Chapter-15

Sewage pumping stations

198
 SEWAGE PUMPING STATIONS
After collection the wastewater is disposed of into a water body, with or without treatment.
Since the outfall sewer is quite deep, hence, the wastewater is lifted, either to introduce it into a
wastewater treatment plant or the water body. This function is performed by a sewage pumping
station (PS). Following three situations necessitate the provision of sewage pumping station:

1. Continuation of gravity flow is no longer feasible and there is a need to raise

hydraulic grade line (HGL) of sewer. Such situation may arise in a big urban center.
The length of collection system is quite long. The sewer, after a certain distance
becomes deep enough. Therefore, it is not feasible to dig further deep. Thus, a
sewage PS is provided to lift HGL. Such a PS is referred as lift station. For
example, total length of sewer lines in Lahore is 3,508 Km and there are 82 lift
station in Lahore. The PS which discharges the wastewater into the water body is
referred to as disposal station (DS). In Lahore, there are 14 disposal stations
located at different points to dispose of the wastewater into the river Ravi. [1].

2. An obstacle lies in the path of sewer (e.g., river canal etc.). It is not possible to lay
gravity sewer. Hence, PS is provided to cross the obstacle by pumping sewage
through a force main, cross the obstacle, and again resume gravity flow.

3. Receiving water body is higher than the outfall sewer.

15.1 COMPONENTS OF SEWAGE PUMPING STATION

There may be either two or three components of a sewage pumping station. These are:
(a) Screens: The outfall sewer opens into the screening chamber. It is a masonry
chamber, with stainless-steel screens fixed in it. The purpose of screens is to screen
out large floating matter which can damage pump.
(b) Dry well (optional): It is only needed when centrifugal pumps are used, in which the
pump and pump controls (on-off system, switches etc) are installed in the dry well. For
submersible and cordon shaft pumps, dry wells are not needed. Thus, in latter case,
space and cost on civil structure of dry well may be saved.
In case of submersible pumps, the pump is placed at the bottom of wet well. Pump
controls (switches, on-off system) are installed in an operator room instead of dry well,
which takes much less space and cost as compared to dry well.

199
 (c) Wet well: Sewage, after passing through the screens enters into the wet well, from
where it is pumped either into another sewer, treatment plant or the water body.

15.2 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Following general design consideration are observed [2, 3].

1. More than one pump should be provided to cope with variable discharge, at small
pumping stations. A pump may work at maximum sewage flow and the other may
take care of the average flows. Both working together make take peak flow.

2. For larger pumping stations, more than two pumps must be used. One having
capacity to take average, second maximum flow and the third peak flow.

3. Stand by pump must be provided at the PS. Its capacity should be at least 50% of
peak sewage flow.

4. Alternate source of power must be provided at PS (either power from two feeders or
a diesel generator be provided).

5. If centrifugal pumps are used, these should be of self-priming type and operate under
positive suction head.

6. Each pump should have an independent intake.

7. Screens with 2-inch (50 mm) opening be provided at pump suction to avoid entrance
of large objects/particles in pumps, which may damage the pump.

8. Size of dry well (if used) should be sufficient to house pumping machinery.

9. Dry well (if used) be provided with sump pumps which are usually reciprocating type
to pump out sewage leaks in the dry well.

10. In case of centrifugal pumps, sluice valves must be provided at suction and delivery
side of the pump and a non-return valve at the delivery side.

11. Detention time in wet well should not be greater than 30 min (at average flow rate) to
avoid septic conditions.

15.3 TYPICAL DIAGRAMS SHOWING SECTION OF PUMPING STATION

Fig. 15.1 shows a typical drawing showing a pumping stations with dry well and centrifugal
pump. Outfall sewer enters the screening chamber. Normally, screening chamber are always in
duplicate. It helps to keep the pumping station operational if one screening chamber is closed for

200
cleaning or maintenance/repair. The screening chamber has a sluice gate. It is operated from the
top. It is used to open/close the flow to the screening chamber. Screens are installed at an angle
ranging from 45 to 60°. When clogged with screenings, these are usually manually cleaned with
the help of a rake. The screenings are wet and hence temporarily stored on a perforated platform
(Figure 15.4) provided with the upper end of the screen; these are allowed to dry before disposal.
Through a sewer pipe, screening chamber is connected to the wet well. The wet well can
be of two shapes: (1) circular if some part of lower portion of wet well is under water or (2)
rectangular if the water table is deep and all the wet well structure is in dry condition. The bottom
of screening chamber and wet wells are sealed with PCC or RCC 1:1.5:3 plug to avoid sewage
loss from the bottom. RCC 1:1.5:3 core wall is provided to avoid sewage loss in adjoining soil.
Especially in wet well, the RCC core wall is provided up to the height of sewage level in the wet
well. Walls of the screening chamber and the wet well are made of masonry over an RCC curb
with an angle iron cutting edge. RCC curb provides strong foundation to walls. In addition, it helps
in sinking of the wet well up to the desired depth (Fig. 15.1). A hand rail is provided at the top of
screening chamber and wet well for safety of persons around (avoid falling into screening
chamber or wet well).
At the bottom, the wet well is connected with the dry well using a cast iron/mild steel pipe.
A centrifugal pump is connected to the suction pipe. Pump always works under positive suction
head as shown in the figure. Hence priming is not required. It pumps the sewage to the final point
of disposal or a sump. The sump is connected with the help of a delivery pipe or sullage carrier
(drain) to the final point of disposal (water body).

Figure 15.1: Section of PS with dry well and centrifugal pump

201
 A simplified plan and section of wet well using submersible pump is shown in Fig. 15.2
and bit more detailed section of screening chamber and wet well, with submersible pump is shown
in Fig. 15.3.

Figure 15.2: Plan of a typical PS with submersible pump

202
 Figure 15.3: Section of a typical PS with a submersible pump

15.4 SCREENING CHAMBER

The purpose of screens is to remove large floating or suspended particles ( > 2 inch size).
It saves the pumping machinery, used in the sewage PS, from clogging and any damage.
Screens consist of parallel bars, rods, wire mesh or perforated plates. The opening may
be of any shape (generally rectangular). Mostly, bar screens or racks are used, in public
sewerage projects, which are either hand cleaned or mechanically cleaned. Opening between the
bars range from ½″ - 1½″ (10 mm to 40 mm) [4]. Wastewater, after passing through the screening
chamber enters the wet well. At least two screening chambers must be provided. This helps in
carrying out cleaning or repair, while still allowing sewage flow to the wet well. Penstock is a steel
gate, used to close flow to a screening chamber during routine cleaning/repair.
Floating or large particles, in sewage, are retained on the screens. After, some period,
cleaning of screening is required to allow smooth flow of sewage. Screen cleaning, may be
manual with the help of a cleaning device called rake (Fig. 15.4). A simplified plan and section of
the screening chamber has been shown in Fig. 15.4 and a photograph in Fig. 15.5.

203
 Figure 15.4: Line sketch of plan and section of screening chamber

Screen is designed on peak flow. Since no local design criteria (PHED or WASA) are
available for screen design, hence, for such cases, one may adopt the internationally
accepted/used design considerations. Design criteria adopted for screens are shown in Table
15.1 [5-7].
Table 15.1: Design criteria for manually cleaned bar screen
Width: 0.2 to 0.5 inch (5 mm to 10 mm)
Bar size
Depth: 1 to 2 inch (25 mm x 50 mm)

Spacing 0.5 to 1.5 inch (10 mm to 40 mm)

Angle from horizontal 45° to 60°
Maximum velocity through
1.5 to 3 ft/sec
screens
Maximum allowable head < 0.5 ft
losses through screen

The velocity through the screen must be maintained between the range shown in the
design criteria. Very low velocity would result in solids deposition in the screening chamber. While
high velocity may force the screenings to pass through. Bed slope of the chamber should be
adjusted to maintain the desired velocity in the chamber. Screen is kept inclined for easy cleaning.
Quantity of screenings removed by bar screen is 0.0000035 to 0.0000375 ft3/ ft3 of wastewater
treated (Typical value = 0.000015 ft3/ft3 of wastewater) [8]. The screenings are wet. These are
dried in open and disposed with solid waste.

204
Solved example

Design a screening chamber for a population of 100,000 persons with a water

consumption of 300 LPCD. Assume wastewater flow to be 80% of water consumption. Assume
necessary data.

Solution

.Follow the design criteria given in Table 15.1.

Adopt a bar size of 1 inch x 0.5 inch as shown below

1 inch

0.5 inch

.==,======.A
Average wastewater flow = =24,000 m3/day= 9.8 cusec (ft3/sec)
.===

Let peak factor= 2.5 (refer to Chapter-12; section 12.4)

Peak flow = 9.8 x 2.5
= 24.5 cusec
Therefore, design flow for screening chamber = 24.5 cusec
Adopted dimension of bar in bar screen= 0.5 (width) inch x 1 inch (depth)
Let angle of inclination = 45°
Let bar spacing = 1.5 inch
Let Inflow pipe diameter = 18 inch or 1.5 ft (450 mm); it has been assumed for this solved
example

205
Inflow pipe 18 in

0.5 ft
screens

Screening chamber

Assume that outfall sewer is flowing 80% full.

Therefore total depth of flow = 0.8x1.5+0.5= 1.7 ft
Let the velocity through bar rack = 3 ft/sec

—  3Z.

Clear area through screens =   8.166 ft2
‡~  

^ ˜  A..
Clear width of bar rack = ™    = 4.8 ft
..?

If space between bars is 1.5 inch, then total number of spaces for a clear width of
Z.A.3
opening of 4.8 ft =
..
 38.4 ≅ 38 spaces

1.5 inch

bar

No. of bars = no. of spaces -1

= 38-1
= 37
Total width of bars = No. of bar x width of one bar
= 37x0.5=18.5 inch = 1.54 ft

206
 Bars are fixed on an angle iron frame of size 6 inch x 6 inch x 1 inch

Bar (0.5 inch wide x 1.25 inch depth)

Angle Iron frame

(6x6x1)

1 inch

6 inch Angle Iron frame

(6x6x1)

6 inch

Width of 2 angle iron frames 6x6x1 on both sides of bar rack = 0.5x2= 1 ft
∴ Total width of bar rack = clear width of bars + width of bars + width of angle iron frame
on both sides
= 4.8 + 1.54 + 1 = 7.34 ft
Total width of two screen chamber= 7.34 x 2=14.68 ft
Both screening chambers are separated by a masonry or concrete wall of suitable
thickness, normally 13.4 inch.
Length of chamber upstream (u/s) of rack = 3 ft (say)
Rack length (horizontal) = 6 ft (actual length at 45° = 8.4 ft; using Pythagorean theorem)
Length of chamber down stream (d/s)of rack = 5 ft (say)

Total length of screening chamber = 3+6+5=14 ft

8.4 ft
6 ft

6 ft

Figure 15.5: Horizontal and inclined length of bar screen

207
 3ft u/s 6 ft 5 ft d/s

Design of screen is now final. Check for actual head losses, across the screen, using the
following expression [9].

. ˆ+6 %ˆ 6
head loss= \"   Equation 15.1
=.? 3
Vs = velocity through screen, ft/sec
V = approach velocity of sewage in the screening chamber (it is usually taken as the self-
cleansing velocity of sewage in the pipe; adopt 2.5 ft/sec)
g= 32.2 ft/sec2
Putting value in equation
1 33 − 2.53
\"  
0.7 2  32.2

= 0.06 ft (<0.5 ft; OK)

This completes the design of screening chamber.

15.5 DESIGN OF WET WELL

Design refers to finding the operating volume of the wet well. The volume of wet well
below the invert of pipe, coming from the screening chamber, that holds the sewage is referred
to as the operating volume of wet well. Rest of the portion above, remains dry (Fig.15.3).
A wet well has to fulfill two requirements

1. Pumps should not have to be started and stopped frequently to avoid over heating of
motors. Time between two successive startups of the pumps should be more than
minimum cycle time as given by pump manufacturer.
Minimum Cycle Time: 5 - 10 min for small pumps

15 – 20 min for large pumps

2. Detention time in wet well, at average flow, should not be more than 30 minutes to avoid
septic conditions.

208
 The concept of operating volume “V” of wet well is explained in Fig. 15.6. It is clear, that
some cushion for submersible pump submergence and invert of pipe from screening
chamber must be added to the operating depth of wet well.

Figure 15.6: Wet well and operating volume ‘V’

Derivation of the equation for finding the operative volume of wet well is given below [10,
11]. Let
Q = Wastewater flow in the well
P = Peak sewage flow (Pump discharge)
V = Operating volume of wet well
t = Cycle time given by pump manufacturer

Now,

Cycle Time = time on + Time off

To empty To fill

On Off On

Therefore, cycle time “t” may be written as

209
 t = Time to empty the wet well + Time to fill the wet well

But,
ˆ ˆ
 + Equation 15.2
%] ]
  [' − c*%. + [c %.

Differentiate w.r.t Q

›
 −1[' − c*%3 + '−1*  [c %3
›c

›
 0; ž Ÿ ¡ Ÿ¢Ÿ „£„8ƒ  Ÿƒ
›c

[ [
0 3
− 3
' − c* c

[ [
3
 3
' − c* c

(P-Q)2=Q2

P-Q = Q

Q=P/2

∴ t = tmin when Q = P/2

Thus, the minimum cycle time for single-pump operation occurs when the inflow is exactly
half the pump capacity. Under this condition, the on and off times are equal. The pump is on for
a longer time, and off for a shorter time for larger inflows and vice versa for smaller inflows. In
both cases, the cycle time is greater and hence frequent shut down and startup is not required.

Put Q = P/2 and t = tmin in equation 15.2

ˆ ˆ
∴   = x +
% 6 /3

ˆ ˆ
= x + x
6 6

210
 4[
  

Ÿ ¡
4
Operating volume of wet well = V =

Solved example

Design a wet well if the average sewage flow is 1.64 cusec (4000 m3/d) and peak sewage
flow is 5.7 cusec (14000 m3/d). The motor pump has a minimum cycle time of 20 min. Also check
the detention time to avoid septic conditions. If the invert of the incoming sewer, in the wet well,
is at a depth of 15 ft from the ground surface, and water table is at a depth of 14 ft, then find the
thickness of PCC (1:1.5:3) plug to be provided in the wet well.

Solution
¤$#
V=
Z
.?3==
=
Z

= 1710 ft3
Assume operating depth = 6 ft, find diameter of the wet well
In wet well drawing, add 2 ft for pump submergence and 1 ft cushion from the invert of
pipe discharging into the wet well depth
XY6
Volume = 6
Z
XY6
1710 = 6
Z
Diameter of wet well = 19 ft ; say 20 ft
Now for checking septic condition, find detention time at average flow
ˆ
Detention time =
˜‡    ']*
.?.=
=
..Z=
= 17.3 minutes (less than 30 min; OK)
Thickness of PCC (1:1.5:3) plug

Water Table Level = 14 Ft

Floor Level of wet well = 15+6=21 Ft

Water Column (L) = 21-14= 7 Ft

211
 If “X” is the plug thickness, then we may write

(L+X) x 62.4 = 144 X

Specific weight of water is 62.4 Lb/ft3 and specific weight of concrete is 144 Lb/ft3

(7+X) x 62.4 = 144 X

X = 5.3 ft

Sometimes, water table is quite high, and a portion of wet well is under water. Under such
conditions, RCC core wall is also provided in the wet well walls. It helps to stop surrounding water
coming into the wet well. Core wall is a must under above conditions

15.6 PUMPS FOR SEWAGE

For sewage pumping, special type of pumps are used. They are of three different types.

1. Centrifugal pumps: single suction, non-clogging type pumps are used. They have
impellers having 2 or 3 vanes. Pump suction pipe is usually larger than the discharge
pipe by about 25%. Discharge pipe, with pipe diameter smaller than 3 inch (75 mm)
and suction pipe with pipe smaller than 4 inch (100 mm) should not be used [2].
Particles of size up to 2 inch may pass from the pump.

2. Submersible pump: These are submerged in wastewater. These are also non-clogging
type with construction such that particles up to 2 inch may pass through the pump.
These are mostly used nowadays.

3. Cordon Shaft pumps: They may also be used.

Pump control

Manual start up and shut down of pumps has now become obsolete in the operation of
sewage PS. Nowadays, water sensors are employed; these sense the water level and
automatically switch on and off the pumps. These levels must be set in a way that the pump
should not run dry by keeping it in minimum submergence, nor wastewater level in wet well be
high enough to surcharge the contributing sewers [12]. All these requirements are decided by
the environmental engineer and conveyed to the pump supplier (through giving detailed
specifications/requirements in the bidding document).
Fig. 15.7 shows this setup. Four levels sensors are installed. When wastewater level rises
in the wet well and a particular sensor is submerged it sends the signal and the specified pump
is switched on. When wastewater level falls down and sensor is exposed, it sends signal to switch
off a specific pump. A minimum water levels is maintained in the wet well through the level sensor

212
installed at the lowest level. As soon as this sensor is exposed, no pump remains in operation
and this avoid dry running of the pump.

Figure 15.7: Planning for pump startup and shutdowns in a wet well

15.7 FORCE MAIN

Sometimes, the final point of disposal is located at some distance from the sewage
pumping station. In such cases, a pipe is laid from pumping station to the point of disposal. Such
pipes are referred to as force mains. The design of force main is essentially the same as that of
water transmission lines/rising mains.

Solved example on the force main

Consider the situation given in Fig. 15.8. A submersible lift station has to pump sewage to
a drain. The drain is located at a distance of 1000 ft from the lift station. The force main will
discharge sewage at an elevation of 250 ft. Pump discharge is 5 cusec. Use PVC pipe as force
main. Determine the (1) diameter of pipe required; (2) head of pump; (3) BHP of motor.

213
 Figure 15.8: Sketch for the design of force main
Solution

Step-1: Determine force main diameter

Q = 5 cusec
Adopt a velocity of 5 ft/sec in the force main (Ch-5; section 5.12). Velocity in transmission
line may be adopted between 2-5 ft/sec. Higher velocities will result in smaller diameter but more
head losses and higher pump heads. Thus, energy bills are more but there is saving in cost of
pipe. With lower velocities, bigger diameter pipes are needed making the cost of force main
higher. However, lower head pumps are needed due to less friction losses and energy bills are
lower. It must be kept in mind that pipe cost is a onetime cost, whereas energy bills is a recurring
cost that has to be paid throughout the design life of the pump. It may be a good proposal to find
out the life cycle cost, which is equal to the capital and energy cost of pump over the design
period. The pipe diameter that gives most feasible life-cycle cost may be adopted. It may also be
noted, that velocities less than 2.5 ft/sec may not be adopted for sewage as it may result in the
settlement of solids in the force main. Therefore, it is reasonable to adopt a velocity of 5 ft/sec for
the force main.
Q=AxV
Where:
Q = pump flow, cusec
A = Area of pipe, ft2
V = velocity of sewage, ft/sec
XY6
5= 5
Z

214
 D = 1.1 ft = 13.5 inch; adopt 14 inch dia
Note: Before adopting a diameter, ensure that the diameter is commercially available in
the market. For the purpose consult the pipe manufacturer brochures. Manufacturer website, if
available, may also contain the soft form of brochures that can be downloaded.

Step-2: Determine static head

To determine the static head, the maximum elevation difference the pump will need to
overcome must be identified. This will be when the water surface elevation in the wet well is at its
lowest, or just above pump’s off elevation. To be conservative, use the pump’s off elevation
Static head = 250-217=33 ft

Step-3: Determine friction/dynamic head

Use Hazen William equation

c 1.85 !
H=4.73 9 Π:  4.87 (FPS Version)
›

L = 1000 ft
Q = 5 cusec
C = 140 for PVC pipes
d = 14 inch = 1.166 ft

by substituting values, the friction/dynamic head comes out to be

H = 4.69 ft
Add 10% losses for bends, sharp turns etc = 0.469 ft
Total head losses = 5.16 ft

Step-4: Find total head losses with a terminal pressure of 7 ft at the discharge end of force
main for free flow of wastewater
Total head = Static head + Friction/dynamic head + 7 ft
= 33 + 5.16 + 7
= 45.16 ft ≅ 50 ft
Step-5: BHP of motor required

γ × Q× Η
BHP=
550×η
where γ = density of water = 62.4 Ib/ft3

215
 Q= discharge of pumpl, cusec
H= head of pump, ft
η = efficiency of motor ( 60% for electric motor, 40% for diesal engine)
62.4  5  50
b\ 
550  0.6
= 47.2 ≅ 50 (Always round off to next higher value, available in market)
The motors available in the market have BHP in the multiples of 5.

REFERENCES

1. Water and Sanitation Agency Lahore, (2015), Preparation of master plan for water supply,
sewerage and drainage system for Lahore: Volume IV – Sewage collection and disposal
system: Capacity analysis and operational framework requirements.

2. Water and Sanitation Agency Lahore, (1975), Final design criteria for phase-II
improvement program, Lahore Development Authority.

3. Government of Punjab, (2008), Technical and service delivery standards for water supply
and sanitation sectors.

4. P. A. Vesilind, (2003), Wastewate treatment plant design, IWA publishing, USA.

5. S. R. Qasim, (1998), Wastewater treatment plants: Planning, design, and operation, CRC
Press, Taylor and Francis, USA.

6. Environmental Protection Agency Ireland, (1995), Wastewater treatment manuals:

Preliminary treatment. Accessed on: 16-07-2017, Available on:
[https://www.epa.ie/pubs/advice/water/wastewater/EPA_water_treatment_manual_preli
minary.pdf]

7. M. L. Davis, (2010), Water and wastewater engineering: Design priciples and practice,
McGraw Hill Inc., USA.

8. Metcalf and Eddy Inc., (2004), Wastewater engineering: Treatment and reuse (4th
Edition), McGraw Hill Inc., USA.

9. K. M. Yao, (1972), Head drop across bar screens, Water Pollution Control Federation,
44(7): p. p. 1448-1452.

10. Water Pollution Control Federation (WPCF), (1995), Design of wastewater and storm‐
water pumping stations, Manual of Practice No. FD‐4.

11. Metcalf and Eddy Inc., (1989), Wastewater engineering: Collection and pumping of
wastewater, McGraw-Hill Inc. USA: p. 61.

216
12. Jenson Engineering System, (2012), Pump station design guidelines-2nd Edition.
Accessed on: 15-07-2017, Available on: [www.jensenengineeredsystems.com/.../Pump-
Station-Design-Guidelines-2nd-Edition....]

217
 Chapter-16

Design of storm sewers

218
 DESIGN OF STORM SEWERS
Storm sewers are meant for taking the runoff generated during a rainfall event. The first
step in the design of storm sewers, is the estimation of storm flow, that would enter a storm sewer.
Primary source of storm flow is rainfall. Rational Method is the most commonly used for estimation
of storm flows in urban and semi urban areas having large amount of impervious land [1].

16.1 ASSUMPTIONS AND LIMITATIONS OF RATIONAL METHOD

Use of the rational method includes the following assumptions and limitations [2]:
 The method is applicable if Tc (time of concentration) for the drainage area is less than
the duration of peak rainfall intensity (Tc is defined in next sections).
 Rainfall intensity is uniform throughout the duration of the storm (intensity is defined as
inches of rainfall per hour; inch/hr (mm/hr); more details ahead).
 The frequency of occurrence (return period) for the peak discharge is the same as the
frequency of the rainfall producing that event (more details ahead).
 Rainfall is distributed uniformly over the drainage area.
 The rational method does not account for storage (depressions, low areas etc.) in the
drainage area. Available storage is assumed to be filled.
The accuracy of rational method depends much on the correct selection of runoff
coefficient and delineation of catchment area. The above assumptions and limitations, are the
reasons, the rational method is limited to watersheds with 300 acre area or smaller [1]. Sometimes
rational method is used for up to 1300 acre drainage area [3].
For larger watersheds, rational method is not applicable because it does not give correct
results. Instead unit hydrograph method is used.

16.2 RATIONAL METHOD

The Rational Method is used to calculate the peak surface runoff rate for the design of
storm water management structures, like storm drains, storm sewers, and storm water detention
facilities. The data required for rational method are: (1) values for the runoff coefficient, (2) the
drainage area, (3) time of concentration, (4) intensity-duration-rainfall (IDF) curves and (4) design
return period. Detail discussion on all the above parameters is included in the following sub
sections.

Mathematically,
Q=CiA (Rational Formula) Equation 16.1

219
 Where;

Q = Amount of rainfall which appears as run-off, ft3/sec(m3/hr)

i = Intensity of rainfall, inch/hr (mm/hr). It is determined through Intensity-Duration-

Frequency (IDF) curves.

A = Area upon which the rain falls, Acre (m2)

C = Run off co-efficient i.e., the fraction of incident rainfall which appears as surface
flow. It is a function of soil type and drainage basin slope.

16.2.1 Drainage area (watershed area)

The drainage area (watershed area) is usually measured from the maps drawn on scale.
It includes all the area that may contribute to the storm sewer collection system under
consideration.

16.2.2 Runoff coefficient (C)

When the rain falls over a surface, a portion of it is absorbed and the rest appears as
sheet flow/runoff over the surface. The fraction of rainfall that appears as runoff is referred to as
runoff coefficient (C). Value of C for different land uses is shown in Table 16.1. The reader may
also adopt C values given in the PHED design criteria (see Chapter-13; section 13.19). Referring
to Table 16.1, the value of C for watertight roof has been shown as 0.7 to 0.95; thereby showing
that depending upon the roof surface, 70 to 95% of the rain fall appears as runoff.
Table 16.1: Value of C for different land uses [4]
Type of surface C value
Watertight roofs 0.7-0.95
Asphalt roads 0.85-0.90
Portland cement streets 0.8-0.95
Paved driveways and walks 0.75-0.85
Gravel driveways and walks 0.15-0.3
Lawns, sandy soil
2% slope 0.05-0.10
2-7% slope 0.10-0.15
< 7% slope 0.15-0.2
Lawns, sandy soil
2% slope 0.13-0.17
2-7% slope 0.18-0.22
< 7% slope 0.25-0.35

220
 If a given area has multiple land uses, then average weighted runoff co-efficient may be
calculated.

^5 ˜5 /^6 ˜6 /^¥ ˜¥
Average weighted runoff coefficient (C) =
∑˜

16.2.3 Time of concentration (Tc)

Definition: The time of concentration (Tc) is defined as the time taken by the runoff to
travel from the hydraulically most distant point in the drainage area to the point of reference
downstream. It may consist of time taken by sheet flow over the surface before the storm water
reaches a street inlet (inlet time). This travel requires measurable time and while the areas
immediately adjacent to the inlet will contribute flow quickly, areas which are distant will not.
Sometimes, Tc has two components; the time of sheet flow to reach a street inlet (inlet time) and
the time to flow in a storm sewer before the it reaches the reference point downstream (Fig 16.1).

Inlet Time

I1

Time of
flow in
sewer
I2

Figure 16.1: Concept diagram for inlet time and time of flow in storm sewer (I1; I2 are inlets)
The max rate of runoff for a given rainfall intensity will occur when the rainfall has
continued for a period sufficient to permit flow to reach the inlet from the most remote point of the
drainage area. Consider the rectangular watershed/drainage area shown in Fig. 16.2. The point
of reference, in this case is the inlet.

Rainfall for 5 min

10 min

15 min

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 5 min.

5 min.

5 min.

Inlet
Storm Sewer

Figure 16.2: A water shed/drainage area

From Fig. 16.2, it may be observed that if a rainfall event occurs for 5 minutes or 10
minutes, it will not produce a peak flow at reference point (inlet). Because, when flow from the
farthest point would reach reference point (in 15 minutes), the adjacent areas would not be
contributing runoff at that time. However, if a rainfall event occurs for 15 minutes, maximum runoff
would be generated at the reference point, because all the three section of watershed/drainage
area wo uld be contributing runoff at the reference point.

From the above discussion, it is evident that only those rainfall events are of interest, which
are of sufficient duration to develop max runoff.

Mathematically,

Time of concentration (Tc) = Inlet time + Time of flow in sewer

The factors that affect Tc of a watershed/drainage area are: surface roughness,

irregularity, length and slope.

16.2.4 Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves

IDF curves is the basic record/data used in the design of storm sewers. In USA, these
curves have been developed for all the states and are available from the websites. However, in
Pakistan, IDF curves were developed for Lahore and Faisalabad (reader is referred to reference
5 and 6, for details on how to develop these curves from the rainfall data) [5, 6]) whereas for other
areas, these are not available and one has to develop them from the rainfall data. Rainfall data of
at least last 40-50 years are required to develop IDF curves. The data may be obtained from
Meteorological Department.
However, mostly an arbitrary value of rainfall intensity is adopted to determine storm flow,
which is not a correct approach. Fig 16.3 shows IDF curve for Lahore. Rainfall duration (in

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minutes) is taken along x-axis and rainfall intensity (inch/hr; or mm/hr) is taken on y-axis. Curves
for different return period, ranging from 2 to 50 years are drawn.

Figure 16.3: IDF curves for different return period for Lahore [6]

16.2.5 Return Period

By return period (re-occurrence frequency) of a given storm means the time interval
during which the given storm is likely to be equalled or exceeded. Thus, if the design return period
for a length of storm sewer is 5 years, then the storm water flow should back up into the manhole
because the pipe capacity has been exceeded only once every 5 years on the average.
The design return period for storm water management structures is typically specified by
a state or local agency. The range in which the return period varies is 5-100 years. The size and
associated cost increases as the return period increases. This, in turn, depends on the level of
protection that is deemed to be adequate for reducing the potential costs of flood damages and
minimizing inconvenience to the public. As such, the decision on what return period to adopt for
design purposes is the result of an informal cost/benefit analysis - where the potential for damages
is low or costs are small, a short return period is usually considered adequate. However, where
the potential for damages is high or where failure would endanger expensive property, then a
longer (more conservative) return period is selected [7]. Table 16.2 suggest probable values for
different drainage structures.

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 Table 16.2: Probable return period for different structures [7]
Area characteristics Return Period
Low value and residential areas 2-5 years
Higher value commercial and industrial areas 5-10 years
Critical areas: significant potential for 10-25 years
damage/inconvenience
Major culverts, bridges etc. for National highways 25-50 years

In Canada, the return period for minor storm drainage systems lies in a range of 1-5 years
and 100 years for major collector streets and arterial streets [8]. In Pakistan, usually 2-5 year
return period is used for storm water structures.

16.2.6 Rainfall intensity

The design rainfall intensity is the intensity of a storm (rainfall) having the specified
design return period and duration equal to the time of concentration for the drainage area.
Once values for design return period and time (duration in minutes) are available, the design
rainfall intensity can be determined from an appropriate IDF curve of the drainage area.
PHED design criteria 2008 (page 72) propose a rainfall intensity of 1/30 inch in southern
Punjab, 1/4 inch for small towns and 1/2 inch for bigger urban areas. Hence, under such
circumstances, there is no need to use IDF curves.

16.3 SUMMARY OF PROCEDURE TO FIND THE DESIGN FLOW FOR STORM SEWER

16.3.1 Using IDF curves

If the IDF curves of the area are available, use the following steps
1. Find out the time of concentration (Tc)
2. Adopt a suitable return period (2-5-10 years)
3. Adopt a suitable value of “C” for the area. In case of multiple land use, find average
weighted “C”
4. From the Tc and return period, find out the design rainfall intensity (inch/hr) from the IDF
curve
5. Use Rational formula to find the design storm flow for the sewer/drain.

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16.3.2 Using PHED Design Criteria

The IDF curves for most of the areas, in Pakistan, are not available (except Lahore and
Faisalabad). The PHED design criteria, by oversimplifying, propose the rainfall intensity and its
blanket application without going through the rainfall data and IDF curves. The correctness of this
oversimplification is not supported from the internationally adopted procedures. Nevertheless, the
process of finding out storm flow, using rational method per PHED design criteria is listed below
1. Find out watershed/drainage area
2. Find out C value, for each type of area, from the PHED design criteria (p. 70)
3. Adopt rainfall intensity given in PHED criteria (p. 72) and find storm flow
The entire process of finding out the design discharge for storm sewer, using IDF curves,
has been explained in the following solved example. Assume velocity of flow to be 3 ft/sec.

Solved Example

A storm drainage system has been shown in the figure below. The drainage area is divided
into three sub-catchments viz. A1, A2 and A3. Value of C and inlet time of each drainage area is
also shown. Other relevant data are:
Reach-1 (MH-1 to 2) = 400 ft
Reach-2 (MH-2 to 3)= 600 ft; time of flow in pipe =3.33 min
Reach-3 (MH-3 to 4)= 600 ft = 3.33 min
Find out the maximum storm flow and pipe diameter for each reach (location: Lahore).
Adopt a return period of 5 years. Manning’s coefficient of pipe is 0.013.

A1 A2 A3
2.47 Acre 3.7 Acre 4.94 Acre
C1=0.4 C2=0.3 C3=0.2
Inlet time=15 min Inlet time=17 min Inlet time=20 min

MH-1 MH-2 MH-3 MH-4

Solution
Develop a computational table (Table 16.2). In order to find out the critical rainfall event
duration, and the corresponding rainfall intensity from IDF curve (Fig. 16.3), and find the flows in
each sewer line, a computation table is set up (Table 16.2)

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 Table 16.3: Computation table to find out design storm flows in storm sewers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

§ ¨©
From To Drainage C AC Inlet Time of Tc i Q
MH MH area (A) time flow in (inch/hr) (cusec)
(Acres) (min) pipe
(min)
1 2 2.47 0.4 0.988 0.988 15 - 15 5 4.94
2 3 3.7 0.3 1.11 2.098 17 3.33 20.33 4.7 9.8
3 4 4.94 0.2 0.988 3.086 20 3.33 21.66 4.5 13.88

Explanatory Notes:
Col.5: Product of AC is taken for each sewer
Col. 6: Sum of AC for each storm sewer is calculated.
Col. 7: Given in the problem statement
Col. 8: With the given velocity of 3 ft/sec and length of sewer, the time of flow in pipe
may be calculated i.e. length of sewer/velocity.
Col. 9: It gives the time of concentration, which is either only the inlet time or the sum of
inlet time and time of flow in the sewer.
Col. 10: Value of “i” for each pipe has been observed from IDF curve of Lahore (Fig.
16.3) for the corresponding time of concentration (return period=5-years).
Col 11: Q = ∑ dŒ ×   =(col. 6 x col. 10)

Discharge in each pipe has been determined. Diameter may be selected from back
calculation table (Table 13.3). From the table the diameter for reach-1 would be 18 inches,
reach-2 would be 24 inches and reach-3 would be 30 inches.

16.4 SOFTWARE FOR STORM WATER MANAGEMENT

Following software may be used for the design of storm sewers.

16.4.1 Storm water management model (SWMM)

US EPA's Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) is used throughout the world for
planning, analysis and design related to stormwater runoff, combined and sanitary sewers, and
other drainage systems in urban areas. It is a very powerful tool.
SWMM is a dynamic hydrology-hydraulic simulation model. It is used for single event or
long-term (continuous) simulation of runoff quantity from primarily urban areas. The runoff
component operates on a collection of sub-catchment areas that receive precipitation and
generate runoff. The routing portion transports this runoff through a system of pipes, channels,
storage/treatment devices, pumps, and regulators. SWMM tracks the quantity of runoff made
within each sub-catchment. It tracks the flow rate, flow depth, and quantity of water in each pipe
and channel during a simulation period made up of multiple time steps (Please see reference 5
and 6 for more details)

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16.4.2 HEC-HMS

Another software HEC-HMS (Hydrologic Engineering Company-Hydraulic

Management System) may also be used. It is developed by US Army Corps of Engineers. It
is a freeware. It is mostly used for flood studies in natural streams. However it may be used
for the determination of storm flows using unit hydrograph method. The flows may be used for
the design of storm sewers. The reader may obtain the software from HEC website along with
the user manual.
Steps to determine storm flow are briefly presented:
1. Maximum daily rainfall values during a year are obtained from the Meteorological
Department for around last 30-40 years. This rainfall creates the maximum flooding
and hence is critical for the design.
2. The data are arranged in descending order
3. Frequency analysis on the data is performed (recurrence incidence).
4. Rainfall for the desired return period is determined from the frequency analysis.
5. Project area is divided into sub-catchment depending upon the topography of the
area.
6. Data are fed into the software and simulation is run. The software gives flow in each
reach of the project area.
7. Once storm flow is determined, the pipe size and required slope could be
determined.

REFERENCES

1. Oregon Department of Transportation Highway Division, (2014), Hydraulics design

manual: Appendix F; Rational method. Accessed on: 14-07-2017, Available at:
[www.oregon.gov/ODOT/GeoEnvironmental/Docs_Hydraulics.../Hydraulics-07-F.pdf]

2. Civil Engineering Portal, (2010), What are the limitations of Rational Method in calculating
runoff? Accessed on: 14-07-2017, Aavailable on: [http://www.engineeringcivil.com/what-
are-the-limitations-of-rational-method-in-calculating-runoff.html]

3. H. Bengtson, (2010), The rational method for calculation of peak storm water runoff rate,
Bright Hub Engineering. Accessed on: -14-07-2017, Available at:
[www.hbp.usm.my/.../The%20Rational%20Method%20for%20Calculation%20of%20...]

4. T. J. McGhee, (1991), Water supply and sewrage (6th Edition), McGraw Hill Inc., USA.

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5. A. A. Rizvi, (2015), Study of rainwater harvesting potential-A case study of FDA city,
Faisalabad, MSc Thesis, Institute of Environmental Engineering and Research, University
of Engineering and Technology, Lahore.

6. W. Ali, (2009), Evaluation of alternative techniques for stormwater management under

local conditions, MSc Thesis, Institute of Environmental Engineering and Research,
University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore.

7. Government of Rajistan-India, (2008), General guide lines for drainage sector work,
Design & Construction Management System: Circular -8.

8. Engineering and Public Works Department, (2011), Storm water design criteria manual
for municipal services, Town of Riverview, Canada: p. 13.

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