Database Systems Laboratory 1: Introduction To SQL

Introduction To SQL
Chittaranjan Pradhan
Database Systems RDBMS
Client/Server
Laboratory 1 Database
SQL
SQL Statements
Introduction To SQL SQL*PLUS

Naming Conventions
Data Types
Table Creation
Viewing Table
Structure
Record Insertion
Inserting Time
Querying Data
School of Computer Engineering,
KIIT University
1.1
Introduction To SQL
Introduction To SQL
1 RDBMS
RDBMS
Client/Server
2 Client/Server Database Database
SQL
3 SQL SQL Statements

SQL*PLUS
SQL Statements Naming Conventions
Data Types
SQL*PLUS
Table Creation
Naming Conventions
Viewing Table
Structure
4 Data Types Record Insertion
Inserting Time
5 Table Creation Querying Data
6 Viewing Table Structure
7 Record Insertion
Inserting Time
8 Querying Data
1.2
Introduction To SQL
RDBMS
RDBMS
Client/Server
• Relational database is a collection of related information Database
that has been organized into tables. Each table contains SQL
SQL Statements
rows and columns SQL*PLUS
Naming Conventions
• The tables are stored in the database in structures known Data Types
as schemas Table Creation
Viewing Table
Structure
• Each row is called an entity, thus table as entity set
Record Insertion
• Row is known as Tuple Inserting Time
Querying Data
• Columns are the properties called Attributes
• The facts describing an entity are known as data
• For an attribute, the set of permitted values is called

domain of that attribute
1.3
Introduction To SQL
Employee Table
RDBMS
Client/Server
Database
SQL
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO SQL Statements
SQL*PLUS
7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 800 20
Naming Conventions
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 7698 20-FEB-81 1600 300 30
7521 WARD SALESMAN 7698 22-FEB-81 1250 500 30 Data Types
7566 JONES MANAGER 7839 02-APR-81 2975 20 Table Creation

7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 7698 28-SEP-81 1250 1400 30 Viewing Table
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 7839 01-MAY-81 2850 30 Structure
7782 CLARK MANAGER 7839 09-JUN-81 2450 10 Record Insertion
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 09-NOV-81 3000 20 Inserting Time
7839 KING PRESIDENT 17-NOV-81 5000 10
Querying Data
7844 TURNER SALESMAN 7698 08-SEP-81 1500 0 30
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 23-SEP-81 1100 20
7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 950 30
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 3000 20
7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-JAN-82 1300 10
1.4
Introduction To SQL
Examples of RDBMS
• Oracle
RDBMS
• DB2 Client/Server
Database
• Microsoft SQL-Server
SQL
• MySQL SQL Statements

SQL*PLUS
Naming Conventions
• Microsoft Access
Data Types
• Apache Derby Table Creation
• Visual FoxPro Viewing Table

Structure
• OpenBase Record Insertion

Inserting Time
• PostgreSQL Querying Data
• SQLite
• Vertica
• IBM Informix
• Ingres
• IBM Lotus
• SQL Anywhere
1.5
Introduction To SQL
Client/Server Database
RDBMS
Client/Server
Database
SQL
• Client/Server databases run the DBMS as a process on SQL Statements
SQL*PLUS
the server and run a client database application on each Naming Conventions
client Data Types
Table Creation
• The client application sends a request for data over the
Viewing Table
network to the server Structure
Record Insertion
• When the server receives the client request, the DBMS Inserting Time
retrieves data from the database, performs the required Querying Data
processing on the data, and sends only the requested

data back to the client over the network
1.6
Introduction To SQL
SQL
RDBMS
• SQL( Structured Query Language) is the standard Client/Server
language for relational database Database
SQL
• IBM developed the original version of SQL in early 1970s, SQL Statements
SQL*PLUS
with name Sequel Naming Conventions
• In 1986, the ANSI & ISO published the SQL standard, Data Types
Table Creation
SQL-86
Viewing Table
• ANSI published extended standard, SQL-89 in 1989 Structure
Record Insertion
• Next versions are SQL-92, SQL-1999, SQL-2003, Inserting Time
SQL-2006, SQL-2008, SQL-2011 Querying Data
• SQL is the ideal database language to

• create database and table structures
• perform basic data management operation
• perform complex queries to transform data into useful
information
1.7
Introduction To SQL
SQL Statements
RDBMS
Data Definition Language(DDL)
Client/Server
Database
Defines the data structure that make up a database
SQL
• CREATE statement SQL Statements
SQL*PLUS
• ALTER statement Naming Conventions
Data Types
• DROP statement Table Creation
• RENAME statement Viewing Table

Structure
• TRUNCATE statement Record Insertion
Inserting Time
Querying Data
Data Manipulation Language(DML)
Modifies the contents of tables
• INSERT statement
• UPDATE statement
• DELETE statement
1.8
Introduction To SQL
SQL Statements...
Query Statement
RDBMS
Retrieves data from the database Client/Server
Database
• SELECT statement SQL
SQL Statements
SQL*PLUS
Naming Conventions
Transaction Control Language(TCL)
Data Types
Permanently records the changes made to the rows stored in a Table Creation
table or undoes those changes affected by DML statements Viewing Table

Structure
• COMMIT statement Record Insertion
Inserting Time
• ROLLBACK statement Querying Data
• SAVEPOINT statement
Data Control Language(DCL)

Gives and removes permissions on database structure
• GRANT statement
• REVOKE statement
1.9
Introduction To SQL
SQL*PLUS
RDBMS
Client/Server
Database
• It is a tool to manipulate data & perform queries against SQL

SQL Statements
the database SQL*PLUS
Naming Conventions
• It enables you to conduct a conversation with the database Data Types
Table Creation
• Two versions of SQL*PLUS Viewing Table
Structure
• Graphical version
Record Insertion
• Start->All Programs->Oracle Database 10g Express Inserting Time
Edition->Go to Database home page(SQL->SQL Commands) Querying Data
• Command-Line version
• Start->All Programs->Oracle Database 10g Express
Edition->Run SQL Command Line(Connect)
1.10
Introduction To SQL
Naming Conventions
RDBMS
Client/Server
Database
• A table is an object that can store data in a database SQL

SQL Statements
• When you create a table, you must specify the table name, SQL*PLUS
Naming Conventions
name of each column, data type of each column, and size Data Types
of each column Table Creation
• The table and column names can be up to 30 characters Viewing Table

Structure
long Record Insertion
Inserting Time
• Table or column name must begin with a letter
Querying Data
• The names are not case sensitive
• Spaces and hyphens are not allowed in a table or a
column name; but $, _ and # are allowed
1.11
Introduction To SQL
Data Types
RDBMS
Data type specifies the type of data that will be stored in the
Client/Server
column. Data types also help to optimize storage space Database
SQL
• CHAR(n) SQL Statements
SQL*PLUS
• Stores fixed-length alphanumeric data in a column Naming Conventions
• Default and minimum size is one character Data Types
• Maximum allowable size is 2000 characters (previously 255) Table Creation
• If a string of a smaller length is stored, it is padded with Viewing Table
Structure
spaces at the end
Record Insertion
Inserting Time
• VARCHAR(n)/VARCHAR2(n) Querying Data
• Stores variable-length alphanumeric data in a column
• Default and minimum size is one character
• Maximum allowable size is 4000 characters (previously
2000)
• If the data are smaller than the specified size, only the data
value is stored; no padding is done
1.12
Introduction To SQL
Data Types...
RDBMS
• DATE
Client/Server
• Stores date and time values Database
• The range of allowable dates is between January 1, SQL

SQL Statements
4712B.C. and December 31, 9999A.D. SQL*PLUS
• The default date format is DD-MON-YY. The Naming Conventions
DD-MON-YYYY format also works Data Types
Table Creation
• NUMBER(precision, scale) Viewing Table

Structure
• Stores floating point numbers as well as integer numbers. Record Insertion
Precision is the total number of significant digits in the Inserting Time
Querying Data
number; scale is the total number of digits to the right of the
decimal point(if used). The precision can range from 1 to 38
• If neither precision nor scale is specified, any number may
be stored up to a precision of 38 digits
• INTEGER
• Stores integer number
1.13
Introduction To SQL
Data Types...
• NUMERIC(p,d)
RDBMS
• Stores fixed-point number with user specified precision Client/Server
Database
• Similar to NUMBER data type
SQL
SQL Statements
• LONG SQL*PLUS
Naming Conventions
• Stores variable length character strings containing up to
Data Types
2GB Table Creation
• Similar to VARCHAR
Viewing Table
• There can be one LONG data type per table Structure
Record Insertion
• RAW Inserting Time
Querying Data
• Stores binary data such as digitized picture or image
• Maximum allowable size is 2000 Bytes (previously 255
Bytes)
• LONG RAW
• It is the higher range of RAW
• There can be one LONG data type per table
• Maximum allowable size id 2GB
1.14
Introduction To SQL
Data Types...
RDBMS
Client/Server
Database
SQL
• LOB(Large Object) SQL Statements
SQL*PLUS
• Stores large volume of data Naming Conventions
• BLOB Data Types
• Used for binary data such as graphics, video clips and audio Table Creation
files up to 4GB Viewing Table
• CLOB Structure
• Used for character data up to 4GB Record Insertion

Inserting Time
• BFILE Querying Data
• Stores references to a binary file that is external to the
database and is maintained by the operating system’s file
system
1.15
Introduction To SQL
Table Creation
RDBMS
Client/Server
Database
CREATE TABLE statement SQL
SQL Statements
CREATE statement is used for table creation. The syntax is: SQL*PLUS
Naming Conventions
Data Types
CREATE TABLE table_name( column datatype, Table Creation
column datatype, ... column datatype); Viewing Table
Structure
For example, create a table for STUDENT ( Roll, Name, Record Insertion
Inserting Time
Gender, Age, CGPA) Querying Data
Solution: CREATE TABLE STUDENT(Roll NUMBER(6), Name

VARCHAR2(20), Gender CHAR(1), Age NUMBER(3), CGPA
NUMBER(4,2));
1.16
Introduction To SQL
Viewing Table Structure
RDBMS
DESCRIBE statement
Client/Server
DESCRIBE statement is used for viewing table structure. The Database
SQL
syntax is: SQL Statements
SQL*PLUS
Naming Conventions
DESCRIBE table_name; or Data Types
DESC table_name; Table Creation
Viewing Table
For example: DESCRIBE STUDENT; Structure
Solution: Record Insertion

Inserting Time
Querying Data
Name Null? Type
Roll NUMBER(6)
Name VARCHAR2(20)
Gender CHAR(1)
Age NUMBER(3)
CGPA NUMBER(4,2)
1.17
Introduction To SQL
Record Insertion
INSERT statement
INSERT statement is used to insert a new row/record into a RDBMS
table. The syntax is: Client/Server

Database
SQL
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2,..) VALUES SQL Statements
SQL*PLUS
(value1, value2,..); Naming Conventions
Data Types
Table Creation
• Column names are optional
Viewing Table
• Numeric data is not enclosed within quotes; while Structure
Record Insertion
character and date values are enclosed within single Inserting Time
quotes Querying Data
Entering NULL values:
• Implicit method: Here, column name is omitted from the

column list in the INSERT statement
• Explicit method: Here, the null value is used as a value for
a numeric column, and an empty string (”) is used for date
or character columns
1.18
Introduction To SQL
Record Insertion...
RDBMS
Substitution variables
Client/Server
Database
• Substitution variables enable you to create an interactive SQL
SQL script, which prompts you to enter a value for the SQL Statements
SQL*PLUS
substitution variable Naming Conventions
Data Types
• In command line version, & character is used before the
Table Creation
substitution variable in the query; whereas : character is Viewing Table
used in graphical version Structure
Record Insertion
• Substitution variables for character and date columns are Inserting Time
enclosed within a pair of single quotation marks Querying Data
• For more records, press /

• If an INSERT statement contains a value containing &
character, it is treated as a substitution variable. In such
cases, SET DEFINE OFF; and SET DEFINE ON;
commands are used
1.19
Introduction To SQL
Record Insertion...
RDBMS
• INSERT INTO STUDENT(Roll, Name, Gender, Age, Client/Server
Database
CGPA) VALUES (705129, ’Uday’, ’M’, 19, 9.2);
SQL
SQL Statements
SQL*PLUS
• INSERT INTO STUDENT VALUES (705129, ’Uday’, ’M’, Naming Conventions
19, 9.2); Data Types
Table Creation
Viewing Table
• INSERT INTO STUDENT(Roll, Name, CGPA) VALUES Structure
(705129, ’Uday’, 9.2); Record Insertion

Inserting Time
Querying Data
• INSERT INTO STUDENT VALUES (&Roll, ’&Name’,

’&Gender’, &Age, &CGPA);
• INSERT INTO STUDENT (Roll, Name, Gender, Age)

VALUES(&Roll, ’&Name’, ’&Gender’, &Age);
1.20
Introduction To SQL
Record Insertion...
Customized Prompts
RDBMS
ACCEPT command is used for customized prompts. The Client/Server

Database
syntax is: SQL
ACCEPT variablename PROMPT ’prompt message’ SQL Statements
SQL*PLUS
• ACCEPT Roll PROMPT ’Please enter the Roll of Student:’ Naming Conventions
Data Types
• ACCEPT Name PROMPT ’Please enter the Name of
Table Creation
Student:’ Viewing Table
Structure
• ACCEPT Gender PROMPT ’Please enter the Gender of
Record Insertion
Student:’ Inserting Time
Querying Data
• ACCEPT Age PROMPT ’Please enter the Age of Student:’
• ACCEPT CGPA PROMPT ’Please enter the CGPA of
Student:’
INSERT INTO STUDENT VALUES (&Roll, ’&Name’,
’&Gender’, &Age, &CGPA);
Once a variable is defined with substitution variable or

ACCEPT, its value is known throughout that session
1.21
Introduction To SQL
Inserting Time
RDBMS
Client/Server
Database
Time insertion SQL

SQL Statements
Time can be inserted by using TO_DATE() SQL*PLUS
Naming Conventions
Data Types
INSERT INTO STUDENT(dob) VALUES (TO_DATE( Table Creation
’12-JAN-1990 10:34:45 P.M.’, ’DD-MON-YYYY HH:MI:SS Viewing Table
Structure
P.M.’));
Record Insertion
Inserting Time
• If only the date value is entered in a date-type column, the Querying Data
time value is set to the midnight (12:00A.M.)

• If only the time value is entered in a date-type column, the
date is set to first of the current month
1.22
Introduction To SQL
Querying Data
RDBMS
SELECT statement Client/Server
Database
SELECT statement is used to retrieve data from the underlying
SQL
table. The syntax is: SQL Statements
SELECT column1,column2 FROM table_name; SQL*PLUS

Naming Conventions
Data Types
If the user wants to see all the columns in a table, * can be Table Creation
used in place of columns Viewing Table

Structure
Record Insertion
SELECT * FROM STUDENT; Inserting Time
Querying Data
Roll Name Gender Age CGPA
705129 Uday M 19 9.2
705170 Ram M 20
705171 Kim F 19 8.6
705172 Raji 20 7.5
NULL value means the value is unknown or doesn’t exist
1.23
Introduction To SQL
Querying Data...
RDBMS
Client/Server
Database
SQL
SQL Statements
SELECT Roll, Name, CGPA FROM STUDENT; SQL*PLUS

Naming Conventions
Data Types
Roll Name CGPA
Table Creation
705129 Uday 9.2 Viewing Table
705170 Ram Structure
Record Insertion
705171 Kim 8.6 Inserting Time
705172 Raji 7.5 Querying Data
1.24
SQL Fundamentals
Database Systems SELECT Statement

Operators used in WHERE
Laboratory 2
condition
Sorting
ALTER Statement
SQL Fundamentals UPDATE Statement
DROP Statement
TRUNCATE Statement
DELETE Statement
RENAME Statement
Viewing User Tables
Creating Table from

another Table
Inserting data into a

Table from another
Table
ROWID
KIIT University
2.1
SQL Fundamentals
SQL Fundamentals
1 SELECT Statement
Operators used in WHERE condition SELECT Statement
Sorting condition
Sorting
2 ALTER Statement ALTER Statement
UPDATE Statement
3 UPDATE Statement DROP Statement
TRUNCATE Statement
4 DROP Statement DELETE Statement
RENAME Statement
5 TRUNCATE Statement Viewing User Tables
Creating Table from

6 DELETE Statement another Table

7 RENAME Statement Table from another
Table
8 Viewing User Tables ROWID
9 Creating Table from another Table
10 Inserting data into a Table from another Table
11 ROWID
2.2
SQL Fundamentals
Student table
SELECT Statement
Roll Name City Age CGPA condition
Sorting
101 Ram Bhubaneswar 19 9.0 ALTER Statement

102 Hari Bhubaneswar 6.7 UPDATE Statement
103 Uday Jharkhand 20 8.97 DROP Statement
104 Vikas Uttar Pradesh 19 8.5 TRUNCATE Statement
105 Sweta Ranchi 19 9.2 DELETE Statement
RENAME Statement
106 Yogesh Rajastan 18 7.9
Viewing User Tables
210 Smriti Delhi 20 8.99
Creating Table from
211 Sudam Cuttack 21 8.6 another Table
212 Vikas Kolkota 23 5.98 Inserting data into a

Table from another
165 Manish 19 9.15 Table
ROWID
• The character data is displayed with left justification, while

numeric data with right justification
2.3
SQL Fundamentals
SELECT Statement
SELECT statement
SELECT Statement
SELECT statement is used to retrieve data from the underlying Operators used in WHERE
condition
table. The syntax is: Sorting
SELECT columns FROM tablename; ALTER Statement
UPDATE Statement
DROP Statement
If the user wants to see all the columns in a table, * can be
TRUNCATE Statement
used in place of columns DELETE Statement
RENAME Statement
SELECT Roll, CGPA FROM Student;
Viewing User Tables
Roll CGPA Creating Table from

another Table
101 9.0
102 6.7 Table from another
103 8.97 Table
104 8.5 ROWID

105 9.2
106 7.9
210 8.99
211 8.6
212 5.98
165 9.15
2.4
SQL Fundamentals
SELECT Statement...
Displaying Distinct Rows SELECT Statement

condition
The DISTINCT keyword is used to suppress duplicate values. Sorting
The syntax is: ALTER Statement
SELECT DISTINCT column FROM tablename; UPDATE Statement
DROP Statement
SELECT DISTINCT City FROM Student; TRUNCATE Statement
DELETE Statement
City RENAME Statement
Bhubaneswar Viewing User Tables
Jharkhand Creating Table from

another Table
Uttar Pradesh Inserting data into a
Ranchi Table from another
Table
Rajastan ROWID
Delhi
Cuttack
Kolkota
2.5
SQL Fundamentals
SELECT Statement...
Use of Arithmetic Expressions SELECT Statement

The arithmetic expressions are used to display mathematically condition

Sorting
calculated data. The syntax is: ALTER Statement
SELECT column, expression FROM tablename; UPDATE Statement
DROP Statement
SELECT Name, Age, Age+3 FROM Student; TRUNCATE Statement
DELETE Statement
Name Age Age+3 RENAME Statement
Ram 19 22 Viewing User Tables
Uday 20 23 Creating Table from

another Table
Vikas 19 22 Inserting data into a
Sweta 19 22 Table from another
Table
Yogesh 18 21 ROWID
Smriti 20 23
Sudam 21 24
Vikas 23 26
Manish 19 22
2.6
SQL Fundamentals
SELECT Statement...
Use of Alias SELECT Statement

The column aliases are used to rename a table’s columns for condition
Sorting
the purpose of a particular SQL query. The syntax is: ALTER Statement
SELECT column1, column2 [AS] Alias FROM tablename; UPDATE Statement
DROP Statement
SELECT Name, Age, Age+3 “Passing Age”FROM Student; TRUNCATE Statement
DELETE Statement
Name Age Passing Age RENAME Statement
Ram 19 22 Viewing User Tables
Uday 20 23 Creating Table from

another Table
Vikas 19 22 Inserting data into a
Sweta 19 22 Table from another
Table
Yogesh 18 21 ROWID
Smriti 20 23
Sudam 21 24
Vikas 23 26
Manish 19 22
2.7
SQL Fundamentals
SELECT Statement...
Concatenation
SELECT Statement
Concatenation joins a column or a character string to another Operators used in WHERE

condition
column. The syntax is: Sorting
ALTER Statement
SELECT column1||’ ’||column2 [AS] ALIAS FROM
UPDATE Statement
tablename; DROP Statement
TRUNCATE Statement
SELECT Name||’ ’||City FROM Student;
DELETE Statement
SELECT Name||’ ’||City AS “Address”FROM Student; RENAME Statement
Viewing User Tables

Name||’ ’||City Address
Creating Table from
Ram Bhubaneswar Ram Bhubaneswar another Table
Hari Bhubaneswar Hari Bhubaneswar Inserting data into a
Uday Jharkhand Uday Jharkhand Table from another
Table
Vikas Uttar Pradesh Vikas Uttar Pradesh
ROWID
Sweta Ranchi Sweta Ranchi
Yogesh Rajastan Yogesh Rajastan
Smriti Delhi Smriti Delhi
Sudam Cuttack Sudam Cuttack
Vikas Kolkota Vikas Kolkota
Manish Manish
2.8
SQL Fundamentals
SELECT Statement...
Displaying Time
SELECT Statement
Time of a date-type column can be displayed by using condition
Sorting
TO_CHAR(). The syntax is:
ALTER Statement
UPDATE Statement
DROP Statement
SELECT Roll, DOB FROM Student;
TRUNCATE Statement
SELECT Roll, TO_CHAR(DOB, ’DD-MON-YYYY HH:MI:SS
DELETE Statement
A.M.’) FROM Student; RENAME Statement
Viewing User Tables

Selecting Specific Records
Creating Table from
another Table
Specific records can be selected by using a WHERE clause
with the SELECT statement. The syntax is: Table from another
Table
SELECT columns FROM tablename WHERE cond n ; ROWID
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE city= ’Bhubaneswar’;

Roll Name City Age CGPA
101 Ram Bhubaneswar 19 9.0
102 Hari Bhubaneswar 6.7
2.9
SQL Fundamentals
Operators used in WHERE condition
Relational Operators SELECT Statement

= ex: CGPA=9.0 condition

Sorting
> ex: Age>20 ALTER Statement
< ex: Age<20 UPDATE Statement
>= ex: Age>=20 DROP Statement
<= ex: Age<=20 TRUNCATE Statement
DELETE Statement
<> or != ex: Name !=’Hari’
RENAME Statement
ANY ex: Age > ANY(20,23,19)
Viewing User Tables
ALL ex: Age > ALL(20,18) Creating Table from
another Table

Logical Operators Table from another
Table
AND ex: City=’Bhubaneswar’ AND Age=20 ROWID
OR ex: City =’Bhubaneswar’ OR Age=20

NOT ex: NOT(Age=20 OR Age=21)
AND has more precedence than OR
2.10
SQL Fundamentals
Operators used in WHERE condition...
LIKE Operator
SELECT Statement
LIKE operator uses wild cards for matching as: Operators used in WHERE
condition
%: represents zero or more characters Sorting
_: represents any one character ALTER Statement
UPDATE Statement
ex: Name LIKE ’S%’ DROP Statement
ex: Name LIKE ’S__’ TRUNCATE Statement
DELETE Statement
ex: Name LIKE ’%i%’
RENAME Statement
ex: Name LIKE ’_i%’ Viewing User Tables
Creating Table from

another Table
Special Operators
Table from another
IN ex: City IN(’Delhi’,’Cuttack’,’Ranchi’) Table
BETWEEN ex: Age BETWEEN 20 AND 22 ROWID
IS NULL ex: SELECT Name FROM Student WHERE Age is

NULL;
Name Age
Hari
2.11
SQL Fundamentals
Sorting
SELECT Statement
ORDER BY clause using column name Operators used in WHERE
condition
ORDER BY clause is used to sort records in a table Sorting
SELECT columns FROM tablename [WHERE cond n ] ALTER Statement
UPDATE Statement
ORDER BY column [ASC/DESC]; DROP Statement
TRUNCATE Statement
SELECT * FROM Student ORDER BY Age; DELETE Statement
SELECT * FROM Student ORDER By CGPA, Age DESC; RENAME Statement
NULL values come at the end of the table in case of ORDER Viewing User Tables
BY clause Creating Table from

another Table

Table from another
ORDER BY clause using column number Table
ROWID
Records can be sorted by using the column number
SELECT columns FROM tablename [WHERE cond n ]
ORDER BY columnno [ASC/DESC];
SELECT * FROM Student ORDER BY 3;
2.12
SQL Fundamentals
ALTER Statement
Stud (roll, name, age) SELECT Statement

condition
Column NULL? Datatype Sorting
ROLL NUMBER(6) ALTER Statement
NAME VARCHAR2(20) UPDATE Statement
AGE NUMBER(2) DROP Statement
TRUNCATE Statement
DELETE Statement
Adding a New Column RENAME Statement
Viewing User Tables

ALTER TABLE tablename ADD(column definition); Creating Table from
another Table
ALTER TABLE Stud ADD (address number(20)); Inserting data into a

Table from another
Table
Column NULL? Datatype ROWID
ROLL NUMBER(6)
NAME VARCHAR2(20)
AGE NUMBER(2)
ADDRESS NUMBER(20)
2.13
SQL Fundamentals
ALTER Statement...
Modifying an Existing Column

SELECT Statement
ALTER TABLE tablename MODIFY(column definition); Operators used in WHERE
condition
Sorting
ALTER TABLE Stud MODIFY(address varchar2(20)); ALTER Statement
UPDATE Statement
Column NULL? Datatype
DROP Statement
ROLL NUMBER(6)
TRUNCATE Statement
NAME VARCHAR2(20)
DELETE Statement
AGE NUMBER(2)
RENAME Statement
ADDRESS VARCHAR2(20)
Viewing User Tables
Creating Table from

another Table
Dropping a Column
Table from another
ALTER TABLE tablename DROP COLUMN columnname; Table
ROWID
ALTER TABLE Stud DROP COLUMN address;

Column NULL? Datatype
ROLL NUMBER(6)
NAME VARCHAR2(20)
AGE NUMBER(2)
2.14
SQL Fundamentals
ALTER Statement...
SELECT Statement
condition
Sorting
ALTER Statement
Renaming a Column
UPDATE Statement
ALTER TABLE tablename RENAME COLUMN oldname to DROP Statement
newname; TRUNCATE Statement
DELETE Statement
ALTER TABLE Stud RENAME COLUMN roll to id; RENAME Statement
Viewing User Tables

Column NULL? Datatype Creating Table from
another Table
ID NUMBER(6)
NAME VARCHAR2(20) Table from another
Table
AGE NUMBER(2)
ROWID
2.15
SQL Fundamentals
UPDATE Statement
Roll Name Age Branch

101 Vikas 19 SELECT Statement
102 Soheb 20 condition
Sorting
103 Gita 18 ALTER Statement
104 Monalisa 19 UPDATE Statement
105 Ganesh 20 DROP Statement
TRUNCATE Statement
DELETE Statement
UPDATE Statement RENAME Statement
UPDATE tablename SET columnname=value [WHERE Viewing User Tables
cond n ]; Creating Table from

another Table

UPDATE Stud SET Branch=’CSE’ WHERE Roll=101; Table from another
Table
Roll Name Age Branch ROWID
101 Vikas 19 CSE

102 Soheb 20
103 Gita 18
104 Monalisa 19
105 Ganesh 20
2.16
SQL Fundamentals
UPDATE Statement...
SELECT Statement
condition
Sorting
ALTER Statement
UPDATE Stud SET Branch=’CSE’; UPDATE Statement
DROP Statement
Roll Name Age Branch TRUNCATE Statement
101 Vikas 19 CSE DELETE Statement
102 Soheb 20 CSE RENAME Statement
103 Gita 18 CSE Viewing User Tables
Creating Table from

104 Monalisa 19 CSE another Table
105 Ganesh 20 CSE Inserting data into a

Table from another
Table
ROWID
2.17
SQL Fundamentals
DROP Statement
SELECT Statement
condition
Sorting
ALTER Statement
UPDATE Statement
DROP Statement
TRUNCATE Statement
DROP command
DELETE Statement
DROP TABLE tablename; RENAME Statement
Viewing User Tables

DROP TABLE Stud; Creating Table from
another Table

Table from another
Table
ROWID
2.18
SQL Fundamentals
TRUNCATE Statement
SELECT Statement
condition
Sorting
ALTER Statement
UPDATE Statement
DROP Statement
TRUNCATE Statement
TRUNCATE command
DELETE Statement
TRUNCATE TABLE tablename; RENAME Statement
Viewing User Tables

TRUNCATE TABLE Stud; Creating Table from
another Table

Table from another
Table
ROWID
2.19
SQL Fundamentals
DELETE Statement
SELECT Statement
condition
Sorting
ALTER Statement
UPDATE Statement
DROP Statement
DELETE command
TRUNCATE Statement
DELETE FROM tablename [WHERE cond n ]; DELETE Statement
RENAME Statement
DELETE FROM Stud WHERE Roll=101; Viewing User Tables
Creating Table from

another Table
DELETE FROM Stud;
Table from another
Table
ROWID
2.20
SQL Fundamentals
RENAME Statement
SELECT Statement
condition
Sorting
ALTER Statement
UPDATE Statement
DROP Statement
TRUNCATE Statement
RENAME command
DELETE Statement
RENAME oldname TO newname; RENAME Statement
Viewing User Tables

RENAME Stud TO Student; Creating Table from
another Table

Table from another
Table
ROWID
2.21
SQL Fundamentals
Viewing User Tables
SELECT Statement
condition
Sorting
ALTER Statement
UPDATE Statement
Viewing all user Objects DROP Statement
TRUNCATE Statement
SELECT * FROM TAB; DELETE Statement
RENAME Statement
Viewing all user Tables Viewing User Tables
Creating Table from

SELECT table_name FROM user_tables; another Table

Table from another
Table
ROWID
2.22
SQL Fundamentals
Creating Table from another Table
SELECT Statement
condition
Sorting
ALTER Statement
Creating Table from another Table UPDATE Statement
DROP Statement
CREATE TABLE tablename(column1,column2) AS SELECT TRUNCATE Statement
column1,column2 FROM tablename; DELETE Statement
RENAME Statement
CREATE TABLE Person(Roll, Name, Age) AS SELECT Roll, Viewing User Tables
Name, Age FROM Stud; Creating Table from
another Table

The SQL statement populates the target table with data from Table from another
Table
the source table ROWID
2.23
SQL Fundamentals
Inserting data into a Table from another Table
SELECT Statement
condition
Sorting
ALTER Statement
UPDATE Statement
Inserting data into a Table from another Table
DROP Statement
INSERT INTO tablename SELECT column1, column2 TRUNCATE Statement
FROM tablename[WHERE cond n ]; DELETE Statement
RENAME Statement
INSERT INTO Person SELECT Roll, Name, Age FROM Stud Viewing User Tables
WHERE Roll=101; Creating Table from

another Table

Table from another
INSERT INTO Person SELECT Roll, Name, Age FROM Stud; Table
ROWID
2.24
SQL Fundamentals
ROWID
ROWID SELECT Statement

condition
• Each row has a unique ROWID Sorting
ALTER Statement
• It is an 18-bit number and represented as a base-64
UPDATE Statement
number DROP Statement
• It contains the physical address of a row in a database TRUNCATE Statement
DELETE Statement
RENAME Statement
In case user has inputted same records more than one time, Viewing User Tables
ROWID is used to distinguish each record Creating Table from
another Table

For example, consider Customer table Table from another
Table
Cid CName Address ROWID
1 Akash BBS
2 Amir BBS
2 Amir BBS
3 Ashok CTC
2.25
SQL Fundamentals
ROWID...
SELECT Statement
condition
Sorting
If the user wants to delete the duplicate copies of the same ALTER Statement
record, then ROWID is used UPDATE Statement
DROP Statement
SELECT ROWID, Cid FROM Customer; TRUNCATE Statement
DELETE Statement
ROWID Cid RENAME Statement
AAAF4YAABAAAHCKAAA 1 Viewing User Tables
AAAF4YAABAAAHCKAAB 2
Creating Table from
AAAF4YAABAAAHCKAAC 2 another Table
AAAF4YAABAAAHCKAAD 3
Table from another
DELETE FROM Customer WHERE ROWID= Table
’AAAF4YAABAAAHCKAAC’; ROWID
2.26
Constraints
Database Systems Constraints
NOT NULL Constraint
Laboratory 3 Unique Constraint

Dealing with UNIQUE
Constraint in an existing
Constraints table
PRIMARY Key
Constraint
Dealing with PRIMARY
KEY Constraint in an
existing table
FOREIGN Key
Constraint
Dealing with FOREIGN
existing table
CHECK Constraint
Dealing with Check
table
DEFAULT Value
Viewing USER
Constraints
KIIT University
3.1
Constraints
Constraints
1 Constraints
Constraints
NOT NULL Constraint

2 NOT NULL Constraint
Unique Constraint
Dealing with UNIQUE
3 Unique Constraint table
Dealing with UNIQUE Constraint in an existing table PRIMARY Key

Constraint
4 PRIMARY Key Constraint existing table
Dealing with PRIMARY KEY Constraint in an existing table FOREIGN Key

Constraint
5 FOREIGN Key Constraint existing table
Dealing with FOREIGN KEY Constraint in an existing table CHECK Constraint

Dealing with Check
table
6 CHECK Constraint DEFAULT Value
Dealing with Check Constraint in an existing table Viewing USER
Constraints
7 DEFAULT Value
8 Viewing USER Constraints
3.2
Constraints
Constraints
SQL Constraints
Constraints
Constraints enforce rules on tables. Constraints can be NOT NULL Constraint
imposed to the database tables either with the CREATE or Unique Constraint
ALTER command. Whenever a DML operation is to be Dealing with UNIQUE
performed on a table, the specified constraint must be satisfied table
PRIMARY Key
for the operation to succeed Constraint
existing table
Naming a Constraint FOREIGN Key

Constraint
A constraint can be identified by an internal or user-defined Dealing with FOREIGN
name. For a user’s account, each constraint name must be existing table
CHECK Constraint
unique. The standard convention for naming constraint is : Dealing with Check
<table name>_<column name>_<constraint type> table
DEFAULT Value
The abbreviation for different constraint types are: pk for Viewing USER
Constraints
PRIMARY Key, fk for FOREIGN Key, uk for UNIQUE, chk or ck
for CHECK and nn for NOT NULL constraint
If you do not name a constraint, then the server will generate a
name for it by using SYS_Cn format
3.3
Constraints
Constraints...
Defining a Constraint
Constraints
Constraint can be defined in either of the two ways: NOT NULL Constraint
Unique Constraint
• Column level: Dealing with UNIQUE
• A column- level constraint references a single column and is table
PRIMARY Key
defined along with the definition of the column Constraint
• This type of constraint is applied to the current column only Dealing with PRIMARY
• column datatype [CONSTRAINT constraint_name] existing table
constraint_type FOREIGN Key

Constraint
• Table level: Dealing with FOREIGN

existing table
• A table- level constraint references one or more columns
CHECK Constraint
and is defined separately from the definitions of the columns Dealing with Check
• Except the NOT NULL constraint, all other constraints can table
be defined at the table level DEFAULT Value
• [CONSTRAINT constraint_name] constraint_type Viewing USER

Constraints
(column,..)
Normally, simple keys are defined at the column level and

composite keys are defined at the table level
3.4
Constraints
NOT NULL Constraint
Constraints
NOT NULL Constraint
NOT NULL Constraint Unique Constraint

Dealing with UNIQUE
It ensures that the column has a value and the value is not a Constraint in an existing
table
NULL value PRIMARY Key

Constraint
It prevents a column from accepting NULL values. The syntax Dealing with PRIMARY
is: existing table
columnname datatype(size) NOT NULL or FOREIGN Key

Constraint
columnname datatype(size) CONSTRAINT constraintname existing table
CHECK Constraint
NOT NULL Dealing with Check
It can only be applied at column level table
DEFAULT Value
name VARCHAR(20) CONSTRAINT student_name_nn NOT Viewing USER

Constraints
NULL
3.5
Constraints
NOT NULL Constraint...
Let the structure of ITEM_MASTER table is:

Constraints
Column Type Size NOT NULL Constraint
Unique Constraint
Item_no NUMBER 4 Dealing with UNIQUE
Name VARCHAR2 20 Constraint in an existing

table
Qty_on_hand NUMBER 5 PRIMARY Key

Constraint
Category CHAR 1 Dealing with PRIMARY
Unit_measure CHAR 4 existing table
Reorder_Lvl NUMBER 5 FOREIGN Key

Constraint
Reorder_qty NUMBER 5 Dealing with FOREIGN
Rate NUMBER 8,2 existing table
CHECK Constraint
Dealing with Check
CREATE TABLE ITEM_MASTER(Item_no NUMBER(4), Name Constraint in an existing
table
VARCHAR2(20), Qty_on_hand NUMBER(5), Category DEFAULT Value
CHAR(1), Unit_measure CHAR(4), Reorder_Lvl NUMBER(5), Viewing USER
Reorder_qty NUMBER(5), Rate NUMBER(8,2)); Constraints
Let the Item_no,Reorder_lvl, Reorder_qty and Rate columns

are NOT NULL
3.6
Constraints
NOT NULL Constraint...
CREATE TABLE ITEM_MASTER(Item_no NUMBER(4) NOT

NULL, Name VARCHAR2(20), Qty_on_hand NUMBER(5), Constraints
NOT NULL Constraint

Category CHAR(1), Unit_measure CHAR(4), Reorder_Lvl
Unique Constraint
NUMBER(5) NOT NULL, Reorder_qty NUMBER(5) NOT Dealing with UNIQUE
NULL, Rate NUMBER(8,2) NOT NULL); table
PRIMARY Key
Constraint
CREATE TABLE ITEM_MASTER(Item_no NUMBER(4) Dealing with PRIMARY
CONSTRAINT c1 NOT NULL, Name VARCHAR2(20), existing table
FOREIGN Key
Qty_on_hand NUMBER(5), Category CHAR(1), Unit_measure Constraint
CHAR(4), Reorder_Lvl NUMBER(5) CONSTRAINT c2 NOT Dealing with FOREIGN

existing table
NULL, Reorder_qty NUMBER(5) CONSTRAINT c3 NOT
CHECK Constraint
NULL, Rate NUMBER(8,2) CONSTRAINT c4 NOT NULL); Dealing with Check
table
Dropping NOT NULL Constraint DEFAULT Value
Viewing USER
A NOT NULL constraint can be dropped by executing Constraints
ALTER TABLE tablename DROP CONSTRAINT

constraintname;
ALTER TABLE ITEM_MASTER DROP CONSTRAINT c4;

3.7
Constraints
Unique Constraint
Unique Constraint Constraints
NOT NULL Constraint

It ensures every value in a column or set of columns be unique
Unique Constraint
The unique constraint allows NULL values. The syntax is: Dealing with UNIQUE
table
Column level: Columnname datatype(size) UNIQUE or PRIMARY Key

Constraint
Columnname datatype(size) CONSTRAINT constraintname existing table
FOREIGN Key
UNIQUE Constraint
existing table
Table level: CONSTRAINT constraintname
CHECK Constraint
UNIQUE(columns) Dealing with Check
table
mob_no NUMBER(10) CONSTRAINT student_mob_uk DEFAULT Value
UNIQUE Viewing USER

Constraints
CONSTRAINT student_mob_uk UNIQUE(mob_no)
3.8
Constraints
Unique Constraint...
Let the Name column in ITEM_MASTER table is unique: Constraints
NOT NULL Constraint
CREATE TABLE ITEM_MASTER(Item_no NUMBER(4) NOT Unique Constraint

Dealing with UNIQUE
NULL, Name VARCHAR2(20) UNIQUE, Qty_on_hand Constraint in an existing
table
NUMBER(5), Category CHAR(1), Unit_measure CHAR(4), PRIMARY Key

Constraint
Reorder_Lvl NUMBER(5) NOT NULL, Reorder_qty Dealing with PRIMARY
NUMBER(5) NOT NULL, Rate NUMBER(8,2) NOT NULL); existing table
FOREIGN Key
Constraint
CREATE TABLE ITEM_MASTER(Item_no NUMBER(4) NOT existing table
CHECK Constraint
NULL, Name VARCHAR2(20) , Qty_on_hand NUMBER(5), Dealing with Check
Category CHAR(1), Unit_measure CHAR(4), Reorder_Lvl Constraint in an existing

table
NUMBER(5) NOT NULL, Reorder_qty NUMBER(5) NOT DEFAULT Value
NULL, Rate NUMBER(8,2) NOT NULL), CONSTRAINT ce3 Viewing USER

Constraints
UNIQUE(Name) ;
3.9
Constraints
Unique Constraint...
Constraints
NOT NULL Constraint

The composite unique key constraint can be defined only at the Unique Constraint
table level by specifying column names separated by a comma Dealing with UNIQUE
within parentheses table
PRIMARY Key
Constraint
CONSTRAINT student_name_city_uk UNIQUE(name, city) KEY Constraint in an
existing table
FOREIGN Key
Constraint
CREATE TABLE ITEM_MASTER(Item_no NUMBER(4) NOT KEY Constraint in an
existing table
NULL, Name VARCHAR2(20) , Qty_on_hand NUMBER(5), CHECK Constraint
Category CHAR(1), Unit_measure CHAR(4), Reorder_Lvl Dealing with Check

table
NUMBER(5) NOT NULL, Reorder_qty NUMBER(5) NOT
DEFAULT Value
NULL, Rate NUMBER(8,2) NOT NULL), CONSTRAINT ce4 Viewing USER
UNIQUE(Item_no,Name) ; Constraints
3.10
Constraints
Dealing with UNIQUE Constraint in an existing table
Constraints
NOT NULL Constraint
The syntax for adding unique constraint is: Unique Constraint

Dealing with UNIQUE
ALTER TABLE tablename ADD CONSTRAINT Constraint in an existing
table
constraintname UNIQUE(columns); PRIMARY Key

Constraint
ALTER TABLE ITEM_MASTER ADD CONSTRAINT C4 existing table
UNIQUE(Name); FOREIGN Key

Constraint
The syntax for dropping unique constraint is: existing table
ALTER TABLE tablename DROP CONSTRAINT CHECK Constraint

Dealing with Check
constraintname; Constraint in an existing

table
DEFAULT Value
ALTER TABLE ITEM_MASTER DROP CONSTRAINT C4; Viewing USER

Constraints
3.11
Constraints
Primary Key Constraint
Primary Key Constraint

Constraints
Primary key constraint is also known as the entity integrity
NOT NULL Constraint
constraint Unique Constraint
A table can have at most one primary key constraint Dealing with UNIQUE
PRIMARY key is equivalent to the combination of NOT NULL table
PRIMARY Key
constraint and UNIQUE constraint Constraint
existing table
Column level: Columnname datatype(size) PRIMARY KEY or
FOREIGN Key
Constraint
Columnname datatype(size) CONSTRAINT constraintname KEY Constraint in an
existing table
PRIMARY KEY CHECK Constraint
Dealing with Check
Table level: CONSTRAINT constraintname PRIMARY table
DEFAULT Value
KEY(columns)
Viewing USER
Constraints
roll number(6) CONSTRAINT student_roll_pk PRIMARY KEY
CONSTRAINT student_roll_pk PRIMARY KEY(roll)
3.12
Constraints
Primary Key Constraint...
Constraints
Let the Item_no column in ITEM_MASTER table is primary key: NOT NULL Constraint
Unique Constraint
Dealing with UNIQUE
CREATE TABLE ITEM_MASTER(Item_no NUMBER(4) Constraint in an existing
table
PRIMARY KEY, Name VARCHAR2(20) UNIQUE, PRIMARY Key
Qty_on_hand NUMBER(5), Category CHAR(1), Unit_measure Constraint
CHAR(4), Reorder_Lvl NUMBER(5) NOT NULL, Reorder_qty KEY Constraint in an
existing table
NUMBER(5) NOT NULL, Rate NUMBER(8,2) NOT NULL); FOREIGN Key

Constraint
existing table
CREATE TABLE ITEM_MASTER(Item_no NUMBER(4), Name CHECK Constraint

Dealing with Check
VARCHAR2(20) UNIQUE, Qty_on_hand NUMBER(5), Constraint in an existing
table
Category CHAR(1), Unit_measure CHAR(4), Reorder_Lvl DEFAULT Value
NUMBER(5) NOT NULL, Reorder_qty NUMBER(5) NOT Viewing USER
Constraints
NULL, Rate NUMBER(8,2) NOT NULL, CONSTRAINT C7
PRIMARY KEY(Item_no));
3.13
Constraints
Dealing with Primary Key Constraint in an existing table
Constraints
The syntax for adding Primary key constraint is: NOT NULL Constraint
Unique Constraint
ALTER TABLE tablename ADD CONSTRAINT Dealing with UNIQUE
constraintname PRIMARY KEY(columns); Constraint in an existing

table
PRIMARY Key
Constraint
ALTER TABLE ITEM_MASTER ADD CONSTRAINT C5 Dealing with PRIMARY
PRIMARY KEY(Item_no); existing table
FOREIGN Key
Constraint
The syntax for dropping Primary key constraint is: Dealing with FOREIGN
ALTER TABLE tablename DROP PRIMARY KEY existing table
CHECK Constraint
[CASCADE]; Dealing with Check
table
ALTER TABLE ITEM_MASTER DROP PRIMARY KEY; or DEFAULT Value
Viewing USER
Constraints
ALTER TABLE ITEM_MASTER DROP CONSTRAINT C5;
3.14
Constraints
Foreign Key Constraint
Foreign Key Constraint
It is also known as the referential integrity constraint. It Constraints
establishes a relationship with the primary key of the same or NOT NULL Constraint
Unique Constraint
another table. Foreign key and the referenced primary key Dealing with UNIQUE
columns need not have the same name, but the data type, size Constraint in an existing
table
and domain must match PRIMARY Key

Constraint
Column level: Columnname datatype(size) [CONSTRAINT existing table
constraintname] REFERENCES tablename(columns) or FOREIGN Key

Constraint
Columnname datatype(size) [CONSTRAINT Dealing with FOREIGN
constraintname] REFERENCES tablename existing table
CHECK Constraint
Dealing with Check
Table level: CONSTRAINT constraintname FOREIGN table
KEY(columns) REFERENCES tablename(columns) DEFAULT Value
Viewing USER
Constraints
fid VARCHAR(6) CONSTRAINT student_fid_fk REFERENCES
faculty(fid)
CONSTRAINT student_fid_fk FOREIGN KEY(fid)

REFERENCES faculty(fid)
3.15
Constraints
Foreign Key Constraint...
ON DELETE CASCADE
Constraints
This option can be added to allow deletion of a record in the
NOT NULL Constraint
parent table and deletion of the dependent records in the child
Unique Constraint
table implicitly Dealing with UNIQUE
table
Coulmn level: Columnname datatype(size) [CONSTRAINT PRIMARY Key

Constraint
constraintname] REFERENCES tablename(columns) [ON Dealing with PRIMARY
DELETE CASCADE] existing table
FOREIGN Key
Constraint
Table level: CONSTRAINT constraintname FOREIGN KEY Constraint in an
existing table
KEY(columns) REFERENCES tablename(columns) [ON CHECK Constraint
DELETE CASCADE] Dealing with Check
table
fid VARCHAR(6) CONSTRAINT student_fid_fk REFERENCES DEFAULT Value
faculty(fid) ON DELETE CASCADE Viewing USER

Constraints
CONSTRAINT student_fid_fk FOREIGN KEY(fid)

REFERENCES faculty(fid) ON DELETE CASCADE
3.16
Constraints
Foreign Key Constraint...
Constraints
NOT NULL Constraint
Unique Constraint
Let ITEM_TRANS be the table where It_no references to the Dealing with UNIQUE
Item_no column in ITEM_MASTER table table
PRIMARY Key
Constraint
Column Type Size Dealing with PRIMARY
It_no NUMBER 4 existing table
FOREIGN Key
Trans_date DATE Constraint
qty NUMBER 5 Dealing with FOREIGN

existing table
CHECK Constraint
CREATE TABLE ITEM_TRANS(It_no NUMBER(4) Dealing with Check
REFERENCES ITEM_MASTER(Item_no), trans_date DATE, table
qty NUMBER(5)); DEFAULT Value
Viewing USER
Constraints
3.17
Constraints
Dealing with Foreign Key Constraint in an existing table
Constraints
The syntax for adding Foreign key constraint is: NOT NULL Constraint
Unique Constraint
ALTER TABLE tablename ADD CONSTRAINT Dealing with UNIQUE
constraintname FOREIGN KEY(columns) REFERENCES Constraint in an existing

table
tablename(columns); PRIMARY Key

Constraint
ALTER TABLE ITEM_TRANS ADD CONSTRAINT C7 existing table
FOREIGN KEY(Item_no) REFERENCES FOREIGN Key

Constraint
ITEM_MASTER(Item_no); Dealing with FOREIGN
existing table
CHECK Constraint
The syntax for dropping Foreign key constraint is: Dealing with Check
ALTER TABLE tablename DROP CONSTRAINT table
constraintname; DEFAULT Value
Viewing USER
Constraints
ALTER TABLE ITEM_TRANS DROP CONSTRAINT C7;
3.18
Constraints
Check Constraint
Check Constraint Constraints
It defines a condition that every row must satisfy. There can be NOT NULL Constraint
more than one CHECK constraint on a column Unique Constraint

Dealing with UNIQUE
table
Column level: Columnname datatype(size) CONSTRAINT PRIMARY Key

Constraint
constraintname CHECK(condition) Dealing with PRIMARY
existing table
Table level: CONSTRAINT constraintname FOREIGN Key

Constraint
CHECK(condition) Dealing with FOREIGN
existing table
age NUMBER(2) CONSTRAINT student_age_chk CHECK Constraint

Dealing with Check
CHECK((age>=15) AND (age<=50)) Constraint in an existing
table
DEFAULT Value
CONSTRAINT student_age_chk CHECK((age>=15) AND Viewing USER

Constraints
(age<=50))
name VARCHAR(20) CONSTRAINT student_name_nn

CHECK(name is NOT NULL)
3.19
Constraints
Check Constraint...
Constraints
CREATE TABLE ITEM_MASTER(Item_no NUMBER(4)
NOT NULL Constraint
PRIMARY KEY, Name VARCHAR2(20) UNIQUE,
Unique Constraint
Qty_on_hand NUMBER(5), Category CHAR(1) Dealing with UNIQUE
CHECK(Category in(’A’, ’B’, ’C’), Unit_measure CHAR(4), table
Reorder_Lvl NUMBER(5) NOT NULL, Reorder_qty PRIMARY Key

Constraint
NUMBER(5) NOT NULL, Rate NUMBER(8,2) NOT NULL); Dealing with PRIMARY
existing table
FOREIGN Key
Constraint
CREATE TABLE ITEM_MASTER(Item_no NUMBER(4) KEY Constraint in an
existing table
PRIMARY KEY, Name VARCHAR2(20) UNIQUE, CHECK Constraint
Qty_on_hand NUMBER(5), Category CHAR(1) NOT NULL, Dealing with Check
Unit_measure CHAR(4), Reorder_Lvl NUMBER(5) NOT NULL, table
DEFAULT Value
Reorder_qty NUMBER(5) NOT NULL, Rate NUMBER(8,2)
Viewing USER
NOT NULL, CHECK((Category=’A’ AND Rate<=1000) OR Constraints
(Category=’B’ AND Rate<=4500) OR (Category=’C’ AND

Rate>=4500)));
3.20
Constraints
Dealing with Check Constraint in an existing table
Constraints
NOT NULL Constraint
The syntax for adding Check constraint is: Unique Constraint

Dealing with UNIQUE
ALTER TABLE tablename ADD CONSTRAINT Constraint in an existing
table
constraintname CHECK (condition); PRIMARY Key

Constraint
ALTER TABLE ITEM_TRANS ADD CONSTRAINT C8 existing table
CHECK(Category in(’A’, ’B’, ’C’)); FOREIGN Key

Constraint
The syntax for dropping Check constraint is: existing table
ALTER TABLE tablename DROP CONSTRAINT CHECK Constraint

Dealing with Check
constraintname; Constraint in an existing

table
DEFAULT Value
ALTER TABLE ITEM_TRANS DROP CONSTRAINT C8; Viewing USER

Constraints
3.21
Constraints
DEFAULT Value
Constraints
DEFAULT Value NOT NULL Constraint
It ensures that a particular column will always have a value Unique Constraint
Dealing with UNIQUE
when a new record is inserted. The default value gets Constraint in an existing
table
overwritten if a user enters another value. The default value is PRIMARY Key
Constraint
used if a NULL value is inserted. The DEFAULT value is Dealing with PRIMARY
defined in the column level. The syntax is: KEY Constraint in an

existing table
FOREIGN Key
Constraint
Columnname datatype(size) DEFAULT value Dealing with FOREIGN
existing table
CHECK Constraint
CREATE TABLE ITEM_MASTER(Item_no NUMBER(4) Dealing with Check
table
PRIMARY KEY, Name VARCHAR2(20) UNIQUE,
DEFAULT Value
Qty_on_hand NUMBER(5) DEFAULT 100, Category CHAR(1), Viewing USER
Unit_measure CHAR(4), Reorder_Lvl NUMBER(5) NOT NULL, Constraints
Reorder_qty NUMBER(5) NOT NULL, Rate NUMBER(8,2)

NOT NULL);
3.22
Constraints
DEFAULT Value...
Constraints
NOT NULL Constraint
Unique Constraint
Dealing with UNIQUE
If a column level constraint is defined on the column with a Constraint in an existing
table
default value, then the default value must precede the PRIMARY Key
constraint. The syntax is: Constraint
existing table
Columnname datatype(size) DEFAULT value constraint FOREIGN Key

Constraint
definition Dealing with FOREIGN
existing table
CHECK Constraint
Dealing with Check
Qty_on_hand NUMBER(5) DEFAULT 100 CHECK Constraint in an existing
table
(Qty_on_hand>=100), DEFAULT Value
Viewing USER
Constraints
3.23
Constraints
Viewing USER Constraints
Constraints
NOT NULL Constraint
Viewing USER Constraints Unique Constraint

Dealing with UNIQUE
User can view all the constraints by excuting table
SELECT * FROM USER_CONSTRAINTS; PRIMARY Key

Constraint
existing table
FOREIGN Key
If the user wants to view all the constraints applied to a single Constraint
table, the syntax is: Dealing with FOREIGN

existing table
SELECT * FROM USER_CONSTRAINTS WHERE
CHECK Constraint
TABLE_NAME= tablename; Dealing with Check
table
DEFAULT Value
SELECT * FROM USER_CONSTRAINTS WHERE Viewing USER

Constraints
TABLE_NAME=’ITEM_MASTER’;
3.24
Built-in Functions
Database Systems DUAL Table
Employee Table
Laboratory 4 Built-in Functions
Group Functions
Built-in Functions Scalar Functions

Date Functions
Numeric Functions
Character Functions
Conversion Functions
Misc. Functions
KIIT University
4.1
Built-in Functions
Built-in Functions
DUAL Table
1 DUAL Table Employee Table
Built-in Functions
Group Functions
2 Employee Table
Scalar Functions
Date Functions
Numeric Functions
3 Built-in Functions Character Functions
Misc. Functions
4 Group Functions
5 Scalar Functions
Date Functions
Numeric Functions
Character Functions
Misc. Functions
4.2
Built-in Functions
DUAL Table
DUAL Table
Employee Table
Built-in Functions
DUAL Table
Group Functions
DUAL table is a small worktable, which consists of only one Scalar Functions
Date Functions
column DUMMY and a single row with value X of VARCHAR2 Numeric Functions
type Character Functions

Misc. Functions
This table is owned by user SYS and is available to all users
It is used for Arithmetic calculations and Date retrieval

SELECT 2*5 FROM DUAL;
SELECT SYSDATE FROM DUAL;
4.3
Built-in Functions
Employee Table
DUAL Table
Employee Table
Built-in Functions
Group Functions
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO
7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 800 20 Scalar Functions
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 7698 20-FEB-81 1600 300 30 Date Functions
Numeric Functions
7521 WARD SALESMAN 7698 22-FEB-81 1250 500 30 Character Functions
7566 JONES MANAGER 7839 02-APR-81 2975 20 Conversion Functions
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 7698 28-SEP-81 1250 1400 30 Misc. Functions
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 7839 01-MAY-81 2850 30

7782 CLARK MANAGER 7839 09-JUN-81 2450 10
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 09-NOV-81 3000 20
7839 KING PRESIDENT 17-NOV-81 5000 10
7844 TURNER SALESMAN 7698 08-SEP-81 1500 0 30
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 23-SEP-81 1100 20
7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 950 30
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 3000 20
7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-JAN-82 1300 10
4.4
Built-in Functions
Built-in Functions
DUAL Table
Employee Table
Built-in Functions
Built-in Functions
Group Functions
The built-in functions provide a powerful tool for the Scalar Functions
enhancement of a basic query. They serve the purpose of Date Functions
Numeric Functions
manipulating data items and returning a result. Functions are Character Functions
of two types: Misc. Functions
• Single-row or Scalar functions:

• They work on columns from each row and return one result
per row
• Group functions or Aggregate functions:
• They manipulate data in a group of rows and return single
result
4.5
Built-in Functions
Group Functions
The group or aggregate functions perform an operation on a
group of rows and return one result. The different aggregate
DUAL Table
functions are:
Employee Table
COUNT([DISTINCT] column) Built-in Functions
Group Functions
This function counts the number of rows without considering Scalar Functions
NULL values Date Functions
Numeric Functions
Character Functions
SELECT COUNT(MGR) FROM EMP; Conversion Functions
Misc. Functions
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT MGR) FROM EMP;
COUNT(MGR) COUNT(DISTINCT MGR)
13 6
COUNT(*)
It counts the number of rows including NULL values
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM EMP;

COUNT(*)
14
4.6
Built-in Functions
Group Functions...
SUM([DISTINCT] column) DUAL Table
Employee Table
It finds the sum of all values in a column ignoring the NULL
Built-in Functions
values
Group Functions
SELECT SUM(SAL) FROM EMP; Scalar Functions

Date Functions
Numeric Functions
SUM(SAL) Character Functions

29055 Misc. Functions
AVG([DISTINCT] column)
It finds the average of all values in a column ignoring the NULL
values
SELECT AVG(SAL) FROM EMP;
AVG(SAL)
2075.35
4.7
Built-in Functions
Group Functions...
MAX([DISTINCT] column) DUAL Table
Employee Table
It finds the maximum value in the column ignoring the NULL
Built-in Functions
values
Group Functions
SELECT MAX(SAL) FROM EMP; Scalar Functions

Date Functions
Numeric Functions
MAX(SAL) Character Functions

5000 Misc. Functions
MIN([DISTINCT] column)
It finds the minimum value in the column ignoring the NULL
values
SELECT MIN(SAL) FROM EMP;
MIN(SAL)
800
4.8
Built-in Functions
Scalar Functions
Scalar Functions DUAL Table
Employee Table
These functions act on one value at a time. There are various Built-in Functions
types of scalar functions: Group Functions
• Date functions: These functions take a date value or Scalar Functions

Date Functions
date-type column as argument and return date-type data Numeric Functions
Character Functions
• Numeric functions: These functions take a number or Conversion Functions
Misc. Functions
number-type column as argument and return a numeric
value
• Character functions: These functions take a character
string or character-type column as argument and return a
character or numeric value
• Conversion functions: These functions are used to
convert value from one data type to another
• Misc. functions: These functions perform some specific
tasks
4.9
Built-in Functions
Date Functions
The date values are stored internally with day, month, year,
hour, minute and second information. The different date DUAL Table
functions are: Employee Table
Built-in Functions
SYSDATE Group Functions
It is the pseudo column that returns the system’s current date Scalar Functions
Date Functions
Numeric Functions
SELECT SYSDATE FROM DUAL; Character Functions

Misc. Functions
SYSDATE
21-JAN-13
ADD_MONTHS(date, n)
It adds calendar months to a date
SELECT ADD_MONTHS(HIREDATE, 4) FROM EMP WHERE
EMP_NO=7369;
ADD_MONTHS(HIREDATE,4)
17-APR-81
4.10
Built-in Functions
Date Functions...
DUAL Table
LAST_DAY(date) Employee Table
Built-in Functions
It returns the last day of the month
Group Functions
Scalar Functions
SELECT LAST_DAY(SYSDATE) FROM DUAL; Date Functions
Numeric Functions
LAST_DAY(SYSDATE) Character Functions
31-JAN-13
Misc. Functions
MONTHS_BETWEEN(date1, date2)
It finds the number of months between two dates
SELECT MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,’23-JAN-89’) FROM
DUAL;
MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,’23-JAN-89’)
287.90
4.11
Built-in Functions
Date Functions...
NEXT_DAY(date, ’day’)
DUAL Table
It finds the next occurrence of a day from the given date Employee Table
Built-in Functions
SELECT NEXT_DAY(SYSDATE, ’MONDAY’) FROM DUAL; Group Functions
Scalar Functions
NEXT_DAY(SYSDATE, ’MONDAY’) Date Functions
28-JAN-13 Numeric Functions

Character Functions
Misc. Functions
EXTRACT(YEAR/MONTH/DAY FROM date)

This extracts the year, month, or day from a date value
SELECT EXTRACT(MONTH FROM SYSDATE) FROM DUAL;

EXTRACT(MONTH FROM SYSDATE)
1
SELECT EXTRACT(YEAR FROM SYSDATE) FROM DUAL;

EXTRACT(YEAR FROM SYSDATE)
2013
4.12
Built-in Functions
Numeric Functions
These functions take numeric values and return a numeric

value. The different functions in this category are: DUAL Table
Employee Table
ABS(n) Built-in Functions
Group Functions
It returns the absolute value of n
Scalar Functions
Date Functions
SELECT ABS(5), ABS(-100) FROM DUAL; Numeric Functions
Character Functions
ABS(5) ABS(-100) Misc. Functions
5 100
CEIL(n)
This returns the smallest integer greater than or equal to the
given value
SELECT CEIL(-5.2), CEIL(5.7) FROM DUAL;

CEIL(-5.2) CEIL(5.7)
-5 6
4.13
Built-in Functions
Numeric Functions...
DUAL Table
FLOOR(n) Employee Table
This returns the largest integer less than or equal to the given Built-in Functions
Group Functions
value
Scalar Functions
Date Functions
SELECT FLOOR(-5.2), FLOOR(5.7) FROM DUAL; Numeric Functions
Character Functions
FLOOR(-5.2) FLOOR(5.7) Conversion Functions

Misc. Functions
-6 5
EXP(n)
It returns the exponent e raised to power n
SELECT EXP(5) FROM DUAL;

EXP(5)
148.413159
4.14
Built-in Functions
LN(n)
It returns the natural logarithm of n DUAL Table
Employee Table
SELECT LN(2) FROM DUAL; Built-in Functions
Group Functions
LN(2)
0.693147181 Scalar Functions
Date Functions
Numeric Functions
Character Functions
LOG(b, n) Conversion Functions
Misc. Functions
It returns logb n value
SELECT LOG(4,10) FROM DUAL;

LOG(4,10)
1.66096405
MOD(n, m)
It returns the integer remainder of n/m
SELECT MOD(15,4) FROM DUAL;

MOD(15,4)
3
4.15
Built-in Functions
POWER(m, n)
DUAL Table
It returns m raised to power n Employee Table
Built-in Functions
SELECT POWER(4,3) FROM DUAL; Group Functions
Scalar Functions
POWER(4,3) Date Functions
Numeric Functions
64 Character Functions
Misc. Functions
SQRT(n)
It returns the square root of the number n
SELECT SQRT(25) FROM DUAL;

SQRT(25)
5
SELECT SQRT(-25) FROM DUAL;

ORA-01428: argument ’-25’ is out of range
4.16
Built-in Functions
DUAL Table
ROUND(m, [n]) Employee Table
It returns m, rounded to n places to the right of a decimal point Built-in Functions
Group Functions
SELECT ROUND(15.19,1), ROUND(15.19) FROM DUAL; Scalar Functions

Date Functions
Numeric Functions
ROUND(15.19,1) ROUND(15.19) Character Functions

15.2 15 Misc. Functions
TRUNC(m, n)
It returns the truncated value of m up to n positions
SELECT TRUNC(15.19,1) FROM DUAL;

TRUNC(15.19,1)
15.1
4.17
Built-in Functions
SIGN(n)
DUAL Table
It returns the sign of number n: -1 for negative, 0 for zero, 1 for Employee Table
positive Built-in Functions
Group Functions
SELECT SIGN(-8.5) FROM DUAL; Scalar Functions

Date Functions
Numeric Functions
SIGN(-8.5) Character Functions
-1 Misc. Functions
SIN(n)
It returns sine of n, where n is in radian
SELECT SIN(60), SIN(1.047167) FROM DUAL;

SIN(60) SIN(1.047167)
-0.3048106 0.8660
Other trigonometric functions are: COS(n), TAN(n), SINH(n),

COSH(n), TANH(n)
4.18
Built-in Functions
Character Functions
These functions work on character values. The different types

of character functions are: DUAL Table
Employee Table
CHR(n)
Built-in Functions
It returns the ASCII character corresponding to the integer n Group Functions
Scalar Functions
SELECT CHR(70) FROM DUAL; Date Functions

Numeric Functions
Character Functions
CHR(70) Conversion Functions

Misc. Functions
CONCAT(s1, s2)
It joins the first string to the second string. It is similar to the ||
operator
SELECT CONCAT(’RAM’,’KRISHNA’), ’RAM’||’KRISHNA’

FROM DUAL;
CONCAT(’RAM’,’KRISHNA’) ’RAM’||’KRISHNA’
RAMKRISHNA RAMKRISHNA
4.19
Built-in Functions
Character Functions...
LPAD(s, n, c) DUAL Table
Employee Table
It pads the string s with the character c to the left to a total Built-in Functions
width of n Group Functions
Scalar Functions
SELECT LPAD(’ORACLE’,10,’*’) FROM DUAL; Date Functions
Numeric Functions
LPAD(’ORACLE’,10,’*’) Character Functions

****ORACLE Misc. Functions
RPAD(s, n, c)
It pads the string s with the character c to the right to a total
width of n
SELECT RPAD(’ORACLE’,10,’*’) FROM DUAL;
RPAD(’ORACLE’,10,’*’)
ORACLE****
4.20
Built-in Functions
INITCAP(s) DUAL Table
Employee Table
It returns the string with capitalization of the first letter in each Built-in Functions
word Group Functions
Scalar Functions
SELECT INITCAP(’HELLO’) FROM DUAL; Date Functions
Numeric Functions
Character Functions
INITCAP(’HELLO’) Conversion Functions
Hello Misc. Functions
SELECT INITCAP(E_NAME) FROM EMP;

LOWER(s)
It converts each letter to lowercase
SELECT LOWER(’HELLO’) FROM DUAL;
LOWER(’HELLO’)
hello
4.21
Built-in Functions
UPPER(s)
DUAL Table
It converts each letter to uppercase Employee Table
Built-in Functions
SELECT UPPER(’HeLLo’) FROM DUAL; Group Functions
Scalar Functions
UPPER(’HeLLo’) Date Functions
HELLO Numeric Functions
Character Functions
Misc. Functions
LTRIM(s, c)
It trims the string s from the left when the characters specified,
c, is present in s
SELECT LTRIM(E_NAME,’S’) FROM EMP;

RTRIM(s, c)
It trims the string s from the right when the characters
specified, c, is present in s
SELECT RTRIM(E_NAME,’I’) FROM EMP;

4.22
Built-in Functions
DUAL Table
REPLACE(s, s1, s2) Employee Table
It returns the string s with the replacement of s2 in place of s1 Built-in Functions
Group Functions
SELECT REPLACE(’ORACLE’,’RAC’,’V’) FROM DUAL; Scalar Functions

Date Functions
Numeric Functions
REPLACE(’ORACLE’,’RAC’,’V’) Character Functions
OVLE Conversion Functions

Misc. Functions
SUBSTR(s, n, m)
It returns a substring, starting at character position n, and
returns m number of characters
SELECT SUBSTR(’DATABASE’,3,2) FROM DUAL;
SUBSTR(’DATABASE’,3,2)
TA
4.23
Built-in Functions
DUAL Table
LENGTH(s)
Employee Table
It returns the number of characters present in the string s Built-in Functions
Group Functions
SELECT LENGTH(’ORACLE’) FROM DUAL; Scalar Functions

Date Functions
Numeric Functions
LENGTH(’ORACLE’) Character Functions
6 Conversion Functions
Misc. Functions
SOUNDEX(s)
It compares words that are spell differently, but sound alike
SELECT E_NAME FROM EMP WHERE

SOUNDEX(E_NAME)=SOUNDEX(’KEEING’);
E_NAME
KING
4.24
Built-in Functions
These functions convert data from one data type to another.

The different conversion functions are: DUAL Table
Employee Table
TO_NUMBER(char [,format]) Built-in Functions
Group Functions
It converts a character value with valid digits to a number using
Scalar Functions
the given format Date Functions
Numeric Functions
Character Functions
SELECT SUM(SAL) FROM EMP; Conversion Functions
SELECT SUM(TO_NUMBER(SAL)) FROM EMP; Misc. Functions
TO_DATE(char [,format])
It converts a character value to date value based on the format
provided
SELECT TO_DATE(’January 7, 1988’,’month dd, yyyy’) FROM

DUAL;
TO_DATE(’January 7, 1988’,’month dd, yyyy’)
07-JAN-88
4.25
Built-in Functions
Conversion Functions...
DUAL Table
Employee Table
TO_CHAR(number [,format])
Built-in Functions
It converts a number to a VARCHAR value based on the format Group Functions
provided. 0 is used for compulsory purpose and 9 is used for Scalar Functions
Date Functions
optional purpose Numeric Functions
Character Functions
SELECT TO_CHAR(17145,’$999,999’) FROM DUAL; Misc. Functions
TO_CHAR(17145,’$999,999’)
$17,145
SELECT TO_CHAR(17145,’$000,000’) FROM DUAL;

TO_CHAR(17145,’$000,000’)
$017,145
4.26
Built-in Functions
TO_CHAR(date [,format])
DUAL Table
It converts a date to a VARCHAR value based on the format Employee Table
provided Built-in Functions
Group Functions
SELECT TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,’MONTH DD, YYYY’) FROM Scalar Functions
EMP WHERE EMP_NO=7566; Date Functions
Numeric Functions
Character Functions
TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,’MONTH DD, YYYY’) Conversion Functions
APRIL 02, 1981 Misc. Functions
Use of TH in Date formatting

It converts a date to a VARCHAR value based on TH format
SELECT HIREDATE, TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,’DDTH-MON-YY’)
FROM EMP WHERE DEPT_NO=10;
HIREDATE TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,’DDTH-MON-YY’)
09-JUN-81 09TH-JUN-81
17-NOV-81 17TH-NOV-81
23-JAN-82 23RD-JAN-82
4.27
Built-in Functions
Use of SP in Date formatting

DUAL Table
It converts a date to a VARCHAR value with the spelling
Employee Table
SELECT TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,’DDSP-MON-YY’) FROM EMP Built-in Functions
Group Functions
WHERE DEPT_NO=10;
Scalar Functions
Date Functions
TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,’DDSP-MON-YY’) Numeric Functions
NINE-JUN-81 Character Functions
SEVENTEEN-NOV-81 Conversion Functions
Misc. Functions
TWENTY-THREE-JAN-82
Use of SPTH in Date formatting

It converts a date to a VARCHAR value with the spelling and
TH format
SELECT TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,’DDSPTH-MON-YY’) FROM
EMP WHERE DEPT_NO=10;
TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,’DDSPTH-MON-YY’)
NINTH-JUN-81
SEVENTEENTH-NOV-81
TWENTY-THIRD-JAN-82
4.28
Built-in Functions
Misc. Functions
Two important functions to deal with NULL value are:

DUAL Table
NVL(column, value) Employee Table
Built-in Functions
It converts a NULL value to an actual value supplied as an Group Functions
argument. For numerical values, it accepts 0; whereas for Scalar Functions
character values, it accepts a fixed string Date Functions
Numeric Functions
Character Functions
SELECT E_NAME, NVL(COMMISSION, 0) Conversion Functions

Misc. Functions
COMMISSIONFROM EMP;
SELECT E_NAME, SALARY+NVL(COMMISSION, 0) Total
SalaryFROM EMP;
NVL2(column, notnullvalue, nullvalue)
It checks for NULL as well as not NULL values. If the column
has a not NULL value, the second parameter is displayed. If
the column has a NULL value, the third parameter is displayed
SELECT E_NAME, NVL2(COMMISSION, ’YES’, ’NO’) FROM

EMP;
4.29
Grouping, DCL & TCL
Database Systems Grouping Data
Data Control
Laboratory 5 Language (DCL)
Transaction Control
Language (TCL)
Grouping, DCL & TCL SQL*PLUS

Commands
KIIT University
5.1
Grouping, DCL & TCL
Grouping, DCL & TCL
Grouping Data
Data Control
Language (DCL)
Transaction Control
1 Grouping Data Language (TCL)
SQL*PLUS
Commands
2 Data Control Language (DCL)
3 Transaction Control Language (TCL)
4 SQL*PLUS Commands
5.2
Grouping, DCL & TCL
Grouping Data
GROUP BY clause
GROUP BY clause is used for grouping data. The column Grouping Data
appearing in SELECT statement must also appear in GROUP Data Control

Language (DCL)
BY clause. The syntax of this is: Transaction Control
SELECT column, groupfunction(column) FROM tablename Language (TCL)
SQL*PLUS
GROUP BY column; Commands
SELECT DEPT_NO FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPT_NO;

DEPT_NO
30
20
10
SELECT DEPT_NO, AVG(SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY
DEPT_NO;
DEPT_NO AVG(SAL)
30 1566.66666666666666666666666666666666667
20 2175
10 2926.66666666666666666666666666666666667
5.3
Grouping, DCL & TCL
Grouping Data...
Grouping Data
Data Control
Language (DCL)
HAVING Clause
Transaction Control
HAVING clause can restrict groups. The syntax of this is: Language (TCL)
SQL*PLUS
Commands
SELECT column, groupfunction(column) FROM tablename
GROUP BY column [HAVING groupcondition];
SELECT DEPT_NO, AVG(SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY

DEPT_NO HAVING AVG(SAL)>2000;
DEPT_NO AVG(SAL)
20 2175
10 2926.66666666666666666666666666666666667
5.4
Grouping, DCL & TCL
Grouping Data...
Grouping Data
WHERE and GROUP BY Clause Data Control

Language (DCL)
The data can be restricted before the grouping by using Transaction Control
Language (TCL)
WHERE clause. The syntax of this is:
SQL*PLUS
Commands

[WHERE condition] GROUP BY column;
SELECT DEPT_NO, AVG(SAL) FROM EMP WHERE

SAL>2000 GROUP BY DEPT_NO;
DEPT_NO AVG(SAL)
30 2850
20 2991.66666666666666666666666666666666667
10 3740
5.5
Grouping, DCL & TCL
Grouping Data...
Grouping Data
WHERE, GROUP BY and HAVING Clause
Data Control
Language (DCL)
WHERE clause is used to filter the unwanted records, while the
Transaction Control
HAVING clause is used to filter the unwanted groups. The Language (TCL)
syntax for it is: SQL*PLUS

Commands

[WHERE condition] GROUP BY column [HAVING
groupcondition];
SELECT DEPT_NO, AVG(SAL) FROM EMP WHERE

SAL>2000 GROUP BY DEPT_NO HAVING AVG(SAL)<3000;
DEPT_NO AVG(SAL)
30 2850
20 2991.66666666666666666666666666666666667
5.6
Grouping, DCL & TCL
Data Control Language
An object privilege specifies what a user can do with a Grouping Data

database object, such as a table or a view. The different Data Control
privileges for table are: ALTER, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, Language (DCL)
Transaction Control
and SELECT Language (TCL)
SQL*PLUS
Granting Privileges Commands
A user can grant privileges on objects from own schema to

other users or roles by using GRANT command. The syntax of
providing a privilege is:
GRANT privileges/ ALL ON objectname TO username/
PUBLIC [WITH GRANT OPTION];
WITH GRANT OPTION clause allows the grantee to grant
privileges to other users and roles
GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON Employee TO Mita;
GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON Employee TO Mita WITH

GRANT OPTION;
5.7
Grouping, DCL & TCL
Data Control Language...
Grouping Data
SELECT * FROM SYSTEM.Employee;
Data Control
Language (DCL)
GRANT SELECT ON SYSTEM.Employee TO Mithun; Transaction Control

Language (TCL)
SQL*PLUS
Revoking Privileges Commands
If a user granted privileges by a WITH GRANT OPTION to

another user and that second user passed on those privileges,
the REVOKE statement takes privileges not only from the
grantee but also from the users granted privileges by the
grantee. The general syntax is:
REVOKE privileges/ALL ON objectname FROM username/
PUBLIC;
REVOKE INSERT ON Employee FROM Mita;
REVOKE ALL ON Employee FROM Mita;
5.8
Grouping, DCL & TCL
Transaction Control Language
A transaction consists of a sequence of query and update Grouping Data
statements. Transaction Control Language gives you flexibility Data Control

Language (DCL)
to undo transactions or write transactions to the disk.
Transaction Control
Transactions provide consistency in case of a system failure Language (TCL)
SQL*PLUS
Commands
Committing a transaction
COMMIT statement is used to end the current transaction and
makes permanent any changes made during transaction. The
general syntax is:
COMMIT;
Roll backing the operations

ROLLBACK statement is used to discard parts or all of the
work the user has done in the current transaction. The syntax
for this is:
ROLLBACK;
5.9
Grouping, DCL & TCL
Transaction Control Language...
Grouping Data
Data Control
Language (DCL)
Transaction Control
Roll backing the operations to a particular position Language (TCL)
SQL*PLUS
SAVEPOINT allows the user to create logical marking in the Commands
whole transaction, so that the system will discard all the

changes up to a point. The syntax for creating a SAVEPOINT
is:
SAVEPOINT savepointname;
The syntax for roll backing to a particular savepoint is:

ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT savepointname;
5.10
Grouping, DCL & TCL
SQL*PLUS Commands
Grouping Data
SAVE filename.sql [REPLACE/ APPEND] Data Control
Language (DCL)
It saves current buffer contents to a file Transaction Control
Language (TCL)
SQL*PLUS
GET filename.sql Commands
It retrieves previously saved file to the buffer
START filename.sql
It runs a previously saved command from file
@filename.sql
Same as START command
The filename in the file-related commands requires entire file
path
5.11
Grouping, DCL & TCL
SQL*PLUS Commands...
EDIT Grouping Data
It opens the current buffer named afiedt.buf Data Control

Language (DCL)
Transaction Control
Language (TCL)
EDIT filename.sql SQL*PLUS
Commands
It allows to edit a saved file
PASSWORD
It allows to change the password
CREATE USER username IDENTIFIED BY password

It creates a new user with respective password
EXIT
It leaves SQL *PLUS environment & commits current
transaction
5.12
Join & Set Operators
Database Systems CROSS JOIN
Join
Laboratory 6 Inner Join
Outer Join
Join & Set Operators Self Join
Set Operators
KIIT University
6.1
CROSS JOIN
1 CROSS JOIN Join
Inner Join
Outer Join
2 Join Self Join
Set Operators
3 Inner Join
4 Outer Join
5 Self Join
6 Set Operators
6.2
Cross Join
CROSS JOIN
Join
Inner Join
Cross Join Outer Join
Self Join
Cross join is used to combine information from any two
Set Operators
relations
SELECT Department.deptno, location, ename, eid FROM
Employee, Department;
SELECT d.deptno, d.location, e.ename, e.eid FROM Employee

e, Department d;
SELECT * FROM Employee CROSS JOIN Department;
6.3
Join
CROSS JOIN
Join
Join
When the required data are present in more than one table, Inner Join
related tables are joined using a join condition. The join Outer Join
condition combines a row in one table with a row in another Self Join
table based on the same values in the common columns Set Operators
Tables are joined on columns that have the same datatype and
data width in the tables. Join operation joins two relations by
merging those tuples from two relations that satisfy a given
condition
In broad level, Joins are of three categories:

• Inner Join
• Outer Join
• Self Join
6.4
Inner Join
CROSS JOIN
In the Inner Join, tuples with NULL valued join attributes do not Join
appear in the result. Tuples with NULL values in the join Inner Join
attributes are also eliminated. The different types of inner join Outer Join
are: Self Join
Set Operators
Theta Join
Theta join is a join with a specified condition involving a column
from each table. The syntax of theta join is:
SELECT columns FROM tables WHERE join_condition;
When columns are retrieved from more than one table, the use
of a table name qualifier in front of the column name tells the
server to retrieve that column from the specified table
SELECT e.eid, e.ename, e.sal, s.bonus FROM Employee e,

Salgrades s WHERE e.comm>s.bonus;
6.5
Inner Join...
CROSS JOIN
Equi Join
Join
Equi join is a special kind of theta join where the join condition Inner Join
is based on the equality operation Outer Join
Self Join
SELECT empno, ename, Employee.deptno, dname FROM Set Operators
Employee, Department WHERE Employee.deptno =

Department.deptno;
Natural Join
Natural join is possible between two tables only when they
contain at least one common attribute. It is just like the equi
join with the elimination of the common attributes. The syntax
of natural join is:
SELECT columns FROM table1 NATURAL JOIN table2;
SELECT ename, sal, deptno FROM Employee NATURAL JOIN

Department;
6.6
Outer Join
Outer join is an extension of the natural join operation to deal

with the missing information. The different types of outer join CROSS JOIN
are: Join
Inner Join
Left Outer Join Outer Join
Left outer join preserves all rows in left table even though there Self Join
is no matching tuples present in the right table. The syntax of Set Operators
left outer join is:

SELECT columns FROM table1 LEFT OUTER JOIN table2
USING(column); or
SELECT columns FROM table1 LEFT OUTER JOIN table2
ON table1.column= table2.column;
SELECT * FROM Employee LEFT OUTER JOIN Department

USING(deptno);
SELECT * FROM Employee LEFT OUTER JOIN Department
ON Employee.deptno= Department.deptno;
SELECT deptno, location, ename * FROM Employee,
Department WHERE Employee.deptno=
Department.deptno(+);
6.7
Outer Join...
CROSS JOIN
Right Outer Join Join
Right outer join preserves all rows in right table even though Inner Join
Outer Join
there is no matching tuples present in left table. The syntax of
Self Join
right outer join is:
Set Operators
SELECT columns FROM table1 RIGHT OUTER JOIN table2
USING(column); or
SELECT columns FROM table1 RIGHT OUTER JOIN table2
SELECT * FROM Employee RIGHT OUTER JOIN Department

USING(deptno);
SELECT * FROM Employee RIGHT OUTER JOIN Department
SELECT deptno, location, ename * FROM Employee,
Department WHERE Employee.deptno(+)=
Department.deptno;
6.8
Outer Join...
CROSS JOIN
Join
Full Outer Join Inner Join
Full outer join preserves all records in both tables. The syntax Outer Join
of full outer join is: Self Join
SELECT columns FROM table1 FULL OUTER JOIN table2 Set Operators
USING(column); or
SELECT columns FROM table1 FULL OUTER JOIN table2

SELECT * FROM Employee FULL OUTER JOIN Department

USING(deptno);
SELECT * FROM Employee FULL OUTER JOIN Department

6.9
Self Join
CROSS JOIN
Join
Inner Join
Self Join Outer Join
Self Join
Self join is similar to the theta join. It joins a relation to itself by
Set Operators
a condition. When a table is joined to itself, two copies of the
same table are used. The syntax for this is:
SELECT columns FROM table T1, table T2 WHERE
T1.column operator T2.column;
SELECT e.ename AS ëmployee", m.ename AS

managerFROM Employee m, Employee e WHERE
e.mgr=m.empno;
6.10
Set Operators
CROSS JOIN
Join
Inner Join
To perform the set operations such as UNION, DIFFERENCE Outer Join
Self Join
and INTERSECTION, the relations need to be union
Set Operators
compatible for the result to be a valid relation. The different set
operators are:
UNION
Union is used to combine data from two relations
SELECT name, job FROM Employee WHERE dept=20 UNION
SELECT name, job FROM Employee WHERE dept=30;
6.11
Set Operators...
CROSS JOIN
Join
DIFFERENCE
Inner Join
Difference is used to identify the rows that are in one relation Outer Join
and not in another Self Join
Set Operators
SELECT name, job FROM Employee WHERE dept=20 MINUS
SELECT name, job FROM Employee WHERE dept=30;
INTERSECTION
Intersection is used to identify the rows that are common to two
relations
SELECT name, job FROM Employee WHERE dept=20
INTERSECT SELECT name, job FROM Employee WHERE
dept=30;
6.12
Sub-Query
Database Systems Sub Query
Single-row Subquery
Laboratory 7 Multiple-row Subquery
Multiple-column
Sub-Query Subquery
Correlated Subquery
Nested Subquery
UPDATE with
Subquery
DELETE with
Subquery
TOP- N Analysis
KIIT University
7.1
Sub-Query
Sub-Query
1 Sub Query Sub Query
Single-row Subquery
2 Single-row Subquery Multiple-row Subquery
Multiple-column
Subquery
3 Multiple-row Subquery Correlated Subquery
Nested Subquery
4 Multiple-column Subquery UPDATE with

Subquery
DELETE with
5 Correlated Subquery Subquery
TOP- N Analysis
6 Nested Subquery
7 UPDATE with Subquery
8 DELETE with Subquery
9 TOP- N Analysis
7.2
Sub-Query
Sub Query
Sub Query Sub Query
Single-row Subquery
Subquery is a SELECT statement that is nested within another Multiple-row Subquery
SELECT statement, which returns intermediate results Multiple-column
Subquery
Correlated Subquery
It is useful when you need to select rows from a table with a
Nested Subquery
condition that depends on the data in another table. Here, inner
UPDATE with
query evaluates first, generates values that are tested in the Subquery
condition of the outer query. Subqueries are of two types: DELETE with
Subquery
• Single-row subquery: It is a subquery that returns only TOP- N Analysis
one row of data

• Multiple-row subquery: It is a subquery that returns
more than one row of data
The subtypes of subqueries are:

• Multiple column Subqueries
• Correlated subqueries
7.3
Sub-Query
Single-row Subquery
Sub Query
Single-row Subquery
Single-row Subquery Multiple-row Subquery
Multiple-column
Single-row subquery returns zero or one row to the outer SQL Subquery
statement. The general syntax of this is: Correlated Subquery
SELECT columns FROM table1 WHERE column operator Nested Subquery
UPDATE with
(SELECT column FROM table2 WHERE condition); Subquery
DELETE with
Let, Student (roll,name,age, deptno) and Department (deptno, Subquery
dname, campus) be two schemas. If the user wants to find the TOP- N Analysis
roll and name of students belongs to ’CSE’ department, the

query is:
SELECT roll, name FROM Student WHERE deptno=(SELECT

deptno FROM Department WHERE dname=’CSE’);
7.4
Sub-Query
Single-row Subquery...
Sub Query
Single-row Subquery
Multiple-row Subquery
Multiple-column
Single-row Subquery used in HAVING clause Subquery
Correlated Subquery
Subquery can be used in place of the value in the HAVING
Nested Subquery
clause
UPDATE with
Subquery
Q. Find the department and the departmental average age DELETE with
which are less than the maximum departmental age Subquery
TOP- N Analysis
SELECT deptno, AVG(age) FROM Student GROUP BY deptno

HAVING AVG(age)<(SELECT MAX(AVG(age)) FROM Student
GROUP BY deptno);
7.5
Sub-Query
Single-row Subquery...
Sub Query
Single-row Subquery
Single-row Subquery used in FROM clause Multiple-row Subquery
Multiple-column
The inner SELECT statement in the FROM clause is used as Subquery
the data source for the outer SELECT statement. This is also Correlated Subquery
called as Inline View Nested Subquery
UPDATE with
Subquery
SELECT age FROM (SELECT age FROM Student WHERE
DELETE with
age<20); Subquery
TOP- N Analysis
A subquery may not use the ORDER BY clause, but an inline

view may
SELECT age FROM (SELECT age FROM Student ORDER BY

age DESC) WHERE ROWNUM<=2;
7.6
Sub-Query
Sub Query
Single-row Subquery
Multiple-column
Subquery
Multiple-row subquery returns more than one row. It uses
Correlated Subquery
either IN, ALL or ANY operator Nested Subquery
UPDATE with
SELECT roll, name FROM Student WHERE age< Subquery
ANY(SELECT age FROM Customer); DELETE with

Subquery
TOP- N Analysis
SELECT roll, name FROM Student WHERE age< IN(SELECT
age FROM Customer);
SELECT roll, name FROM Student WHERE age<

ALL(SELECT age FROM Customer);
7.7
Sub-Query
Multiple-column Subquery
Sub Query
Single-row Subquery
Multiple-column
Subquery
Multiple-column Subquery Correlated Subquery
Nested Subquery
Multiple-column subquery returns more than one column as UPDATE with
result Subquery
DELETE with
Subquery
SELECT roll,deptno,age FROM Student WHERE (deptno,age)
TOP- N Analysis
IN (SELECT deptno,MIN(age) FROM Student Group BY
deptno);
7.8
Sub-Query
Correlated Subquery
Sub Query
Single-row Subquery
Correlated Subquery
Multiple-column
Subquery
In a correlated subquery, the inner query can reference
Correlated Subquery
columns from the outer query. The inner query is executed Nested Subquery
once for each row in the outer query UPDATE with
Subquery
SELECT roll, deptno, name, age FROM Student s1 WHERE DELETE with
Subquery
age>(SELECT AVG(age) FROM Student s2 WHERE TOP- N Analysis
s1.deptno = s2.deptno);
SELECT * FROM Catalog WHERE Catalog.bookid IN(SELECT

bookid FROM Order_Details WHERE Catalog.bookid=
Order_Details.bookid);
7.9
Sub-Query
Nested Subquery
Sub Query
Single-row Subquery
Nested Subquery
Multiple-column
Subquery
You can nest subqueries to a depth of 255
Correlated Subquery
Nested Subquery
SELECT empid, empname, salary, hiredate FROM Employee
UPDATE with
WHERE empid IN(SELECT empid FROM Employee WHERE Subquery
mgrid = (SELECT empid FROM Employee WHERE empname DELETE with

Subquery
= ’Paresh’)); TOP- N Analysis
SELECT deptno,AVG(age) FROM Student GROUP BY deptno

HAVING AVG(age)<( SELECT MAX(AVG(age)) FROM Student
WHERE deptno IN (SELECT deptno FROM Staff WHERE
qty>10) GROUP BY deptno);
7.10
Sub-Query
UPDATE with Subquery
Sub Query
UPDATE with Subquery Single-row Subquery
The column values can be updated with the help of a subquery Multiple-row Subquery
statement. The general syntax is: Multiple-column

Subquery
UPDATE tablename SET columnname = value WHERE Correlated Subquery
columnnane operator (SELECT subquery); Nested Subquery
UPDATE with
Subquery
The value in the update statement can also be calculated by DELETE with
using a subquery. The general syntax for this is: Subquery
TOP- N Analysis
UPDATE tablename SET columnname = (SELECT
subquery) [WHERE condition];
Update the age of the student having roll no. 4 to the average
age of all the students
UPDATE Student SET age=(SELECT AVG(age) FROM

Student) WHERE roll=4;
7.11
Sub-Query
DELETE with Subquery
Sub Query
Single-row Subquery
DELETE with Subquery Multiple-column
Subquery
A row or rows from a table can be deleted based on a value Correlated Subquery
returned by a subquery. The general syntax is: Nested Subquery
DELETE FROM tablename WHERE columnname = UPDATE with

Subquery
(SELECT subquery); DELETE with
Subquery
Delete all the student records whose ages are greater than the TOP- N Analysis
average age of the students
DELETE FROM Student WHERE age>(SELECT AVG(age)

FROM Student);
7.12
Sub-Query
TOP- N Analysis
Sub Query
Single-row Subquery
Multiple-column
TOP- N Analysis Subquery
Correlated Subquery
TOP-N queries are used to sort rows in a table and then to find Nested Subquery
the first- N largest or first- N smallest values UPDATE with
Subquery
DELETE with
TOP-N query uses an order by clause. The sorted rows are Subquery
numbered with a pseudocolumn named ROWNUM TOP- N Analysis
SELECT roll, name FROM (SELECT roll, name FROM student

ORDER BY roll DESC) WHERE ROWNUM<= 4;
7.13
View, Sequence,
Synonym & Index
Database Systems View

Complex View
Laboratory 8 Advantages of Views
Sequence
View, Sequence, Synonym & Index Synonym
Index
KIIT University
8.1
View, Sequence,
View, Sequence, Synonym & Index Synonym & Index
View
Complex View
Advantages of Views
1 View Sequence
Complex View Synonym
Advantages of Views Index
2 Sequence
3 Synonym
4 Index
8.2
View, Sequence,
View Synonym & Index
View
View is an object which gives the user a logical view of data View
Complex View
from an underlying table or tables Advantages of Views
Sequence
You can restrict what users can view by allowing them to see Synonym
only a few columns from a table Index
When a view is created from more than one table, the user can
view data from the view without using join conditions and
complex conditions
Views also hide the names of the underlying tables
View is stored as a SELECT statement in the Data Dictionary

View contains no data of its own Any updation of rows in the
table will automatically reflect in the views
A query fired on a view will run slower than a query fired on a

base table
8.3
View, Sequence,
View... Synonym & Index
View
View Types Complex View

Advantages of Views
Views are of two types: Sequence
Synonym
• Simple view : It is based on one table. It allows data Index
manipulation
• Complex view : It is based on one or more tables. It
doesn’t allow data manipulation
View Creation
The syntax for creating a view is:
CREATE [OR REPLACE] VIEW viewname AS SELECT
statement;
CREATE VIEW Debts AS SELECT * FROM BILLS;
8.4
View, Sequence,
Creating View from another View

View
Similar to the view creation from tables, a view can be created Complex View
Advantages of Views
from a previously created view
Sequence
Synonym
CREATE VIEW Credit_dbt AS SELECT * FROM Debts
Index
WHERE account_id=4;
Displaying the content of a view
User can display the content from a view as:
SELECT * FROM viewname;
SELECT * FROM Debts;

Inserting into table through view
User can insert records into the underlying table through the
view as:
INSERT INTO viewname VALUES(val1, val2..);
INSERT INTO Debts VALUES(val1,val2,..);

8.5
View, Sequence,
Describing a view structure

View
View structure can be described as: Complex View
Advantages of Views
DESCRIBE viewname;
Sequence
Synonym
DESCRIBE Debts;
Index
Updating table data through view

User can update the records of a table through the view as:
UPDATE viewname SET columnname=newvalue[WHERE
cond n ];
UPDATE Debts SET PRICE=PRICE*1.1 WHERE

PUBLISHER=’MGH’;
Deleting records from table through view
User can delete records from table through view as:
DELETE FROM viewname [WHERE cond n ];
DELETE FROM Debts WHERE condn;

8.6
View, Sequence,
Creating a View WITH CHECK OPTION Constraint

View
This constraint applies to the WHERE clause condition in the Complex View
Advantages of Views
subquery. It allows insertion and updation of rows based on the Sequence
condition that satisfies the view Synonym
Index
CREATE VIEW Asd AS SELECT * FROM Products WHERE
price < 15;
CREATE VIEW Psd AS SELECT * FROM Products WHERE

price < 15 WITH CHECK OPTION CONSTRAINT con1;
Creating a View WITH READ ONLY Constraint
This option is used to make sure that the data in the underlying
table are not changed through the view
CREATE VIEW Cheap_products_view3 AS SELECT * FROM

Products WHERE price < 15 WITH READ ONLY
CONSTRAINT cheap_products_view3_read_only;
8.7
View, Sequence,
View
Complex View
Advantages of Views
Sequence
Viewing all the user views Synonym
Index
All user created views can be displayed as:
SELECT * FROM USER_VIEWS;
Removing a View
A view can be removed as:
DROP VIEW viewname;
DROP VIEW Debts;
8.8
View, Sequence,
View
Complex View
Advantages of Views
Altering a View Sequence
Synonym
When the underlying table is altered, the view becomes invalid. Index
Thus, the view requires the recompilation as:
ALTER VIEW viewname COMPILE;
ALTER VIEW Debts COMPILE;
ALTER VIEW statement lets you add or remove constraints to

or from a view
ALTER VIEW Psd DROP CONSTRAINT con1;
8.9
View, Sequence,
View
Complex View
Advantages of Views
Sequence
Use of GROUP BY clause Synonym
GROUP By clause can be used with view creation Index
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW Vn (empno, noincr, amount) AS

SELECT emp_no, COUNT(*), SUM(amt) FROM INCR GROUP
BY emp_no;
CREATE VIEW Pr AS SELECT product_type_id, AVG(price)

average_price FROM Products WHERE price < 15 GROUP BY
product_type_id HAVING AVG(price) > 13;
8.10
View, Sequence,
Complex View Synonym & Index
View
Complex View
Advantages of Views
Sequence
Synonym
Complex View
Index
It is based on one or more tables. It doesn’t allow data

manipulation
In complex view, you can use only SELECT statement
CREATE VIEW Vw AS SELECT P.name, PT.type,P.price

FROM PRODUCTS P NATURAL JOIN PRODUCTTYPE PT;
8.11
View, Sequence,
Advantages of Views Synonym & Index
View
Complex View
Advantages of Views
Sequence
Advantages of Views Synonym
Some of the major advantages of using views are: Index
• Views allow in setting up different security levels for the

same base table, thus protecting certain data from people
who do not have proper authority
• The views allow the same data to be seen by different
users in different ways at the same time
• Views can be used to hide complex queries
8.12
View, Sequence,
Sequence Synonym & Index
Sequence View
Complex View
Advantages of Views
Sequence is used to generate a sequence of numbers. The Sequence
value generated can have a maximum of 38 digits Synonym
Index
The minimum information required to generate numbers using
a sequence are:
• The starting number
• The maximum number
• The increment value
The syntax for creating a sequence is:
CREATE SEQUENCE seqname INCREMENT BY n START
WITH s MAXVALUE m1 \ NOMAXVALUE MINVALUE m2 \
NOMINVALUE [CYCLE \ NOCYCLE] [CACHE c \
NOCACHE];
8.13
View, Sequence,
Sequence... Synonym & Index
View
CREATE SEQUENCE sq INCREMENT BY 1 START WITH Complex View
100 MAXVALUE 999 NOCACHE; Advantages of Views
Sequence
CURRVAL & NEXTVAL pseudocolumns Synonym
Index
NEXTVAL column returns the next available number in the
sequence
CURRVAL column gives the current sequence value
NEXTVAL must be used at least once to get the value from

CURRVAL
SELECT sq.CURRVAL FROM DUAL;
SELECT sq.NEXTVAL FROM DUAL;
INSERT INTO emp(eid) VALUES (sq.NEXTVAL);
8.14
View, Sequence,
Sequence... Synonym & Index
Viewing the details of a user sequences

SELECT sequence_name, last_number, max_value, View
Complex View
min_value, increment_by FROM USER_SEQUENCES; Advantages of Views
Sequence
Synonym
Modifying a Sequence Index
Modification of a sequence does not allow you to change the

START WITH option. Similarly, the maximum value cannot be
set to a number less than the current number
ALTER SEQUENCE seqname INCREMENT BY n
MAXVALUE m1 \ NOMAXVALUE MINVALUE m2 \
NOMINVALUE [CYCLE \ NOCYCLE] [CACHE c \
NOCACHE];
Dropping a Sequence
A sequence can be dropped as:
DROP SEQUENCE sequencename;
DROP SEQUENCE sq;

8.15
View, Sequence,
Synonym Synonym & Index
Synonym
Synonyms are used to create alternate names for tables, View
Complex View
views, sequences ... etc. The syntax for this is: Advantages of Views
CREATE [PUBLIC] SYNONYM synname FOR objectname; Sequence
Synonym
CREATE SYNONYM Emp FOR Employee; Index
CREATE SYNONYM Cstd FOR Customer_Details;

SELECT * FROM Cstd;
Viewing the details of a user synonyms
SELECT synonym_name, table_name, table_owner FROM
USER_SYNONYMS;
Dropping a Synonym
A Synonym can be dropped as:
DROP SYNONYM synonymname;
DROP SYNONYM Emp;

8.16
View, Sequence,
Index Synonym & Index
View
Index is used for faster retrieval of rows from a table. It can be Complex View
Advantages of Views
used implicitly or explicitly. Mainly, index is of two types:
Sequence
Synonym
Simple Index Index
It is created on a single column. The syntax is:

CREATE INDEX indexname ON tablename(column);
CREATE INDEX idx ON Student (cgpa);

Complex Index
It is created on more than one column. The syntax is:
CREATE INDEX indexname ON tablename(columns);
CREATE INDEX ids ON Student (first, last);
8.17
View, Sequence,
Index... Synonym & Index
View
Complex View
Advantages of Views
Viewing the details of a user-defined index
Sequence
SELECT index_name, table_name FROM USER_INDEXES; Synonym
Index
SELECT index_name, table_name FROM USER_INDEXES

WHERE table_name= ’Student’;
Rebuilding an Index
When a table goes through changes, it is advisable to rebuild
indexes based on that table. The syntax is:
ALTER INDEX indexname REBUILD;
ALTER INDEX ids REBUILD;
8.18
PL/SQL
Database Systems PL/SQL Basics

Advantages of PL/SQL
Laboratory 9 Structure of PL/SQL Block

Character Sets, Comments,
Special operators
Variables, Constant,
PL/SQL BOOLEAN Datatype,

%TYPE
User Message
Conditional Logic
CASE Statement
Looping Structure
Scope of variable in
nested block
DEFINE Statement
KIIT University
9.1
PL/SQL
PL/SQL
PL/SQL Basics
1 PL/SQL Basics Advantages of PL/SQL
Advantages of PL/SQL Structure of PL/SQL Block

Structure of PL/SQL Block Special operators

Character Sets, Comments, Special operators BOOLEAN Datatype,

%TYPE
Variables, Constant, BOOLEAN Datatype, %TYPE User Message
Conditional Logic
User Message CASE Statement
Looping Structure
2 Conditional Logic Scope of variable in

nested block
CASE Statement DEFINE Statement
3 Looping Structure
4 Scope of variable in nested block
5 DEFINE Statement
9.2
PL/SQL
PL/SQL Basics
PL/SQL Basics
Structure of PL/SQL Block
PL/SQL Basics Special operators

BOOLEAN Datatype,
%TYPE
• It is the procedural language extension of SQL User Message
Conditional Logic
• It is a block - structured language that enables developers CASE Statement
to combine the power of SQL with procedural statements Looping Structure
• It bridges the gap between database technology and Scope of variable in

nested block
procedural programming languages DEFINE Statement
• PL/SQL also possesses features of object oriented

languages like: Data encapsulation, Error handling, Data
hiding and Object oriented programming
9.3
PL/SQL
PL/SQL Basics
Advantages of PL/SQL Character Sets, Comments,

Special operators
BOOLEAN Datatype,
• It not only supports SQL data manipulation, but also %TYPE
User Message
provides facilities of conditional checking, branching & Conditional Logic
looping CASE Statement
Looping Structure
• It sends an entire block of statements to the oracle engine
at one time. Thus, reduces network traffic nested block
DEFINE Statement
• Permits dealing with errors
• It allows declaration & use of variables in blocks of code
• Applications written in PL/SQL are portable to any
computer hardware and operating system
9.4
PL/SQL
PL/SQL Basics
• DECLARE: declaration and initialization of variables and Advantages of PL/SQL
constants Structure of PL/SQL Block

Special operators
• BEGIN: implementation of actual programming logic Variables, Constant,
BOOLEAN Datatype,
• EXCEPTION: deals with runtime errors %TYPE

User Message
• END: end of PL/SQL block Conditional Logic

CASE Statement
Looping Structure
nested block
DEFINE Statement
9.5
PL/SQL
Character Sets, Comments, Special operators
Character Sets
PL/SQL Basics
• Letters: A...Z, and a...z Advantages of PL/SQL
• Numbers: 0...9 Character Sets, Comments,

Special operators
• Symbols: ∼ ! @ # $ % ∧ & * ( ) - + { [ } ] | : ; « , > . ? / etc BOOLEAN Datatype,
%TYPE
User Message
Conditional Logic
CASE Statement
Comments
Looping Structure
• Single line: - - Scope of variable in

nested block
• Multi line: /* ... */ DEFINE Statement
Special operators
• Assignment operator: : =
• Comparison operator: =
• Concatenation symbol: ||
• Exponents: **
9.6
PL/SQL
Variables, Constant, BOOLEAN Datatype, %TYPE
Variables
Variable name must begin with a character. Variable can hold PL/SQL Basics
at most 30 characters Structure of PL/SQL Block
Varname datatype[size]; Special operators
Ex:Input_no NUMBER(3); BOOLEAN Datatype,
%TYPE
User Message
Conditional Logic
Constant CASE Statement
Varname CONSTANT datatype[size]:=value; Looping Structure
Ex: Input_no NUMBER(3) :=16; Scope of variable in

nested block
Ex: Input_no CONSTANT NUMBER(3) :=16; DEFINE Statement
BOOLEAN Datatype
Logical data type, either TRUE or FALSE or NULL only
%TYPE
Describes the data type of the table column
identifier tablename.columnname%TYPE;
Ex: name Employee.empname%TYPE;
9.7
PL/SQL
User Message
PL/SQL Basics
Special operators
User Message Variables, Constant,
BOOLEAN Datatype,
%TYPE
Oracle has a built-in package called DBMS_OUTPUT with the User Message
procedure PUT_LINE to print Conditional Logic

CASE Statement
Looping Structure
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (message); Scope of variable in
Message is generally of varchar nested block
DEFINE Statement
Before using PUT_LINE(), you should switch ON the output

buffer as:
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON;
9.8
PL/SQL
Conditional Logic
PL/SQL Basics
Simple IF Advantages of PL/SQL
Special operators
IF condition THEN Variables, Constant,
BOOLEAN Datatype,
Statements %TYPE
User Message
END IF; Conditional Logic
CASE Statement
Looping Structure
Simple IF-ELSE nested block
DEFINE Statement
IF condition THEN
Statements
ELSE
Statements
END IF;
9.9
PL/SQL
Conditional Logic...
IF-ELSE Ladder
PL/SQL Basics
IF condition THEN Advantages of PL/SQL
Statements Character Sets, Comments,
Special operators
ELSIF condition THEN Variables, Constant,
BOOLEAN Datatype,
Statements %TYPE
User Message
ELSE Conditional Logic
Statements CASE Statement
Looping Structure
END IF;
nested block
DEFINE Statement
Nested IF-ELSE
IF condition THEN
IF condition THEN
Statements
END IF
ELSE
Statements
END IF;
9.10
PL/SQL
PL/SQL Basics
Input a number and check whether it is even or odd Character Sets, Comments,
Special operators
BOOLEAN Datatype,
DECLARE %TYPE
User Message
n number(5); Conditional Logic
BEGIN CASE Statement
n : =&n; Looping Structure
IF(MOD (n,2)=0) THEN nested block
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(’even’); DEFINE Statement
ELSE
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(’odd’);
END IF;
END;
9.11
PL/SQL
Write a PL/SQL block that will accept a client_no from the user
and adds 500 rupees to the bal_due column if the bal_due PL/SQL Basics
column has a value less than 5000 rupees. The process is fired Structure of PL/SQL Block
on the Client_Master table Character Sets, Comments,

Special operators
BOOLEAN Datatype,
%TYPE
DECLARE User Message
bal Client_Master.bal_due%TYPE; Conditional Logic

CASE Statement
cno Client_Master.client_no%TYPE; Looping Structure
addn number(4) : =500; Scope of variable in
BEGIN nested block
DEFINE Statement
cno : =&cno;
SELECT bal_due INTO bal FROM Client_Master
WHERE client_no=cno;
IF bal<5000 THEN
UPDATE Client_Master SET bal_due=bal_due+addn
WHERE client_no=cno;
END IF;
END;
9.12
PL/SQL
CASE Statement
PL/SQL Basics
Special operators
CASE Statement Variables, Constant,
BOOLEAN Datatype,
%TYPE
User Message
CASE selector Conditional Logic
WHEN exp1 THEN Statement1 CASE Statement
Looping Structure
WHEN exp2 THEN Statement2
... nested block
WHEN expn THEN Statementn DEFINE Statement
ELSE Statementn+1
END CASE;
9.13
PL/SQL
CASE Statement...
Input a 1-digit number and display the name
PL/SQL Basics
DECLARE Advantages of PL/SQL

vdigit NUMBER(1); Character Sets, Comments,

Special operators
BEGIN Variables, Constant,

BOOLEAN Datatype,
%TYPE
vdigit : =&vdigit; User Message
CASE vdigit Conditional Logic
WHEN 0 THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (’ZERO’); CASE Statement
Looping Structure
WHEN 1 THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (’ONE’); Scope of variable in
WHEN 2 THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (’TWO’); nested block
WHEN 3 THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (’THREE’); DEFINE Statement
WHEN 4 THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (’FOUR’);

WHEN 5 THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (’FIVE’);
WHEN 6 THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (’SIX’);
WHEN 7 THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (’SEVEN’);
WHEN 8 THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (’EIGHT’);
WHEN 9 THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (’NINE’);
ELSE DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (vdigit||’ is wrong input’);
END CASE;
END;
9.14
PL/SQL
Looping Structure
Basic Loop/Simple LOOP

PL/SQL Basics
LOOP Structure of PL/SQL Block

Statements Special operators

END LOOP; BOOLEAN Datatype,

%TYPE
User Message
The EXIT statement provides a way to stop the iterative loop: Conditional Logic
CASE Statement
• EXIT WHEN i>10; Looping Structure
• IF i>10 THEN EXIT; nested block
END IF; DEFINE Statement
WHILE LOOP
WHILE condition
LOOP
Statements
END LOOP;
9.15
PL/SQL
Looping Structure...
PL/SQL Basics
Special operators
BOOLEAN Datatype,
%TYPE
FOR LOOP User Message
Conditional Logic
CASE Statement
FOR variable IN [REVERSE] low.. high Looping Structure
LOOP Scope of variable in
Statements nested block
DEFINE Statement
END LOOP;
9.16
PL/SQL
Scope of variable in nested block
Scope of variable in nested block
PL/SQL statements can be nested wherever an executable PL/SQL Basics
statement is allowed. A nested block acts like a statement and Structure of PL/SQL Block
executable statements can be broken into smaller blocks Special operators
BOOLEAN Datatype,
DECLARE %TYPE
User Message
VA NUMBER(4) : =10; Conditional Logic
VB NUMBER(4) : =11; CASE Statement
Looping Structure
BEGIN
DECLARE nested block
VA NUMBER(4) : =100; DEFINE Statement
VB NUMBER(4) : = 111;
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(VA);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(VB);
END;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(’..................’);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(VA);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(VB);
END;
9.17
PL/SQL
DEFINE Statement
PL/SQL Basics
DEFINE Statement Special operators
BOOLEAN Datatype,
It is used to enter different sets of values by using & symbol on %TYPE
User Message
substitution variables
Conditional Logic
CASE Statement
It is done by setting the DEFINE ON and OFF Looping Structure
nested block
At the entry of each value, execute: DEFINE Statement
SET DEFINE OFF;
Later execute:
SET DEFINE ON;
9.18
CURSOR
Database Systems Cursor

Cursor Operations
Laboratory 10 %TYPE and %ROWTYPE
Implicit Cursor
Explicit Cursor
CURSOR Steps of Explicit Cursor
Cursor FOR Loop
Parameterized Cursors
FOR UPDATE Clause
WHERE CURRENT
OF Clause
Disadvantages of
Cursors
KIIT University
10.1
CURSOR
CURSOR
1 Cursor Cursor
Cursor Operations Cursor Operations
%TYPE and %ROWTYPE
%TYPE and %ROWTYPE Implicit Cursor
Explicit Cursor
2 Implicit Cursor Steps of Explicit Cursor
Cursor FOR Loop
3 Explicit Cursor Parameterized Cursors
FOR UPDATE Clause

Steps of Explicit Cursor
WHERE CURRENT
OF Clause
4 Cursor FOR Loop Disadvantages of

Cursors
5 Parameterized Cursors
6 FOR UPDATE Clause
7 WHERE CURRENT OF Clause
8 Disadvantages of Cursors
10.2
CURSOR
Cursor
Cursor
Cursor is the work area which Oracle reserves for internal Cursor
Cursor Operations
processing of SQL statements. The data which is stored in the %TYPE and %ROWTYPE
cursor is called Active Data Set Implicit Cursor
Explicit Cursor
Cursor is used when you have a SELECT statement that
Cursor FOR Loop
returns more than one row from the database Parameterized Cursors
FOR UPDATE Clause

A cursor is basically a set of rows that you access one at a time WHERE CURRENT
OF Clause
Disadvantages of
A cursor acts logically as a pointer into a result set Cursors
Cursor Attributes
Attribute Description
%ISOPEN Returns TRUE if cursor is open
%FOUND Returns TRUE if record was fetched successfully
%NOTFOUND Returns TRUE if record was not fetched
%ROWCOUNT Returns the number of records processed from the cursor
10.3
CURSOR
Cursor Operations
Cursor
Cursor Operations
Cursor Operations %TYPE and %ROWTYPE
Implicit Cursor
• Declare the cursor: Explicit Cursor

• CURSOR cursor_name IS select_query; Cursor FOR Loop
• Open the cursor: Parameterized Cursors
• OPEN cursor_name; FOR UPDATE Clause
WHERE CURRENT
• Fetch the data rows: OF Clause
• LOOP Disadvantages of
Cursors
FETCH cursor_name INTO variable_name(s);
EXIT WHEN cursor_name%NOTFOUND;
END LOOP
• Close the cursor:
• CLOSE cursor_name;
10.4
CURSOR
%TYPE and %ROWTYPE
Cursor
Cursor Operations
%TYPE %TYPE and %ROWTYPE
Implicit Cursor
It provides a column type Explicit Cursor
Variablename tablename.column%TYPE; Cursor FOR Loop
FOR UPDATE Clause

Ex: cno Customer.custno%TYPE;
WHERE CURRENT
OF Clause
Disadvantages of
%ROWTYPE Cursors
It provides a record type
variablename tablename%ROWTYPE;
Ex: vcust Customer%ROWTYPE;
10.5
CURSOR
Implicit Cursor
Cursor
Implicit Cursor Cursor Operations
%TYPE and %ROWTYPE
Implicit Cursor
• It is automatically created & handled by Oracle
Explicit Cursor
• It reserves an area in main memory to populate the data Steps of Explicit Cursor
Cursor FOR Loop

• It releases the memory area after the processing
FOR UPDATE Clause
• Implicit cursor handles all DMLs, i.e. INSERT, UPDATE & WHERE CURRENT
OF Clause
DELETE operations, which affect multiple rows and Disadvantages of
SELECT statement which returns exactly one row Cursors
• You have no control over an implicit cursor
• Implicit cursor attributes are: SQL%ISOPEN,

SQL%FOUND, SQL%NOTFOUND, SQL%ROWCOUNT
10.6
CURSOR
Implicit Cursor...
Cursor
An HRD manager has decided to raise the salary of employees Cursor Operations
by 15%. Write a PL/SQL block to accept an employee number and %TYPE and %ROWTYPE
update the salary of that employee. Display the appropriate Implicit Cursor
message based on the existence of the record in the EMP table Explicit Cursor
Cursor FOR Loop
BEGIN Parameterized Cursors
UPDATE EMP SET salary=salary*1.15 FOR UPDATE Clause
WHERE CURRENT
WHERE emp_no=&emp_no; OF Clause
IF SQL%FOUND THEN Disadvantages of
Cursors
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(’MODIFIED’);
END IF;
IF SQL%NOTFOUND THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(’NOT MODIFIED’);
END IF;
END;
10.7
CURSOR
Implicit Cursor...
An HRD manager has decided to raise the salary of employees

Cursor
working in department 30 by 15%. Write the PL/SQL block to Cursor Operations
display the number of records updated %TYPE and %ROWTYPE
Implicit Cursor
Explicit Cursor
DECLARE Steps of Explicit Cursor
rowaff NUMBER(4); Cursor FOR Loop
BEGIN
FOR UPDATE Clause
UPDATE EMP SET salary=salary*1.15 WHERE DEPT=30;
WHERE CURRENT
rowaff : =SQL%ROWCOUNT; OF Clause
IF rowaff>0 THEN Disadvantages of

Cursors
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(rowaff||’ Employee
records modified’);
ELSE
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(’There is no employee
working for dept. 30’);
END IF;
END;
10.8
CURSOR
Explicit Cursor
Cursor
Cursor Operations
Explicit Cursor %TYPE and %ROWTYPE
Implicit Cursor
• The cursors which are declared by user are called Explicit Explicit Cursor
Cursors Cursor FOR Loop
• When a SELECT statement returns more than one row of Parameterized Cursors
results, we have to use explicit cursor FOR UPDATE Clause
WHERE CURRENT
• We cannot use explicit cursor for DML statements OF Clause
Disadvantages of
Cursors
• Different attributes of explicit cursors are:

• Cursorname%ROWCOUNT
• Cursorname%FOUND
• Cursorname%NOTFOUND
• Cursorname%ISOPEN
10.9
CURSOR
Cursor
Cursor Operations
%TYPE and %ROWTYPE
Implicit Cursor
Explicit Cursor
• Declare it: Cursor FOR Loop
• CURSOR cursorname IS SELECT statement; Parameterized Cursors
• Open it: FOR UPDATE Clause
WHERE CURRENT
• OPEN cursorname; OF Clause
• Fetch rows from it: Disadvantages of

Cursors
• FETCH cursorname INTO variableset/ recordname;
• Close it:
• CLOSE cursorname;
10.10
CURSOR
Explicit Cursor...
An HRD manager has decided to raise the salary of all the

employees in department 30 by 5%. Whenever any such raise is Cursor
Cursor Operations
given to the employee, a record for the same is maintained in the %TYPE and %ROWTYPE
Emp_raise table. Write a PL/SQL block to update the salary of Implicit Cursor
each employee & insert into the Emp_raise table Explicit Cursor
Cursor FOR Loop
DECLARE Parameterized Cursors
FOR UPDATE Clause

CURSOR CSR IS SELECT e_id, salary FROM EMP
WHERE CURRENT
WHERE dept=30; OF Clause
eid1 EMP.e_id%TYPE; Disadvantages of

Cursors
sal1 EMP.salary%TYPE;
BEGIN
OPEN CSR;
IFCSR%ISOPEN THEN
LOOP
FETCH CSR INTO eid1,sal1;
EXIT WHEN CSR%NOTFOUND;
10.11
CURSOR
Explicit Cursor...
Cursor
Cursor Operations
%TYPE and %ROWTYPE
... Implicit Cursor
... Explicit Cursor

...
Cursor FOR Loop
IFCSR%FOUND THEN Parameterized Cursors
UPDATE EMP SET salary=salary*1.05 WHERE e_id=eid1; FOR UPDATE Clause
INSERT INTO Emp_raise VALUES(eid1, SYSDATE, WHERE CURRENT
OF Clause
sal1*0.05);
Disadvantages of
END IF; Cursors
END LOOP;
COMMIT;
ELSE
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(’Unable to open the cursor’);
END IF;
CLOSE CSR;
END;
10.12
CURSOR
Explicit Cursor...
Write a PL/SQL block that will displaying the name, dept and
salary of the first 3 employees getting the highest salary Cursor
Cursor Operations
%TYPE and %ROWTYPE
Implicit Cursor
DECLARE Explicit Cursor
CURSOR CSR IS SELECT e_name,dept,salary FROM EMP Steps of Explicit Cursor
Cursor FOR Loop
ORDER BY salary DESC;
vname EMP.e_name%TYPE;
FOR UPDATE Clause
vdept EMP.dept%TYPE; WHERE CURRENT
vsal EMP.salary%TYPE; OF Clause
BEGIN Disadvantages of
Cursors
OPEN CSR;
LOOP
FETCH CSR INTO vname,vdept,vsal;
EXIT WHEN CSR%ROWCOUNT=4 OR CSR%NOTFOUND;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(vname||’ ’||vdept||’ ’||vsal);
END LOOP;
CLOSE CSR;
END;
10.13
CURSOR
Cursor FOR Loop
Cursor
Cursor Operations
%TYPE and %ROWTYPE
Implicit Cursor
Cursor FOR Loop
Explicit Cursor
In cursor FOR loop, you do not have to explicitly open and Steps of Explicit Cursor
Cursor FOR Loop

close the cursor. It is automatically done by FOR loop
FOR UPDATE Clause
WHERE CURRENT
FOR variable IN cursorname OF Clause
LOOP Disadvantages of
Cursors
Statements
END LOOP
10.14
CURSOR
Cursor FOR Loop...
An HRD manager has decided to raise the salary of all the

employees in department 30 by 5%. Whenever any such raise is Cursor
given to the employee, a record for the same is maintained in the Cursor Operations
%TYPE and %ROWTYPE
Emp_raise table. Write a PL/SQL block to update the salary of Implicit Cursor
each employee & insert into the Emp_raise table Explicit Cursor
Cursor FOR Loop

DECLARE Parameterized Cursors
CURSOR CSR IS SELECT e_id,salary FROM EMP FOR UPDATE Clause
WHERE dept=30; WHERE CURRENT

OF Clause
BEGIN Disadvantages of
FOR i IN CSR Cursors
LOOP
UPDATE EMP SET salary=i.salary*1.05
WHERE e_id=i.e_id;
INSERT INTO Emp_raise VALUES(i.e_id, SYSDATE,
i.salary*0.05);
END LOOP;
COMMIT;
END;
10.15
CURSOR
Cursor
Cursor Operations
%TYPE and %ROWTYPE
Parameterized Cursors Implicit Cursor
Parameters in cursors are useful when a cursor is required to Explicit Cursor

be opened based on different set of parameter values Cursor FOR Loop
The parameter makes the cursor more reusable FOR UPDATE Clause
WHERE CURRENT
OF Clause
A cursor with parameter can be opened and closed several Disadvantages of
times. Each time a new active set is loaded in the memory and Cursors
the pointer is placed at first
CURSOR cursorname (parametername type,

parametername type) IS SELECT statement;
10.16
CURSOR
Parameterized Cursors...
Display the name and designation of employees corresponding
to the inputted deptno
Cursor
Cursor Operations
%TYPE and %ROWTYPE
DECLARE Implicit Cursor
vname EMPLOYEE.ename%TYPE; Explicit Cursor
vdesg EMPLOYEE.designation%TYPE; Steps of Explicit Cursor
Cursor FOR Loop

did NUMBER(2);
CURSOR empcr(deptno EMPLOYEE.dno%TYPE) IS SELECT FOR UPDATE Clause
ename, designation FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE dno=deptno;WHERE CURRENT
BEGIN OF Clause
Disadvantages of
did : =&did; Cursors
OPEN empcr(did);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(’Employee in dept.’||did);
LOOP
FETCH empcr INTO vname, vdesg;
EXIT WHEN empcr%NOTFOUND;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(vname||’ ’||vdesg);
END LOOP;
CLOSE empcr;
END;
10.17
CURSOR
FOR UPDATE Clause
Cursor
Cursor Operations
%TYPE and %ROWTYPE
FOR UPDATE Clause
Implicit Cursor
It is used to lock rows before updating or deleting of records Explicit Cursor
Cursor FOR Loop

It is added in the cursor query to lock the affected records
when cursor is opened
FOR UPDATE Clause
WHERE CURRENT
Oracle server releases the lock at the end of the transaction OF Clause
Disadvantages of
Cursors
It is used to ensure that the record is not changed by another
user before the update or delete
CURSOR cursorname IS SELECT columns FROM tables

WHERE cond FOR UPDATE [OF columns] [NOWAIT];
10.18
CURSOR
WHERE CURRENT OF Clause
Cursor
WHERE CURRENT OF Clause Cursor Operations
%TYPE and %ROWTYPE
It is used for referencing the current row of the active set Implicit Cursor
retrieved by the explicit cursor Explicit Cursor

Cursor FOR Loop

It allows to apply updates & deletes to the row currently being Parameterized Cursors
accessed without referencing ROWID FOR UPDATE Clause
WHERE CURRENT
OF Clause
UPDATE tablename SET clause WHERE CURRENT OF
Disadvantages of
cursorname; Cursors
DELETE FROM tablename WHERE CURRENT OF

cursorname;
WHERE CURRENT OF clause references the cursor and

changes only to the last fetched row
10.19
CURSOR
Explicit Cursor
Write the PL/SQL block which increases the salary of the

employees of the dept 10 & 30 with the locking of the records Cursor
Cursor Operations
%TYPE and %ROWTYPE
Implicit Cursor
DECLARE Explicit Cursor
vrec EMPLOYEE%ROWTYPE; Steps of Explicit Cursor
Cursor FOR Loop

CURSOR cremp IS SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE
deptno IN (10,30) ORDER BY deptno FOR UPDATE OF
FOR UPDATE Clause
deptno, salary NOWAIT; WHERE CURRENT
BEGIN OF Clause
OPEN cremp; Disadvantages of

Cursors
LOOP
FETCH cremp INTO vrec;
EXIT WHEN cremp%NOTFOUND;
UPDATE EMPLOYEE SET salary=vrec.salary*1.1
WHERE CURRENT OF cremp;
END LOOP;
CLOSE cremp;
END;
10.20
CURSOR
Disadvantages of Cursors
Cursor
Cursor Operations
%TYPE and %ROWTYPE
Implicit Cursor
Explicit Cursor
Disadvantages of Cursors
Cursor FOR Loop
It uses much more network bandwidth Parameterized Cursors
FOR UPDATE Clause
It allocates resources at the server WHERE CURRENT

OF Clause
Disadvantages of
Cursors
If the cursor is not properly closed, the resources will not be
freed until the SQL session itself is closed
10.21
EXCEPTION HANDLER
Database Systems Exception Handler
Built-in Errors
Laboratory 11 User-defined
Exceptions
Assigning name and error
EXCEPTION HANDLER number to user-defined

exception
KIIT University
11.1
EXCEPTION HANDLER
EXCEPTION HANDLER
Exception Handler
Built-in Errors
User-defined
Exceptions
1 Exception Handler Assigning name and error
number to user-defined
exception
2 Built-in Errors
3 User-defined Exceptions
Assigning name and error number to user-defined
exception
11.2
EXCEPTION HANDLER
Exception Handler
Exception Handler
When an exception occurs, the control is passed to the Exception Handler
exception handler and error handling is done. Exception Built-in Errors
User-defined
handler allows performing final action before it terminates Exceptions
exception
It is an aid to develop program efficiently. Good PL/SQL
program traps the anticipated error using PL/SQL statements
and only unanticipated errors are diverted to exception handler
11.3
EXCEPTION HANDLER
Built-in Errors
1. Built-in Errors Exception Handler
Built-in Errors
These errors are pre-defined and are automatically raised by User-defined
Oracle whenever an error is encountered. Each error is Exceptions
assigned a unique number and a message number to user-defined
exception
1.a. Named Errors

These pre-defined errors have been assigned names by Oracle
Error No. Error Name Error No. Error Name

ORA-01403 NO_DATA_FOUND ORA-06501 PROGRAM_ERROR
ORA-01422 TOO_MANY_ROWS ORA-06530 ACCESS_INTO_NULL
ORA-01476 ZERO_DIVIDE ORA-06511 CURSOR_ALREADY_OPEN
ORA-06502 VALUE_ERROR ORA-00001 DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX
ORA-06500 STORAGE_ERROR ORA-01001 INVALID_CURSOR
ORA-01017 LOGIN_DENIED ORA-01722 INVALID_NUMBER
ORA-01012 NOT_LOGGED_ON ORA-06504 ROWTYPE_MISMATCH
ORA-00051 TIMEOUT_ON_RESOURCE
11.4
EXCEPTION HANDLER
Built-in Errors...
1.b. Unnamed Errors

These pre-defined errors have been assigned error number but Exception Handler
no name. These are referred to by the general name OTHERS. Built-in Errors
User-defined
OTHERS stands for all other exceptions not explicitly named Exceptions
• SQLCODE: returns a negative error code number number to user-defined
exception
• SQLERRM: returns the error message associated with the

error code
2 ORA-00000 to ORA-00830
3 ORA-00910 to ORA-01497
4 ORA-01500 to ORA-02098
5 ORA-02140 to ORA-04099
6 ORA-04930 to ORA-07499
7 ORA-07500 to ORA-09859
8 ORA-09870 to ORA-12100
9 ORA-12150 to ORA-12236
10 ORA-12315 to ORA-12354
11 ORA-12400 to ORA-12497
12 ORA-12500 to ORA-12699
13 ORA-12700 to ORA-19361
11.5
EXCEPTION HANDLER
Built-in Errors...
Exception Handler
Built-in Errors
Display the employee working in the dept entered by the user User-defined
Exceptions
(Incorrect) Assigning name and error
exception
DECLARE
vname EMPLOYEE.name%TYPE;
vd EMPLOYEE.deptno%TYPE;
BEGIN
vd : =&vd;
SELECT name INTO vname FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE
deptno=vd;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(vname);
END;
11.6
EXCEPTION HANDLER
Built-in Errors...
Exception Handler
Display the employee working in the dept entered by the user
Built-in Errors
(Partially Correct)
User-defined
Exceptions
DECLARE exception
BEGIN
vd : =&vd;
deptno=vd;
EXCEPTION
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(’No such dept with employee’);
END;
11.7
EXCEPTION HANDLER
Built-in Errors...
Display the employee working in the dept entered by the user

Exception Handler
(Correct) Built-in Errors
User-defined
Exceptions
DECLARE Assigning name and error
exception
BEGIN
vd : =&vd;
deptno=vd;
EXCEPTION
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(’No such dept with employee’);
WHEN OTHERS THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(SQLCODE||’ ’||SQLERRM);
END;
11.8
EXCEPTION HANDLER
User-defined Exceptions
2. User-defined Exceptions
Exception Handler
These are explicitly declared and raised by user Built-in Errors
User-defined
Exceptions
2.a. User-defined Named Exceptions number to user-defined
exception
• Step-1: declare the exception in the DECLARE section

• Step-2: raise the exception in the execution section of the
program with RAISE statement
• Step-3: write handler for the exception
2.b. User-defined Unnamed Exceptions

Oracle provides a feature wherein we can RAISE exceptions
by our own assigned error number and message without
specifying a name to it
Error numbers from -20000 to -20999 can be used for
user-defined exceptions
11.9
EXCEPTION HANDLER
User-defined Exceptions...
Write a PL/SQL block which will display the commission of the
inputted empno. Handle the exception for negative commission
Exception Handler
Built-in Errors
DECLARE User-defined
Exceptions
invalid_comm EXCEPTION; Assigning name and error
vcomm Employee.comm%TYPE; exception
veno Employee.empno%TYPE;
BEGIN
veno : =&veno;
SELECT comm INTO vcomm FROM Employee WHERE empno=veno;
IF vcomm<0 THEN
RAISE invalid_comm;
ELSE
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(vcomm);
END IF;
EXCEPTION
WHEN invalid_comm THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(’Commission is negative’);
WHEN OTHERS THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(’No such id’);
11.10
EXCEPTION HANDLER
User-defined Exceptions...
Write a PL/SQL block which will display the commission of the

inputted empno. Handle the exception for negative commission Exception Handler
(User-defined Unnamed Exceptions) Built-in Errors
User-defined
Exceptions
DECLARE number to user-defined
exception
vcomm Employee.comm%TYPE;
veno Employee.empno%TYPE;
BEGIN
veno : =&veno;
IF vcomm<0 THEN
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20000, ’Commission is negative’);
ELSE
END IF;
EXCEPTION
WHEN OTHERS THEN
END;
11.11
EXCEPTION HANDLER
Assigning name and error number to user-defined exception
Exception Handler
Built-in Errors
Assigning name and error number to user-defined exception
User-defined
Exceptions
A user-defined exception can be assigned a name and an error Assigning name and error
number by using PRAGMA pre-compiler directive. This exception
directive binds the specified error number to a user-defined

exception name
You can use more than one PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT

directives
The syntax is:
exceptionname EXCEPTION;
PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT(exceptionname, errorcode);
11.12
EXCEPTION HANDLER
Assigning name & error number to user-defined exception...
Exception Handler
DECLARE
Built-in Errors
vcomm Employee.comm%TYPE; User-defined
veno Employee.empno%TYPE; Exceptions
Invalid_comm EXCEPTION; number to user-defined
exception
PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT(Invalid_comm, -20000);

BEGIN
veno : =&veno;
IF vcomm<0 THEN
RAISE Invalid_comm;
ELSE
END IF;
EXCEPTION
WHEN Invalid_comm THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(SQLERRM||’ ’||’Negative commission);
WHEN OTHERS THEN
END; 11.13
STORED PROCEDURE
STORED FUNCTION &
PACKAGE
Database Systems
Sub-Program
Laboratory 12 Stored Procedure

Parameter Passing
STORED PROCEDURE, STORED Stored Function
Package
FUNCTION & PACKAGE
KIIT University
12.1
STORED PROCEDURE
STORED PROCEDURE, STORED FUNCTION & PACKAGE STORED FUNCTION &
PACKAGE
Sub-Program
Stored Procedure
1 Sub-Program Parameter Passing
Stored Function
Package
2 Stored Procedure
Parameter Passing
3 Stored Function
4 Package
12.2
STORED PROCEDURE
Sub-Program STORED FUNCTION &
PACKAGE
Sub-Program Sub-Program
Stored Procedure
• A subprogram is a named PL/SQL block that can accept Parameter Passing
parameters & can be used as per requirements Stored Function
Package
• A subprogram comprises of:

• Declarative section
• Executable section and
• Exceptional handling section
• Subprograms are frequently used because of its
reusability & ease of writing code in PL/SQL
• Two types of subprograms:

• Stored Procedure
• Stored Function
12.3
STORED PROCEDURE
Stored Procedure STORED FUNCTION &
PACKAGE
Stored Procedure
A procedure is a logically grouped set of SQL and PL/SQL Sub-Program
statements that perform a specific task Stored Procedure

Parameter Passing
Stored Function
Oracle stores both the source and compiled code of Package
procedures in database. Therefore, procedures are called

stored procedures
The syntax for procedural declaration is:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE procname [(arg1, arg2)] IS

constatnt/variable declaration
BEGIN
executable statements
EXCEPTION
exception handler statements
END procname;
12.4
STORED PROCEDURE
Stored Procedure... STORED FUNCTION &
PACKAGE
Write a procedure that accepts 2 numbers and print the sum
Sub-Program
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE psum (A NUMBER, Stored Procedure

Parameter Passing
B NUMBER) IS
Stored Function
C NUMBER; Package
BEGIN
C : = A + B;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(A||’+’||B||’=’||C);
END psum;
Executing a procedure
EXECUTE psum(10, 20); or
EXEC psum(10, 20);
Dropping a procedure
DROP PROCEDURE psum;
12.5
STORED PROCEDURE
Parameter Passing STORED FUNCTION &
PACKAGE
Sub-Program
a. IN Mode
Stored Procedure
It is the default mode of parameter passing. It passes a value Parameter Passing
Stored Function
into the program, it acts like a constant & can’t be assigned a
Package
value
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE psum (A IN NUMBER,

B IN NUMBER) IS
C NUMBER;
BEGIN
C : = A + B;
END psum;
EXECUTE psum(10, 20);
12.6
STORED PROCEDURE
Parameter Passing... STORED FUNCTION &
PACKAGE
b. OUT Mode Sub-Program
Stored Procedure
It is used to return values to the caller of a subprogram. The Parameter Passing
OUT parameter must be assigned some value in the called Stored Function
program Package
Procedures with OUT parameter can’t be executed with

EXECUTE statement. It must be called from other PL/SQL
program
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE psum (A IN NUMBER,

B IN NUMBER, C OUT NUMBER) IS
BEGIN
C : = A + B;
END psum;
12.7
STORED PROCEDURE
PACKAGE
Sub-Program
b. OUT Mode... Stored Procedure

Parameter Passing
Stored Function
DECLARE Package
A NUMBER;
B NUMBER;
C NUMBER;
BEGIN
A : =&A;
B : =&B;
psum(A, B, C);
END;
12.8
STORED PROCEDURE
PACKAGE
Sub-Program
c. IN OUT Mode Stored Procedure

Parameter Passing
It is used to pass initial values to the subprograms when Stored Function
invoked & is also returns updated values to the caller Package
Procedures with IN OUT parameter can’t be executed using

EXECUTE statements
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE psum (A IN OUT NUMBER,

B NUMBER) IS
BEGIN
A : = A + B;
END psum;
12.9
STORED PROCEDURE
PACKAGE
Sub-Program
Stored Procedure
c. IN OUT Mode... Parameter Passing
Stored Function
Package
DECLARE
A NUMBER;
B NUMBER;
BEGIN
A : =&A;
B : =&B;
psum(A, B);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(’Sum =’||A);
END;
12.10
STORED PROCEDURE
PACKAGE
Write a procedure which takes the empid as input and displays Chittaranjan Pradhan
the details of employee as the output

Sub-Program
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE searchemp(eid IN Stored Procedure

Parameter Passing
NUMBER, nm OUT VARCHAR, sl OUT NUMBER) IS Stored Function
BEGIN Package
SELECT ename, sal INTO nm, sl FROM emp WHERE empid=eid;
EXCEPTION
WHEN OTHERS THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(eid||’does’t exist’);
END searchemp;
DECLARE
vname emp.ename%TYPE;
vsal emp.sal%TYPE;
veid emp.empid%TYPE;
BEGIN
veid : =&veid;
searchemp(veid, vname, vsal);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(veid||’ ’||vname||’ ’||vsal);
END;
12.11
STORED PROCEDURE
Stored Function STORED FUNCTION &
PACKAGE
Stored Function Chittaranjan Pradhan
These are the PL/SQL blocks that take parameters, perform

Sub-Program
some action and return a single value to the calling program
Stored Procedure
Parameter Passing
Like stored procedure, Oracle stores both the source code and Stored Function
compiled code in its database Package
The syntax for procedural declaration is:

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION funcname [(arg1, arg2)]
RETURN datatype IS
constatnt/variable declaration
BEGIN
RETURN returnvalue
EXCEPTION
exception handler statements
RETURN returnvalue
END funcname;
12.12
STORED PROCEDURE
Stored Function... STORED FUNCTION &
PACKAGE
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION fsum(A NUMBER,
B NUMBER) RETURN NUMBER IS
C NUMBER; Sub-Program
Stored Procedure
BEGIN Parameter Passing
C : =A+B; Stored Function
RETURN C; Package
END fsum;
Calling a function
SELECT fsum(10,15) FROM DUAL;
SELECT ename, fsum(sal,1000) newsalary FROM emp;
Showing Errors
SHOW ERRORS
Dropping a procedure
DROP FUNCTION fsum;
12.13
STORED PROCEDURE
PACKAGE
Sub-Program
Stored Procedure
Create a function which returns the deptname according to the Parameter Passing
inputted deptno Stored Function
Package
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION get_deptname (did NUMBER)

RETURN VARCHAR IS
vdept VARCHAR(12);
BEGIN
SELECT deptname INTO vdept FROM dept WHERE deptid=did;
RETURN vdept;
END get_deptname;
12.14
STORED PROCEDURE
PACKAGE
Write the PL/SQL block which takes the empid as input and
displays the deptid and dept name Sub-Program
Stored Procedure
Parameter Passing
DECLARE Stored Function
vdid emp.deptno%TYPE; Package
vdeptname VARCHAR(12);
veid emp.empid%TYPE;
BEGIN
veid : =&veid;
SELECT deptno INTO vdid FROM emp WHERE empid=veid;
vdeptname : =get_deptname(vdid);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(veid||’ ’||vdeptname);
EXCEPTION
WHEN OTHERS THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (veid||’not found);
END;
12.15
STORED PROCEDURE
Package STORED FUNCTION &
PACKAGE
Package
Sub-Program
A package is a collection of stored procedures, functions, Stored Procedure
cursors and exceptions. A package is compiled and stored in Parameter Passing
database as an object Stored Function
Package
Packages enable to perform overloading of functions and

procedures
Components of Packages
• Package Specification: contains the list of various

functions/ procedure names which will be a part of the
package
• Package Body: contains the actual code implementing
the logics of functions and procedures declared in the
specification
12.16
STORED PROCEDURE
Package... STORED FUNCTION &
PACKAGE
Package Specification Chittaranjan Pradhan
It contains information about the package elements such as

Sub-Program
definitions of functions & procedures, declarations of variables
Stored Procedure
Parameter Passing
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE packname AS Stored Function
Declarations Package
BEGIN
Executable statements
END packname;
Package Body
It contains actual programming code for the modules described
in the specification section
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY packname AS
Declaration
BEGIN
Executable statements
END packname;
12.17
STORED PROCEDURE
PACKAGE
Create a package calculator which contains different functions Chittaranjan Pradhan
and procedures for the different operations

Sub-Program
Stored Procedure
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE calculator AS Parameter Passing
FUNCTION fsum(A NUMBER, B NUMBER) RETURN NUMBER; Stored Function

FUNCTION fminus(A NUMBER, B NUMBER) RETURN NUMBER;Package
FUNCTION fmult(A NUMBER, B NUMBER) RETURN NUMBER;

FUNCTION fdivide(A NUMBER, B NUMBER) RETURN NUMBER;
PROCEDURE psum(A NUMBER, B NUMBER);
PROCEDURE pminus(A NUMBER, B NUMBER);
END calculator;
...
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY calculator AS
FUNCTION fsum(A NUMBER, B NUMBER) RETURN NUMBER IS
C NUMBER;
BEGIN
C : =A+B;
RETURN C;
END fsum;
12.18
STORED PROCEDURE
PACKAGE
Sub-Program
Stored Procedure
FUNCTION fminus(A NUMBER, B NUMBER) RETURN NUMBER ISParameter Passing
C NUMBER; Stored Function
BEGIN Package
C : =A-B;
RETURN C;
END fminus;
...
FUNCTION fmult(A NUMBER, B NUMBER) RETURN NUMBER IS
C NUMBER;
BEGIN
C : =A*B;
RETURN C;
END fmult;
12.19
STORED PROCEDURE
PACKAGE
Sub-Program
Stored Procedure
Parameter Passing
Stored Function
FUNCTION fdivide(A NUMBER, B NUMBER) RETURN NUMBER IS
Package
C NUMBER;
BEGIN
IF B<>0 THEN
C : =A/B;
ELSE
C : =-1;
END IF;
RETURN C;
END fdivide;
12.20
STORED PROCEDURE
PACKAGE
Sub-Program
Stored Procedure
PROCEDURE psum(A NUMBER, B NUMBER) IS Parameter Passing
C NUMBER; Stored Function
BEGIN Package
C : =A+B;
END Psum;
...
PROCEDURE pminus(A NUMBER, B NUMBER) IS
C NUMBER;
BEGIN
C : =A-B;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(A||’-’||B||’=||C);
END Pminus;
END calculator;
12.21
STORED PROCEDURE
PACKAGE
Sub-Program
Stored Procedure
Parameter Passing
Stored Function
Executing Package Functions & Procedures Package
EXECUTE calculator.psum(10, 20);
SELECT calculator.fsum(10, 20) FROM DUAL;
SELECT empid,calculator.fmultiply(sal, 2) FROM emp;
12.22
DATABASE TRIGGER
Database Systems Database Trigger
Types of Triggers
Laboratory 13 : OLD and : NEW

Qualifiers
DATABASE TRIGGER INSTEAD OF Trigger
KIIT University
13.1
DATABASE TRIGGER
DATABASE TRIGGER
Database Trigger
Types of Triggers
: OLD and : NEW

1 Database Trigger Qualifiers
INSTEAD OF Trigger
2 Types of Triggers
3 : OLD and : NEW Qualifiers
4 INSTEAD OF Trigger
13.2
DATABASE TRIGGER
Database Trigger
Database Trigger Database Trigger
Types of Triggers
• Trigger is a stored procedure that is fired when a DML : OLD and : NEW
Qualifiers
(INSERT, DELETE, UPDATE) statement is issued against INSTEAD OF Trigger
an associated table
• Trigger is mainly used to enforce checks, search and
backing up data
• A trigger can’t use a TCL statement like COMMIT,
ROLLBACK, or SAVEPOINT
• A variable in a trigger can’t be declared with LONG or
LONG RAW data type
• Components of Trigger:
• Triggering SQL statement
• Trigger action
• Trigger restriction
13.3
DATABASE TRIGGER
Types of Triggers
BEFORE, AFTER & INSTEAD OF Triggers

Database Trigger
Types of Triggers
• BEFORE Triggers: These triggers are fired before the
: OLD and : NEW
triggering SQL statement is executed Qualifiers
• AFTER Triggers: These triggers are fired after the INSTEAD OF Trigger
triggering SQL statement is executed

• INSTEAD OF Triggers: These triggers are used to make
the non-updateable views updateable
Statement level & Row level Triggers
• Statement level or Table level Triggers: These triggers

are fired for each DML operation being performed on a
table. This is the default type
• Row level Triggers: These triggers are fired for each and
every record which is inserted or deleted or updated from
a table. This is the common type
13.4
DATABASE TRIGGER
Database Trigger...
Database Trigger
Types of Triggers
Database Trigger Syntax : OLD and : NEW
Qualifiers
INSTEAD OF Trigger
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER triggername BEFORE/
AFTER/INSTEAD OF Triggerevent ON tablename/viewname
[FOR EACH ROW] [WHEN cond]
DECLARE
declaration
BEGIN
EXCEPTION
exception handling statements
END;
13.5
DATABASE TRIGGER
: OLD and : NEW Qualifiers
Database Trigger
Types of Triggers
: OLD and : NEW

Qualifiers
INSTEAD OF Trigger
: OLD and : NEW Qualifiers
: OLD and : NEW qualifiers are related to ROW level triggers
Value of a column before the data change is referenced by

prefixing OLD
Value of a column after the data change is referenced by

prefixing NEW
13.6
DATABASE TRIGGER
Database Triggers...
EMP_TRIG(ename, sal)
Database Trigger
Types of Triggers
EMP_BKUP(ename, sal, deletedate)
: OLD and : NEW
Qualifiers
INSTEAD OF Trigger
Create a trigger which checks the value of sal before INSERT or
UPDATE statement and ensures that sal below 500 is not inserted
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER MIN_SAL_CHK BEFORE

INSERT OR UPDATE ON EMP_TRIG FOR EACH ROW
WHEN(NEW.sal<500)
BEGIN
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20000,’sal must be above 500’);
END;
............
INSERT INTO EMP_TRIG VALUES(’Prasant’,2000);
INSERT INTO EMP_TRIG VALUES(’Jack’,300);

13.7
DATABASE TRIGGER
EMP_TRIG(ename, sal) Database Trigger
Types of Triggers
EMP_BKUP(ename, sal, deletedate) : OLD and : NEW

Qualifiers
INSTEAD OF Trigger
Create a trigger which keeps backup of deleted records of

EMP_TRIG table. Deleted records are inserted in EMP_BKUP
table
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER BKUP_REC AFTER

DELETE ON EMP_TRIG FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
INSERT INTO EMP_BKUP VALUES( : OLD.ename,
: OLD.sal, SYSDATE);
END;
............
DELETE FROM EMP_TRIG WHERE ENAME=’Prasant’;
13.8
DATABASE TRIGGER
EMP_TRIG(ename, sal)
Database Trigger
EMP_BKUP(ename, sal, deletedate)
Types of Triggers
: OLD and : NEW

Qualifiers
Create a trigger which checks for any duplicate value and INSTEAD OF Trigger
disallow insertion
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER UNIQUE_VAL BEFORE

INSERT ON EMP_TRIG FOR EACH ROW
DECLARE
vc NUMBER(2);
BEGIN
SELECT COUNT(*) INTO vc FROM EMP_TRIG
WHERE ename= : NEW.ename;
IF vc=1 THEN
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20024,’You
have entered duplicate ename’);
END IF;
END;
13.9
DATABASE TRIGGER
INSTEAD OF Trigger
Database Trigger
Types of Triggers
INSTEAD OF Trigger : OLD and : NEW

Qualifiers
Normally, we can’t perform any of the DML operations on INSTEAD OF Trigger
non-updateable views. But, INSTEAD OF Trigger can be used

to make the non-updateable views updateable
It is used to modify a table that can’t be modified through a view
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW stud_faculty AS SELECT *

FROM student LEFT OUTER JOIN faculty ON
faculty.facultyid= student.facultyid;
.............
DELETE FROM stud_faculty WHERE facultyid=235;
13.10
DATABASE TRIGGER
INSTEAD OF Trigger...
Database Trigger
Types of Triggers
: OLD and : NEW

Qualifiers
INSTEAD OF Trigger... INSTEAD OF Trigger
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER fac_delete INSTEAD OF

DELETE ON stud_faculty FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
DELETE FROM faculty WHERE facultyid= : OLD.facultyid;
END;
.............
DELETE FROM stud_faculty WHERE facultyid=235;
13.11

Database Systems Laboratory 1: Introduction To SQL

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Database Systems Laboratory 1: Introduction To SQL

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Introduction To SQL

Database Systems RDBMS

Introduction To SQL SQL*PLUS

3 SQL SQL Statements

SQL Statements Naming Conventions

5 Table Creation Querying Data

6 Viewing Table Structure

• For an attribute, the set of permitted values is called

7566 JONES MANAGER 7839 02-APR-81 2975 20 Table Creation

• MySQL SQL Statements

• Visual FoxPro Viewing Table

• OpenBase Record Insertion

• PostgreSQL Querying Data

client Data Types

processing on the data, and sends only the requested

SQL-2006, SQL-2008, SQL-2011 Querying Data

• SQL is the ideal database language to

• ALTER statement Naming Conventions

• RENAME statement Viewing Table

table or undoes those changes affected by DML statements Viewing Table

Data Control Language(DCL)

• It is a tool to manipulate data & perform queries against SQL

• It enables you to conduct a conversation with the database Data Types

• A table is an object that can store data in a database SQL

• The table and column names can be up to 30 characters Viewing Table

• The range of allowable dates is between January 1, SQL

• The default date format is DD-MON-YY. The Naming Conventions

DD-MON-YYYY format also works Data Types

• NUMBER(precision, scale) Viewing Table

• RAW Inserting Time

• Used for character data up to 4GB Record Insertion

Solution: CREATE TABLE STUDENT(Roll NUMBER(6), Name

Solution: Record Insertion

table. The syntax is: Client/Server

quotes Querying Data

Entering NULL values:

• Implicit method: Here, column name is omitted from the

enclosed within a pair of single quotation marks Querying Data

• For more records, press /

19, 9.2); Data Types

(705129, ’Uday’, 9.2); Record Insertion

• INSERT INTO STUDENT VALUES (&Roll, ’&Name’,

• INSERT INTO STUDENT (Roll, Name, Gender, Age)

ACCEPT command is used for customized prompts. The Client/Server

Once a variable is defined with substitution variable or

Time insertion SQL

time value is set to the midnight (12:00A.M.)

SELECT column1,column2 FROM table_name; SQL*PLUS

used in place of columns Viewing Table

NULL value means the value is unknown or doesn’t exist

SELECT Roll, Name, CGPA FROM STUDENT; SQL*PLUS

705172 Raji 7.5 Querying Data

Database Systems SELECT Statement

SQL Fundamentals UPDATE Statement

Viewing User Tables

Creating Table from

Inserting data into a

2 ALTER Statement ALTER Statement

3 UPDATE Statement DROP Statement

Creating Table from

Inserting data into a

8 Viewing User Tables ROWID