus, (2) AF || HE. By (1) and
(2), AFEH is a parallelogram. Hence,
G is the midpoint of AE. As M is also
the midpoint of DE, we get GM || AD.
Since DF is the diameter of Γ, AD⊥AF,
hence GM⊥AF.
Solution 2. Andy LOO (St. Paul’s
Co-educational College).
Place the figure on the complex plane
and let the circumcircle of ΔABC be
the unit circle centered at the origin.
Denote the complex number
representing each point by the
respective lower-case letter. Without
loss of generality we may assume a = 1
and that the points A, B and C lie on the
circle in anticlockwise order. Let b =u2
and c=v2, where |u|=|v|=1. Then d=uv
and hence f =−uv. Next, E is the mirror
image of D with respect to BC means
e−b ⎛ d −b ⎞ ,
=⎜ ⎟ equality holds:
c−b ⎝ c−b ⎠
giving e = u2 − uv + v2. By the Euler
line theorem, h=a+b+c=1+u2+v2.Now
G on lines AE and FH means
g − a g − a and g − f g − f .
= =
e−a e −a h− f h − f
Solving these simultaneously for G, we
get g = (u2−uv+v2+1)/2. Also, m =
(b+c)/2 = (u2+v2)/2.
To show GM⊥AF, it suffices to prove
that (m−g)/(f−a) is an imaginary
number. Indeed, m − g = 1 ⋅ 1 − uv and
f −a 2 1 + uv
1 1
⎛ m − g ⎞ 1 1 − u ⋅ v 1 uv − 1 m−g
⎜ ⎟= ⋅ = ⋅ =−
⎝ f − a ⎠ 2 1 + 1 ⋅ 1 2 uv + 1 f −a
u v
as desired.
Other commended solvers: Simon LEE
School), and Alice WONG (Diocesan
Girls’ School).
Problem 395. One frog is placed on every
vertex of a 2n-sided regular polygon,
where n is an integer at least 2. At a
one of the two neighboring vertices (with
more than one frog at a vertex allowed).
Find all n such that there exists a jumping
of these frogs so that after the moment, all
lines connecting two frogs at different
vertices do not pass through the center of
the polygon.
Solution. Kevin LAU (St. Paul’s
Co-educational College, S.3), Simon LEE
(Carmel Alison Lam Foundation Secondary
School), LI Jianhui (CNEC Christian
College, F.5) and Andy LOO (St. Paul’s
Co-educational College).
If n ≡ 2 (mod 4), say n=4k+2, then label
the 2n=8k+4 vertices from 1 to 8k+4 in
clockwise direction. For j ≡ 1 or 2 (mod 4),
let the frog at vertex j jump in the
clockwise direction. For j ≡ 3 or 4 (mod 4),
let the frog at vertex j jump in the
counter-clockwise direction. After the
jump, the frogs are at vertices 2, 6, …,
8k+2 and 3,7, …, 8k+3. No two of these
vertex numbers have a difference of the
form 2 (mod 4). So no line through two
different vertices with frogs will go
through the center.
If n ≢2 (mod 4), then assume there is such
a jump. We may exclude the cases all
frogs jump clockwise or all frogs jump
counter-clockwise, which clearly do not
work. Hence, in this jump, there is a frog,
say at vertex i, jumps in the
counter-clockwise direction, then the frog
at vertex i+m(n−2) (mod 2n) must jump
in the same direction as the frog at vertex i
for m=1,2,….
If n is odd, then gcd(n−2,2n) = 1. So there
are integers a and b such that a(n−2) +
b(2n) = 1. For every integer q in [1,2n],
letting m = (q−i)a, we have i+m(n−2) ≡ q
(mod 2n). This means all frogs jump in the
counter-clockwise direction, which does
not work.
If n is divisible by 4, then gcd(n−2,2n) = 2.
So there are integers c and d such that
c(n−2)+d(2n)=2. Letting m=nc/2, we
have i+m(n−2)≡i+n (mod 2n). Then frogs
at vertices i and i+n jump in the
counter-clockwise direction and the line
after the jump passes through the center,
contradiction.
Page 4
Therefore, the answer is n ≡ 2 (mod 4).
Other commended solvers: Alice
WONG (Diocesan Girls’ School).
Olympiad Corner
(continued from page 1)
Problem 3. (Cont.) At the start of the
game A chooses integers x and N with
1≤x≤N. Player A keeps x secret, and
truthfully tells N to B. Player B now
tries to obtain information about x by
asking player A questions as follows:
each question consists of B specifying
an arbitrary set S of positive integers
(possibly one specified in some
previous question), and asking A
whether x belongs to S. Player B may
ask as many such questions as he
wishes. After each question, player A
must immediately answer it with yes or
no, but is allowed to lie as many times
as she wants; the only restriction is that,
among any k + 1 consecutive answers,
at least one answer must be truthful.
After B has asked as many questions
as he wants, he must specify a set X of
at most n positive integers. If x belongs
to X, then B wins; otherwise, he loses.
Prove that:
1. If n ≥2k, then B can guarantee a win.
2. For all sufficiently large k, there
exists an integer n ≥1.99k such that B
cannot guarantee a win.
Problem 4. Find all functions f: Z → Z
such that, for all integers a, b, c that
satisfy a+b+c=0, the following
f (a)2 + f (b)2 + f (c)2
= 2f (a) f (b) + 2f (b) f (c) + 2f (c) f (a).
(Here Z denotes the set of integers.)
Problem 5. Let ABC be a triangle with
∠BCA = 90°, and let D be the foot of
the altitude from C. Let X be a point in
the interior of the segment CD. Let K
be the point on the segment AX such
that BK=BC. Similarly, let L be the
point on the segment BX such that
AL=AC. Let M be the point of
intersection of AL and BK. Show that
MK=ML.
Problem 6. Find all positive integers n
for which there exist non-negative
integers a1,a2,…,an such that
1 1 1 1 2 n
a1
+ a2 + ... + an = a1 + a2 + ... + an = 1.
2 2 2 3 3 3
Volume 17, Number 2
Olympiad Corner
Below are the problems of the 2012
IMO Team Selection Test 1 from
Saudi Arabia.
Problem 1. In triangle ABC, points D
and E lie on sides BC and AC
respectively such that AD⊥BC and
DE⊥AC. The circumcircle of triangle
ABD meets segment BE at point F
(other than B). Ray AF meets segment
DE at point P. Prove that DP/PE =
CD/DB.
Problem 2. In an n×n board, the
numbers 0 through n2−1 are written so
that the number in row i and column j is
equal to (i−1)+n(j−1) where 1≤i,j ≤n.
Suppose we select n different cells of
the board, where no two cells are in the
same row or column. Find the
maximum possible product of the
numbers in the n cells.
Problem 3. Let ℚ be the set of rational
numbers. Find all functions f :ℚ→ℚ
such that for all rational numbers x,y,
f (f (x)+ x f (y)) = x + f (x) y.
Problem 4. Find all pairs of prime
numbers p, q such that p2−p−1 = q3.
Editors: 張 百 康 (CHEUNG Pak-Hong), Munsang College, HK
高 子 眉 (KO Tsz-Mei)
梁 達 榮 (LEUNG Tat-Wing)
李 健 賢 (LI Kin-Yin), Dept. of Math., HKUST
吳 鏡 波 (NG Keng-Po Roger), ITC, HKPU
Artist: 楊 秀 英 (YEUNG Sau-Ying Camille), MFA, CU
Acknowledgment: Thanks to Elina Chiu, Math. Dept.,
HKUST for general assistance.
On-line:
http://www.math.ust.hk/mathematical_excalibur/
The editors welcome contributions from all teachers and
students. With your submission, please include your name,
address, school, email, telephone and fax numbers (if
available). Electronic submissions, especially in MS Word,
are encouraged. The deadline for receiving material for the
next issue is November 20, 2012.
For individual subscription for the next five issues for the
09-10 academic year, send us five stamped self-addressed
envelopes. Send all correspondence to:
Dr. Kin-Yin LI, Math Dept., Hong Kong Univ. of Science
and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Fax: (852) 2358 1643
Email: makyli@ust.hk
© Department of Mathematics, The Hong Kong University
of Science and Technology
IMO 2012 (Member Perspective)
Andy Loo
This year’s International Mathematical
Olympiad (IMO) has been of
considerable significance to Hong
Kong. At the 1997 IMO held in Mar del
Plata, Argentina, shortly after our
official transfer of sovereignty, the
Hong Kong delegation accomplished
the special mission of elucidating
Article 149 of its Basic Law in light of
Annex I of the Sino-British Joint
Declaration, thereby consolidating the
legitimacy of its participation in the
IMO. This July, following the 15th
anniversary of the establishment of the
Special Administrative Region, this
annual event returns to Argentina, in
exactly the same city as last time’s. In
addition to battling in the examination
hall, the Hong Kong team was endowed
with the invigorating task of bringing
the IMO to Hong Kong again in 2016.
Joined by 542 young brains from 99
countries, the Hong Kong team
comprised the following personnel: Dr.
Leung Tat Wing (leader), Mr. Leung
Chit Wan (deputy leader) and the team
members were Kevin Lau Chun Ting
(St. Paul’s Co-educational College),
Andy Loo (St. Paul’s Co-educational
College), Albert Li Yau Wing (Ying
Wah College), Jimmy Chow Chi Hong
(Bishop Hall Jubilee School), Kung
Man Kit (SKH Lam Woo Memorial
Secondary School) and Alice Wong Sze
Nga (Diocesan Girls’ School).
This contest bestows certain personal
touch upon me, for it not only marks my
unprecedented landing on the continent
of South America, but is also my first
and, in all probability, my last IMO, an
ultimate platform for me to display my
years of Mathematical Olympiad
endeavor in my high school career.
Having represented Hong Kong at both
the International Physics Olympiad
(IPhO) and the IMO is a great
responsibility which I feel extremely
grateful to have had the unique chance
to shoulder.
October 2012
July 7 and 8 Our flights from Hong
Kong to Frankfurt and from Frankfurt to
Buenos Aires, each over 12 hours long,
were predominantly occupied by sleep
and math exercises, considering the
disappointing fact that our planes turned
out to be two of the very few
Boeing-74748 models of Lufthansa that
lack in-flight entertainment systems.
Our amazement at a German flight
attendant, who spoke more than fluent
Mandarin Chinese, as well as a cozy
conversation with a Slovakian neighbor,
highlighted the otherwise uneventful
journey.
We arrived at the Argentinean capital
city early in the morning of July 8 (in
winter!), and, after being transported to
the domestic airport, employed a time-
consuming conglomeration of Google
Translate effort and sign language to
manage to purchase a couple of SIM
cards at a tiny store, where the
shopkeeper knew literally no English.
A Maradona-like bus driver kindly
offering us a free ride, we embarked on
a tour around the city and enjoyed a
beef-dominated meal before returning
to the airport in the late afternoon to
catch our flight to Mar del Plata, on
which I, being absolutely exhausted,
slept from the first to the last minute.
July 9 The major event of this day was
the Opening Ceremony. It was held in
the Radio City. I met British team
member Josh Lam and congratulated
him on his mother’s recent promotion to
Chief Secretary of Hong Kong. If I
were to describe the entire ceremony in
one word it would definitely be
“Spanish”. Almost all the speeches
were delivered in Spanish, albeit
accompanied by English interpretation.
To most, the more exciting parts of the
ceremony included the IMO anthem, the
parade of nations and the distant waves
from the leaders, who were forbidden to
communicate with us before the contest
as they took part in problem selection.
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 17, No. 2, Oct. 12
July 10 On this first day of the contest,
we had 3 problems to solve in 4.5 hours.
Because questions could only be raised
in the first 30 minutes, I had to
understand all the problems quickly.
Problem 1 Given triangle ABC the
point J is the center of the excircle
opposite the vertex A. This excircle is
tangent to the side BC at M, and to the
lines AB and AC at K and L,
respectively. The lines LM and BJ meet
at F, and the lines KM and CJ meet at G.
Let S be the point of intersection of the
lines AF and BC, and let T be the point
of intersection of the lines AG and BC.
Prove that M is the midpoint of ST.
I decided to use my favorite method –
complex numbers. Indeed, denote the
complex number representing each
point by the corresponding small letter.
Setting j=0 and m=1, I found s=2k/(k+l)
and t=2l/(k+l) after a straightforward
computation, and the result followed.
Problem 2 Let n ≥ 3 be an integer, and
let a2,a3,…,an be positive real numbers
such that a2a3⋯an =1. Prove that
(1+a2)2(1+a3)3⋯(1+an)n > nn.
Inequalities were once among the
hottest topics on the IMO but totally
disappeared in the last three years due
to the rising popularity of brute force
techniques, e.g. Muirhead’s inequality
and Schur’s inequality. But my firm
belief in the revival of inequalities has
never been shaken, and instead was
only strengthened by Problem 5 of
APMO 2012. Consequently I had done
appreciable preparation in this area
before the Olympiad.
In IMO history, this problem was quite
unique. For one, it is an n-variable
inequality. For the other, it has no
equality case. Both features are
unparalleled according to my memory.
I spent about an hour attempting to
solve the problem using induction or
analysis, with no avail. In despair, I
took logarithm and applied Jensen’s
inequality by appealing to concavity of
the log function. Miraculously, it gave
precisely the inequality in the problem!
After checking that equality case
cannot satisfy the condition a2a3⋯an
=1, I was basically done.
Then on a second thought, I realized
that I could actually convert my proof
into a logarithm-free one that involves
the AM-GM inequality only. So I
rewrote my solution in this new form
and marked the original as an alternative
solution. It turned out that Alice was also
able to solve this problem with the
AM-GM inequality.
Problem 3 The liar’s guessing game is a
game played between two players A and B.
The rules of the game depend on two
positive integers k and n which are known
to both players.
At the start of the game A chooses integers
x and N with 1≤x≤N. Player A keeps x
secret, and truthfully tells N to B. Player B
now tries to obtain information about x by
asking player A questions as follows: each
question consists of B specifying an
arbitrary set S of positive integers
(possibly one specified in some previous
question), and asking A whether x belongs
to S. Player B may ask as many such
questions as he wishes. After each
question, player A must immediately
answer it with yes or no, but is allowed to
lie as many times as she wants; the only
restriction is that, among any k+1
consecutive answers, at least one answer
must be truthful.
After B has asked as many questions as he
wants, he must specify a set X of at most n
positive integers. If x belongs to X, then B
wins; otherwise, he loses. Prove that:
1. If n ≥ 2k, then B can guarantee a win.
2. For all sufficiently large k, there exists
an integer n ≥1.99k such that B cannot
guarantee a win.
This problem was not only long, but also
terribly difficult. In the end, only 8
contestants managed to solve it. Despite
my effort, the only thing I was able to do
was proving the k = 1 case in Part 1, with
the hope of getting slim partial credits.
Finally Day 1 of the contest was over.
Our team aced Problem 1. As for Problem
2, Alice and I should be able to get 7’s
while Albert’s partial analytic solution
would be subject to vigorous debate. Kit
also finished the k = 1 case in Part 1 of
Problem 3. Overall I was satisfied with
my performance on Day 1.
July 11 The six IMO problems are
usually partitioned into the four categories
(algebra, combinatorics, geometry and
number theory) in the fashion of {1,5},
{2,4}, {3} and {6} (up to permutation).
Judging from this pattern I would face an
easy algebraic problem, an intermediate
geometric problem and a hard number
theoretic problem on Day 2. I figured that
I would plausibly get a Gold medal for
solving two of them, a Silver medal for
one and a Bronze medal for none. My
strategy was to guarantee Problem 4 and
Page 2
then aim to get Problem 5 by hook or
by crook.
To my astonishment, Problem 4 was
much more involved than I had
expected. On the other hand I felt I
could do Problem 5 with analytic tools:
Problem 5 Let ABC be a triangle with
∠BCA = 90°, and let D be the foot of
the altitude from C. Let X be a point in
the interior of the segment CD. Let K
be the point on the segment AX such
that BK=BC. Let L be the point on the
segment BX such that AL=AC. Let M
be the point of intersection of AL and
BK. Show that MK=ML.
I proceeded to do coordinate geometry,
only to find out I was doomed after
almost one hour. The reason was as
follows. The expressions were
quadratic in nature (as lengths took part
in the formulation of the problem),
leading to the prevalence of square
roots. (As a side note, this also deterred
me from using complex numbers,
where one may have difficulty in
selecting the correct roots of the
quadratic equations.)
As the old Chinese saying goes, one
should “drop his cleaver and become a
Buddha (放下屠刀，立地成佛)”. I
decided to abandon Problem 5 for a
moment and to reconsider Problem 4:
Problem 4 Find all functions f: Z → Z
such that, for all integers a, b, c that
satisfy a + b + c = 0, the following
equality holds:
f (a)2 + f (b)2 + f (c)2
= 2f (a) f (b) + 2f (b) f (c) + 2f (c) f (a).
(Here Z denotes the set of integers.)
This was a problem with unusual
answers. It took me quite a while to
write up a tidy solution and to ensure
that no point could sneak away from
my hands. Thus it was 2.5 hours into
Day 2. I still had Problems 5 and 6 left.
Problem 6 Find all positive integers n
for which there exist non-negative
integers a1,a2,…,an such that
1 1 1 1 2 n
+ + ... + an = a1 + a2 + ... + an = 1.
2a1 2a2 2 3 3 3
I quickly determined that Problem 6
was hopeless. Turning to Problem 5
again, I spent all the remaining time
expanding everything. I was finally
able to convince myself that my proof
was complete.
(continued on page 4)
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 17, No. 2, Oct. 12
Problem Corner
We welcome readers to submit their
solutions to the problems posed below
for publication consideration. The
solutions should be preceded by the
solver’s name, home (or email) address
and school affiliation. Please send
submissions to Dr. Kin Y. Li,
Department of Mathematics, The Hong
Kong University of Science &
Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon,
Hong Kong. The deadline for sending
solutions is November 20, 2012.
Problem 401. Suppose all faces of a
convex polyhedron are parallelograms.
Can it have exactly 2012 faces? Please
provide an explanation to your answer.
Problem 402. Let S be a 30 element
subset of {1,2,…,2012} such that every
pair of elements in S are relatively
prime. Prove that at least half of the
elements of S are prime numbers.
Problem 403. On the coordinate plane,
1000 points are randomly chosen.
Prove that there exists a way of
coloring each of the points either red or
blue (but not both) so that on every line
parallel to the x-axis or y-axis, the
number of red points minus the number
of blue points is equal to −1, 0 or 1.
Problem 404. Let I be the incenter of
acute ∆ABC. Let Γ be a circle with
center I that lies inside ∆ABC. D, E, F
are the intersection points of circle Γ
with the perpendicular rays from I to
sides BC, CA, AB respectively. Prove
that lines AD, BE, CF are concurrent.
Problem 405. Determine all functions
f,g: (0,+∞) → (0,+∞) such that for all
positive number x, we have
x x
f ( g( x)) = and g( f ( x)) =
xf ( x) − 2 xg( x) − 2
*****************
Solutions
****************
Problem 396. Determine (with proof)
all functions f : ℝ→ℝ such that for all
real numbers x and y, we have
f (x2 + xy + f (y)) = (f(x))2 + xf(y) + y.
Solution. AN-anduud Problem
Solving Group (Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia), CHEUNG Ka Wai
(Munsang College (Hong Kong
Island)), CHEUNG Wai Lam (Queen
Elizabeth School), Dusan
DROBNJAK (Mathematical Grammar
School, Belgrade, Serbia), Kevin LAU
(St. Paul’s Co-educational College, S.4),
Simon LEE (Carmel Alison Lam
Foundation Secondary School),
Mohammad Reza SATOURI (Persian
Gulf University, Bushehr, Iran) and
Maksim STOKIĆ (Mathematical
Grammar School, Belgrade, Serbia).
Call the required equation (*). For x=0,
we get f(f(y))=y+f(0)2 for all y. Call this
(**). The right side may be any real
number, hence f is surjective. By (**), y =
f(f(y))− f(0)2 . If f(y) = f(y’), then the last
equation implies y=y’, i.e. f is injective.
Putting x=−y in (*), we get f(f(y)) =
(f(−y))2−yf(y)+y for all y. Call this (***).
Now f surjective implies there exists z
such that f(z)=0. Let x=y=z, then (*)
yields f(2z2)=z. Putting (x,y)=(0,2z2) in (*),
we get 0=2z2+f(0)2. Then z=0 and f(0)=0.
So (**) reduces to f(f(y))=y for all y.
Putting y = 0 in (*), since f(0) = 0, we get
f(x2) = (f(x))2. The last two sentences
reduce (***) to y = (f(y))2−yf(y)+y. This
simplifies to f(y) = 0 or f(y) = y for every y.
Since f is injective and f(0) = 0, we get f(y)
= y for all y. Conversely, a quick check
shows f(y) = y for all y satisfies (*).
Other commended solvers: Tobi
MOEKTIJONO (National University of
Singapore).
Problem 397. Suppose in some set of 133
distinct positive integers, there are at least
799 pairs of relatively prime integers.
Prove that there exist a,b,c,d in the set
such that gcd(a,b) = gcd(b,c) = gcd(c,d) =
gcd(d,a) = 1.
Solution. CHEUNG Ka Wai (Munsang
College (Hong Kong Island)), Dusan
DROBNJAK (Mathematical Grammar
School, Belgrade, Serbia), Kevin LAU
(St. Paul’s Co-educational College, S.4),
Simon LEE (Carmel Alison Lam
Foundation Secondary School), Andy
LOO (Princeton University), Tobi
.
MOEKTIJONO (National University of
Singapore) and Maksim STOKIĆ
(Mathematical Grammar School,
Belgrade, Serbia).
Let S={n1, n2,…,n133} be the set of these 133
positive integers. From i=1 to 133, let Xi be
the set of all nk in S such that k≠i and
gcd(ni,nk)=1. Denote by |X| the number of
elements in set X. For k≠i, gcd(ni,nk)=1
implies ni∈Xk and nk∈Xi. Then N = |X1| +
|X2| + ⋯ + |X133| ≥ 2×799 = 1598.
Define f(x) = x(x−1)/2. In a set X with j
elements, there are exactly j(j−1)/2 = f(|X|)
pairs of distinct elements. Since f(x) is
concave on ℝ, by Jensen’s inequality,
Page 3
133
⎛ N ⎞ ⎛ 1598 ⎞
∑ f (| X
i =1
i |) ≥ 133 f ⎜ ⎟ ≥ 133 f ⎜
⎝ 133 ⎠ ⎝ 133 ⎠
⎟
> 133 f (12) = f (133) = f(|S|).
Since every pair of distinct element in
Xi is also a pair of distinct element in S,
the inequality above implies in
counting pairs of distinct elements in
the Xi’s, there are repetitions, i.e. there
are Xi, Xk with i≠k sharing a common
pair of distinct elements a,c. Let b=ni
and d=nk. Then a,b,c,d satisfy gcd(a,b)
= gcd(b,c) = gcd(c,d) = gcd(d,a) = 1.
Problem 398. Let k be positive integer
and m an odd integer. Show that there
exists a positive integer n for which the
number nn−m is divisible by 2k.
Solution. AN-anduud Problem
Solving Group (Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia), Dusan DROBNJAK
(Mathematical Grammar School,
Belgrade, Serbia), KWAN Chung
Hang (Sir Ellis Kadoorie Secondary
School (West Kowloon)), Kevin LAU
(St. Paul’s Co-educational College,
S.3), Simon LEE (Carmel Alison Lam
Foundation Secondary School), Andy
LOO (Princeton University), Tobi
MOEKTIJONO (National University
of Singapore) and Maksim STOKIĆ
(Mathematical Grammar School,
Belgrade, Serbia).
For k=1, let n=1. Suppose it is true for
case k (i.e. there exists n such that 2k |
nn−m). Now m odd implies n odd. For
case k+1, if 2k+1 | nn−m, then the same n
works for k+1. Otherwise, nn−m=2kl
for some odd integer l. Let v=2k. By
binomial theorem,
(n+v)n+v = nn+v+(n+v)nn+v−1v+v2x
= nn+v+vnn+v+v2y
for some integers x,y. By Euler’s
theorem, since n is odd and φ(2k+1)=2k,
k
n v = n 2 ≡ 1 (mod 2 k +1 ).
Since l+nn is even, we have
(n+v)n+v = nn+v+vnn+v+v2y
≡ nn+2knn = m+2k(l+nn)
≡ m (mod 2k+1).
So n+v works for k+1.
Problem 399. Let ABC be a triangle
for which ∠BAC=60°. Let P be the
point of intersection of the bisector of
∠ABC and the side AC. Let Q be the
point of intersection of the bisector of
∠ACB and the side AB. Let r1 and r2 be
the radii of the incircles of triangles
ABC and APQ respectively. Find the
radius of the circumcircle of triangle
APQ in terms of r1 and r2 with proof.
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 17, No. 2, Oct. 12
Solution. Dusan DROBNJAK
(Mathematical Grammar School,
Belgrade, Serbia), Kevin LAU (St.
Paul’s Co-educational College, S.4),
Andy LOO (Princeton University),
MANOLOUDIS Apostolos (4° Lyk.
Korydallos, Piraeus, Greece), Tobi
MOEKTIJONO (National University
of Singapore) and Maksim STOKIĆ
(Mathematical Grammar School,
Belgrade, Serbia).
A
F some (not necessarily positive) divisor of
E k. Since P(ti)’s are distinct, so the ti’s are
S P
Q distinct. Hence, ti=1/di for at most as
I So there must exist a divisor d of k such
B C
Let I and S be the incenters of ΔABC
and ΔAPQ respectively. (Note A,S,I
are on the bisector of ∠BAC.) Now
∠PIQ =∠CIB = 180°−(∠CBI +∠BCI)
= 180°− ½(∠CBA+∠BCA) = 120°
using ∠BAC=60°. So APIQ is cyclic.
Applying sine law to ΔAPI, we get
IP/(sin∠IAP) = 2R. So R = IP. By a
well-known property of incenter, we
have IP=IS (see vol.11, no.2, p.1 of
Math Excal.). Let the incircles of
ΔABC and ΔAPQ touch AC at E and F
respectively. Then R=IP=IS = AI−AS
= IE/sin30°−SF/sin30° = 2r1−2r2.
Other commended solvers:
AN-anduud Problem Solving Group
(Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia), Ioan Viorel
CODREANU (Secondary School
Satulung, Maramure, Romania), Simon
LEE (Carmel Alison Lam Foundation
Sec. School) and Mihai STOENESCU
(Bischwiller, France).
Problem 400. Determine (with proof)
all the polynomials P(x) with real
coefficients such that for every rational
number r, the equation P(x) = r has a
rational solution.
Solution. Tobi MOEKTIJONO
(National University of Singapore),
Maksim STOKIĆ (Mathematical
Grammar School, Belgrade, Serbia)
and TAM Ka Yu (MIT).
We will show P(x) satisfies the desired
condition if and only if P(x)=ax+b,
where a,b ∈ℚ and a ≠ 0. For the if-part,
P(x) = r ∈ℚ implies x = (r−b)/a ∈ℚ.
Conversely, let P(x) satisfy the desired
condition and let n=deg P. For each r =
0,1,…, n, let P(xr)=r for some xr∈ℚ.
By the Lagrange interpolation formula,
n ⎛
x − xi ⎞
P( x) = ∑ ⎜⎜ r ∏ ⎟.
⎟ 4 for not having verified the feasibility of
r = 0 ⎝ 0 ≤ r ≤ n , r ≠ i xr − xi ⎠
Expanding the right side, we see P(x)
has rational coefficients.
Letting M be the product of the
denominators, we see Q(x)=MP(x) has
integer coefficients. Let k be the leading
coefficient of Q(x) and c be the constant
term of P(x). Let p1, p2, p3, … be the
sequence of prime numbers. Let
P(x)=c+pi/M has solution ti∈ℚ. Then
Q(x)−(cM+pi) has k as the leading
coefficient and −pi as constant term. Now
Q(ti)=0, which implies ti=1/di or pi∕di for
many time as the number of divisors of k.
that there are infinitely many times ti=pi∕d.
This imply that P(x)−(c+dx/M)=0 has
infinitely many solutions. So the left side
is the zero polynomial. Then P(x)=ax+b
with a=d/M≠0 and b=c rational.
Other commended solvers: Simon LEE
(Carmel Alison Lam Foundation Secondary
School).
IMO 2012 (Member Perspective)
(continued from page 2)
The arrival of Dr. Leung stirred up much
happiness after the contest. We reported
on how we did. Albert and Jimmy shone
on Day 2, solving Problems 4 and 5. Kit
was also comfortable with Problem 4
while Kevin had some technical troubles
in one particular case. Nobody achieved
anything substantial on Problem 6.
We celebrated that evening at a Chinese
restaurant. It was especially memorable
that our deputy leader raised a couplet (對
聯), which he regarded as an open puzzle
for millenniums (千古絕對):
望江樓，望江流
望江樓上望江流
江樓千古，江流千古
It took me nearly an hour to come up with
a so-so solution:
觀雨亭，觀雨停
觀雨亭下觀雨停
雨亭四方，雨停四方
July 12 It was the contestants’ turn to
have fun and the leaders’ turn to work
hard. At night, Dr. Leung briefed us on the
progress of the first day of coordination.
In addition to our previous expectations,
Albert pocketed one point for proving the
necessary condition on Problem 6.
Regretfully, Kit lost one point on Problem
the functions obtained. Dr. Leung had
refused to sign Alice’s and Kevin’s scores
on Problem 4 in order to bargain later.
Page 4
July 13 The marking scheme
stipulated that any solution of Problem
5 with coordinate geometry would
score a 0 if not a 7. Despite our leaders’
relentless effort, the coordinators were
able to detect a fatal error of mine. So
my Problem 5 was destined to be a 0.
On another note, Dr. Leung succeeded
in getting 1 point for Alice on Problem
4, which in his words was “an
achievement”. Kevin’s Problem 4 was
finalized with a score of 4.
July 14 We got up early in the morning
to enjoy the sunrise scene at the seaside.
Kevin had a pitiful blunder. His shoes
and trousers were wetted by a sudden
strike of waves. That morning the last
coordination on Problem 2 was done.
Albert was awarded 3 marks for his
analytic struggle. The uncertainties of
our results then shifted from our actual
scores to the medal cutting scores.
We went shopping for souvenirs in the
afternoon and as soon as we got back to
the hotel, I learned from the Chinese
leaders that the cutting scores for Gold,
Silver and Bronze Medals were 28, 21
and 14 respectively, all being multiples
of 7. I breathed a sigh of relief as my
Silver Medal was ultimately secure.
July 15 In the afternoon we had the
Closing Ceremony followed by a chain
of photo-taking. We won three Silver
Medals (Albert, Jimmy and me), one
Bronze Medal (Alice) and two
Honorable Mentions (Kit and Kevin).
July 16, 17 and 18 The six-hour bus
journey from Mar del Plata to Buenos
Aires passed rapidly in our dreams.
Then after a long flight, we were
finally home in one piece and me with
several bonus pimples.
In conclusion I shall stress one point –
succinctly but with all the strength that
I command – one can never pay
sufficient tribute to our IMO trainers,
who have so selflessly devoted
countless hours of their own time to
Mathematical Olympiad over the years.
I can find no words to thank them the
way they truly deserve.
“Ask not what your country can do for
you; ask what you can do for your
country.” With this John F. Kennedy
exclamation I urge you all to support
the 2016 Hong Kong IMO by whatever
means you can, so that together we can
make it an all-time success.