The Subconscious Language of Musical Time

Author(s): Lewis Rowell

Source: Music Theory Spectrum , Spring, 1979, Vol. 1 (Spring, 1979), pp. 96-106
Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Music Theory

Stable URL: http://www.jstor.com/stable/745781

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 The Subconscious Language of Musical
Time

by Lewis Rowell

Terminology remains the best evidence for rhythmic practice neous responses to rhythm affect our creation and perception of
in the art musics of antiquity. While the available physical music today. I suggest that a look at the way we talk and write
evidence may be expected to yield even further information about musical rhythm may demonstrate how changing concepts
about pitch systems and tunings, its tells us nothing about of time in twentieth-century thought are influencing music's
temporality in music. For such information we are dependent temporal dimension in contemporary practice. It can also tell us
upon descriptions of music and the literature of musical much about music's past.
speculation-the theory of music. And much of that is as frag- I believe that the three rhythmic systems cited above-India,
mentary as the physical evidence. Terms are the only commod- China, and Greece-have been the most influential among the
ity in abundant supply and, therefore, in our attempt to deduce highly-developed art musics of later antiquity. The Chinese
maximum information from minimum evidence, deserve our component will receive considerably less attention in this paper
closest scrutiny. The present paper is a comparative study of than the other two, not from any ethnocentric bias but because
rhythmic terminology in the music theory of three ancient cul- we have less evidence for the practice of musical rhythm in early
tures: India, China, and Greece. China. From India and Greece, on the other hand, we have a
There is much we would like to know about rhythm-not substantial body of musical speculation, dating back well before
only the evolution and technical organization of rhythmic sys- the beginning of the Christian Era and still applicable to some
tems and their implementation in musical practice, but even degree at the end of the first millennium A.D. It includes such
more that realm of rhythmic experience that lies "beneath the Indian authors as Bharata, Dattila, and their commentators;
skin," in the murky region of feelings, reactions, and half- Greek sources include the writings of Aristoxenus and Aristides
conscious attitudes that music theorists have rightly hesitated to Quintilianus as well as many shorter fragments. This corpus of
explore. Indeed, we are not at all certain just how these subcuta- early rhythmic theory, incomplete though it may be, must rank

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 Musical Time 97

porary
porary
with early civilization's more impressive accomplishments. musical
musicallanguagelanguage
if, as I mentioned
if, as I earlier,
mentioned we are fully
earlier, w
I have tried to isolate-using verbal clues-the to
tounderstand
understand
most basic how changing
how changing ideas of time ideas
are influencing
of time are the influ
concepts underlying the theory of temporality in composition,
composition,
music. Myperformance,
titleperformance, and perception
and perception
of music today.of It mus
need
need
is taken from a provocative book by Thass-Thienemann,1 notnot be argued
be
who argued
anymore anymore
that ideas that
do, in ideas
fact, influence
do, in fact
argues that many of the words we use carry a music music
heavy andandhavehave
cargo always
of always
done so. done
The organization
so. The organization
of music, in a of
associations and acquired meanings to which we conscious
conscious
respond, or often
unconscious
or unconscious way, reflects
way, thereflects
preferences, thehabits,
preferen
and
andthought
in a way that is less than fully conscious. His thesis isthought patterns
substanti- patterns
of its parent
of its culture.
parent Andculture.
nowhere isAnd this now
more
more
ated by what I have found in terms for temporal aspects of evident
evident than than
in music'sin temporal
music's domain.
temporal domain.
music. The full meaning of a word includes first its The
The limitations
limitations
etymology, of this of study
thismuststudy
be mademust clear:
beit made
does notclear:
attempt
attempt a systematic
plus its specific uses and associations it has picked up with other a systematic exposition exposition
of the Indian
of and
the Greek
Indian
rhyth-and G
mic
mic systems,
words -sometimes even phonetic resemblances, puns, to other systems, although
although
it is based
it on
is abased
comprehensive
on a comprehensi
study of
words. In short, meaning depends upon where these these
a word systems.2
systems.2
comes It consists
It consists
mainly ofmainlyconclusionsofand conclusions
a few
pertinent
pertinent
from, what has happened to it, and what have been its compan- examples.
examples.And further,
And further,
my study is my
concerned
study solely
is conc
ions! with
with thethespeculative
speculative
literature literature
pertaining pertaining
to art musics and to the
art mu
formulation
formulation
Technical terminology is always a relatively late develop- of rhythmic
of rhythmic
systems; simple,
systems; everyday,
simple, "univer-
everyda
ment in a language and tends to use existing words sal"
sal"types
types
in of a rhythm
of rhythm
more and chant and rhythm,
chantthat rhythm,
rhythm whichthat isrhyt
specific and limited sense. Thus it becomes a kind
closely
closely tied of
tied sub-
to thetospoken
the spoken
word orlogogenic,
word orlogogenic,
both lie beyond bothmy lie
language. I wish to suggest that while this languagefield
field ofof
is inquiry.
inquiry.
narrowed
by the assignment of specific technical meanings, My
My itfindings
findings
is at the are organized
are organized in a seriesin of anine
series
statements
of nine
same time expanded by the assortment of meanings describing
describing
andwhat what
terms terms
associ- for musical
fortimemusical
tell us. time
These statements
tell us. These
will
willappear
appear
ations it continues to accumulate. This is the subconscious in part
boldface
in boldface
type with type
discussion
withfollowing.
discussion I do not
follow
of the process. Linguists claim that this built-in know
know whether
whether
accumulation theseofthese
conclusions
conclusions
can qualify canas genuine
qualify"uni-as gen
meanings and sound-associations becomes, in effect,versals,"
versals," abut
filter
but
I suspect
I suspect
they arethey
more widely
are more applicable
widely
than just
applica
through which we perceive the world. Our language to
tothethe
becomes
literature
literature I ahave Istudied.
have They
studied.
deserveThey
testing.
deserve testin
kind of "given' and is seldom subjected to any kind What
What
ofwere were somesome
rigorous of theofearly
the attitudes
earlytowardattitudes
time? toward
(And, t
examination; we think what our language allowsparenthetically,
us to express.
parenthetically, I mustI point
must outpoint
that this
out paper
thatis based
this onpaper
the is
Thus it seems useful to analyze the technical language
assumption
assumption of
that our
that
the temporal
the temporal
organization organization
of music has some-of musi
ancestors to see what they really thought and thingfelt
thing about
to to do the
do with with
the nature
the ofnature
time! I of
freely
time!
acknowledge
I freely that
acknowl
the
temporal dimension in their music, and also to see how general
assumption
assumption can becan andbehasand
beenhas
challenged,
been challenged,
for reasons thatfor will reas
later
later
time concepts are reflected in the literature of musical bebe evident.)
evident.)
specula- I do notI do
refernothererefer
to sophisticated
here to philo-
sophistica
tion. sophical
sophical arguments:
arguments: rhythmicrhythmic
theory incorporates
theory aincorporates
much sim-
pler,
pler,
It should be equally the mission of music theorists naive
to naive
comeset ofset
toattitudes
of attitudes
and assumptions,
and assumptions,
as I think the as
grips with the question of temporality in today's evidence
music. will Ishow.
sug-
gest that the method I propose might well be applied Timetowas often seen as a manifestation of the cosmic order
contem-
2Lewis Rowell, "Time in the Musical Consciousness of Old High
Civilizations-East
1T. Thass-Thienemann, The Subconscious Language (New York: Washing- and West," in The Study of Time III, ed. J. T. Fraser,
ton Square Press, 1967). Nathaniel Lawrence, and David Park (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1978).

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98 Music Theory Spectrum

and universal law; it was also seen, at other times and by other problem is
is this:
this: how
how can
can we
we reconcile
reconcile musical
musicalcontinuity,
continuity,per-
per-
men, as a creative principle and a generating force, even a ceived as motion,
motion, with
with music's
music's pulsating
pulsatingstructure
structureofofbeats,
beats,
destructive one. Time was sometimes taken for granted, some- which are
are often
often visualized
visualized in
in aa physical,
physical,spatial
spatialway?
way?When
When
times denied and viewed as an illusion and a property of mind, Pierre Boulez
Boulez chose
chose the
the phrase
phrase "striated
"striatedtime"
time"totodescribe
describethis
this
not of external reality. Its repetitiveness was frequently noted, phenomenon,
phenomenon, he he attempted
attempted to to solve
solve the
thesame
sameproblem
problemthat
that
as was its apparent circularity and transitoriness. Time was confronted
confronted early
early theorists.3
theorists.3 The
The most
mostsuccessful
successfulsolution
solutionap-
ap-
viewed as fateful, its individual moments supercharged with pears to be
be some
some kind
kind of
of image
image of of continuity
continuitythrough
throughreticula-
reticula-
meaning for an individual or a nation. It was a one-way direc- tion.

tion, hence irreversible; time's various parts were thought to The Chinese
Chinese word
word for
for the
the flux
flux ofof music,
music,in interms
termsof ofbeats,
beats,isis
possess their individual savour or qualities. And time was often jie; its radicle
radicle character
character is is bamboo.
bamboo. The Theimage
imageof ofaabamboo-
bamboo-
seen as alternation: between rest and movement, systole and stem with
with its
its segments
segments joined
joined atat nodes
nodesisisaastriking
strikingrepresenta-
representa-
diastole, Empedocles' "love and strife"-attraction and repul- tion of the
the flow
flow ofof music,
music, especially
especially to toaaculture
culturein inwhich
whichthe the
sion. dividing lines
lines between
between divisions
divisions of of time
timewere
werevery
veryprecise
preciseand
and
All of these views are reflected, from time to time, in the each segment
segment of of time
time retained
retained itsits own
owndistinct
distinctproperties.
properties.The The
language of musical temporality. There are many paradoxical more general
general word
word for
for time
time isis shih,
shih, with
withthe theradicle
radiclesun.
sun.This
This
elements in our human consciousness of time, but one of the suggests clearly clearly the
the idea
idea of
of time
time asas aa vital
vitalprinciple,
principle,and andthe
the
more pervasive ones is the conflict between time as being and other strokes
strokes are
are typical
typical of
of characters
characterspertaining
pertainingto tovegetation.4
vegetation.4
time as becoming: regular, dependable, seasonal, repetitive, Although Granet's
Granet's celebrated
celebrated study
study of ofChinese
Chinesethought
thoughtargues
argues
objective, irreversible clock time-precisely measurable and a forcefully
forcefully the the view
view that
that Chinese
Chinese time
timewaswasgenerally
generally"compart-
"compart-
reflection of cosmic law-is the time ofbeing. Other views cited mentalized,"5
mentalized,"5 these
these metaphors
metaphors show show clearly
clearlythat
thatboth
bothcontinu-
continu-
above-time as generative principle, time with special mo- ous and compartmentalized
compartmentalized time time were
were present
presentin inancient
ancientChi-
Chi-
ments, as fate, as death, subjective time-represent time as nese consciousness and influenced their view of the time of
becoming. Contendo: that the evolution of terminology for the music.

temporal dimension of music reveals numerous attempts to
reconcile these ambivalent attitudes; by setting up music as a
"working model" of time, a culture tries to achieve a satisfac-
tory synthesis of its conflicting understandings of time.
Terms for musical time (1) suggest metaphors that ex-
press cultural preferences for such things as circularity,
linearity, continuity, reticulation, and the like . . .
We begin with images: metaphors, similes, word-pictures
that express certain observed properties of time in music. These
reflect not only cultural preferences, such as for circularity or
linearity, but seem to be efforts to solve problems. One central
The same duality is present in Indian thought. When early
Indian authors describe tala as the thread that stitches a garment
together, a string through a necklace of pearls, or a flash of
lightning in a cloudy sky, we see the same attempt to fix the idea
of continuity-through-reticulation. And this image is one of the
most cherished features of Indian art: the reticulated patterns
that appear in window lattices, temple carvings, elephant paint-
3Pierre Boulez, Boulez on Music Today, trans. Susan Bradshaw and Richard
Rodney Bennett (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), 88ff.
4Claude Larre, "The Empirical Apperception of Time and the Conception of
History in Chinese Thought," in Cultures and Time (Paris: the Unesco Press,
1976), p. 36.
5Marcel Granet, La pensee chinoise (Paris: La renaissance du livre, 1934).

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 Musical Time 99

ing, the
the poses
poses of
of Indian
Indian dance,
dance, the been
beendisputed
the sharply-articulated
sharply-articulated disputed
for afor
miniature
miniature longatime:
long some
time:
derive
some
it fromhreo
derive ("flow"),
it from
scenes of
of the
the ancient
ancient theatre,
theatre, and
and the others
others
the orament-encrustedfrom
from
orament-encrustedsing- eruo
sing- eruo
("draw, ("draw,
pull"), still
pull"),
othersstill
from others
hruo,
ing styles
styles of
of both
both North
North and
and South
South India.
India.On
Onthe hruomai
hruomai
theother ("hold,
otherhand, ("hold,
hand,the restrain").
the restrain").
Ross presents
Ross apresents
convincing a
argu-
convin
symbols
symbols ofof the
the turning
turning wheel
wheel and
and the
the apparent ment
ment that
apparentcircle that
circleof the the
derivation
offlame
flame derivation
from hreo
from
("flow")
hreowas("flow")
a creation was
of a
produced
produced by by aa moving
moving torch
torch reveal
reveal another
anotherside the
the
side tonineteenth
tonineteenth
the
theIndian century,
Indian century,
and thatand
the word
that evolved
the word
from evolved
the verb f
consciousness
consciousness of of time,
time, as
as well
well as
as aa distinct meaning
meaning
distinctpreference to
preferencefor hold.7
to hold.7
But
for hints
But of
hints
the idea
of of
the
"flowing"
idea of
persist
"flowin
in
circularity
circularity that
that later
later found
found expression
expression ininthe Greek
Greek
thecyclical literature,
literature,
cyclicalpatterns
patternsof and
of the
andalternate
the alternate
derivation cannot
derivation
be so easily
canno
the moder
moder tala
tala system.
system. Thus
Thus II believe
believe cyclical discarded.
discarded.
cyclicalrhythm
rhythm If
ininone
If
thelooks
one looks
the closely closely
at some ofatthe
some
uses of
ofrhythmos,
the uses o
music of
of India
India toto be
be an
an effect
effect of
of aa long-standing
long-standingit
it seems
seems
preferenceapparent
preference apparent
for
forthat several
that several
of the radical
of the meanings
radical had m
cycles, not
not aa cause.
cause. Both
Both the
the wheel
wheel and
and the
thetorch become
become
torchare mixed
aresymbols mixed
symbolsforby the
forby time
thethis
time
word
this
emerged
word as emerged
a technical term
as a te
continuous
continuous time,
time, the
the time
time of
of becoming;
becoming; and,and,inin
in
in Plato's
Plato's
addition,time.
addition, time.
First First
the
the used inused
GreekinbyGreek
the eighth-century
by the eighth-B.C.
circle of
of flame
flame suggests
suggests that
that time
time isis merely
merelyan anauthor
author Archilocus,8
illusion
illusion Archilocus,8
anda a the older
and theuses
older
of rhythm6s
uses of included
rhythm6s the i
property
property of
of mind,
mind, aa view
view consistent
consistent with
withIndian "ups
"ups and
anddowns"
Indianphilosophy.
philosophy.downs"
of human
of human
life and the
life temper
and the
or character
temper ofor
a c
Some images
images represent
represent the
the hierarchy
hierarchy of of time person.
person.
timeand
and the
theIts Its
fully
connec-fully
connec-developed
developed
range ofrange
meaningsofismeanings
even wider: is
to ev
tions between
between musical
musical levels:
levels: in
in the
the Upanishads,
Upanishads, shape
shape
timea cake,
time aisis
cake,
direct
some-
some-direct
one's mind,
one'sthemind,
pulse beat,
the pulse
the motion
beat,of the
a
times likened
likened to
to Brahman,
Brahman, sitting
sitting in
in the
thecenter
centerofbattle
battle
of line,
line,
a aspiderweb,the the
spiderweb, harmonic
harmonic
asas motion of
motion
the cosmos,
of the
and cosmos,
the scansion
and
the cosmic
cosmic spider;
spider; one
one musical
musical inference
inference that of
ofabe
thatmay
may aline
line
be of poetry.
drawnof poetry.
drawn isisI conclude
I conclude
that the basic
thatmeaning
the basic
wasform,
meani
perhaps
perhaps that
that the
the time
time of
of Indian
Indian music,
music, like
liketime
timespecifically
specifically
iningeneral, theis
general, the
form
isa a form
of a moving
of a thing
movingwiththing
both internal
with bo
condition
condition of
of balance,
balance, of
of "zero
"zero gravity,"
gravity," poised
poisedinstructure
structure
in the andand
themidst
midst external
ofofexternal
limitation.
limitation.
In the semantic
In thedevelopment
semantic
an interlocking
interlocking set
set of
of components
components at at variousof
of
various this
this
levels very
levels very
andimportant
and important
anan term, the
term,
Greeks
theslowly
Greeks
workedslowly
out a w
equilibrium
equilibrium of
of opposing
opposing tensions.
tensions. This
This is problem-how
problem-how
istestified
testified tototo
by describe
by to describe
what they whatperceived
theyasperceived
structured as
Abhinava,
Abhinava, who
who defined
defined the
the sole
sole purpose
purpose of
oftila movement
movement
tilaas
asthe withwith
theachieving
achieving clear clear
limitations.
limitations.
In this process
In this
the meanings
process t
of simya
simya (equipoise).6
(equipoise).6 The
The Greeks,
Greeks, under thehold,
under the hold,flow,
flow,
influence
influence andof
and
pull,
of a apull,
as well as
as character,
well as character,
form, and back-and-
form, an
more physical/spatial
physical/spatial view
view ofof rhythm,
rhythm, spoke
spokeofforth
offorth
noteswere
notes were
and
andmingled.
mingled.
beats
beats By theBy
timethe
of Aristides
time ofQuintilianus,
Aristides
as semeia
semeia (a
(a geometer'
geometer' spoints)
spoints) and
and apparently rhythm
rhythm
apparentlythought
thought in music
of
of music
in music
music was defined
was defined
as schemaas("shape")
schema + taxis
("sha
in much
much the
the same
same way
way that
that they
they did
did of geometry("structure")
of geometry ("structure")
and + kinesis
andastronomy,
astronomy, + kinesis
("motion").9
("motion").9
as a nexus
nexus of
of lines
lines and
and points.
points. More
More will
will followThe
The
follow Indo-European
Indo-European
about
about this
this roots *SREU
roots ("flow")
*SREUand("flow")
*WERU a
tendency
tendency toto spatialize
spatialize our
our concepts
concepts of
of time
timein ("hold"),
("hold"),
music.from
inmusic. fromwhichwhich
rhythmds
rhythmds
apparentlyapparently
evolved, have evolve
pro-
The image
image of
of aa river
river is
is another
another typical symbolduced
typical symbol duced
for
forthemany
many
the other
"flow"
"flow"other
derivatives
derivatives
in Sanskrit,
in Greek,
Sanskrit,
Latin,Greek
and
of music,
music, and
and to
to explore
explore itit further
further we
we turn
turntotothelater
later
the languages,
languages,
etymologies
etymologies but
of
of have
butnot
have
significantly
not significantly
affected the language
affected
certain important
important words:
words: rhythmos,
rhythmos, for of musical
forexample,
example, the time
theGreek other than as described above. Our search,
Greek
source for
for our
our word
word rhythm.
rhythm. The
The etymology
etymologyof
ofrhythmds
rhythmdshas has
6Bharatamuni,
6Bharatamuni, Ndtyasdstra
Ndtyasdstra of of Bharatamuni,
Bharatamuni,withwiththe
the commentary
commentary
7Robert Christopher Ross, " 'Pv0uos: A History of its Connotations,"
Abhinavabharatrby
Abhinavabharatrby Abhinavaguptacarya,
Abhinavaguptacarya,IV, IV,ed.
ed.M. Diss., University
M.Ramakrishna
Ramakrishna Kavi
Kavi of
andCalifornia, Berkeley, 1972, passim.
and
J.S. Pade
Pade (Baroda:
(Baroda: Oriental
Oriental Institute,
Institute, 1964),
1964),commentary
commentaryto 8Fragment
toChapter
Chapter 33, 105T.
33,verse
verse
1. 9De Musica Libri Tres, 1, 13.

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100 Music Theory Spectrum

therefore,
therefore, must
must be
be extended
extended toto other
other root
rootmeanings.
meanings.Tala,
Tala,the
the call,
call, cry,
cry, sound.
sound.Evidently
Evidentlythe
the
sense
sense
of of
to to
drive,
drive,
impel
impel
pre-pre-
general name
name for
for the
the Indian
Indian rhythmic
rhythmic system,
system,derives
derivesfrom
froma a vailed,
vailed, and
and the
theLatin
Latinadjective
adjectiveceler
celer
("fast")
("fast")
is aiscognate.
a cognate.
In In
physical metaphor:
metaphor: the
the Indo-European
Indo-European root
root*TEL
*TELmeans
meansa aflat,
flat, Sanskrit
Sanskrit kala
kalaisisassigned
assignedtotothe
the
third
third
root
root
kalkal
with
with
the the
meaning
meaning
broad surface,
surface, and
and the
the Sanskrit
Sanskrit tala
tala signifies
signifiesan
anaction
actionapplied
appliedtoto "calculate,"
"calculate,"and
anditsitsrange
rangeofofmeaning
meaningis as
is as
follows:
follows:
a fixed
a fixed
or or
such a surface,
surface, i.e.
i.e. marking
marking the
the rhythm
rhythm by byhandclapping
handclappingandand right
right point
pointor orspace
spaceofoftime,
time,time
timein in
general,
general,
proper
proper
time time
or or
other physical
physical actions,
actions, kriyas.
kriyas. From
From this
this basic
basicmeaning
meaningthetheuse
use occasion,
occasion, aa season,
season,time
timeasasdestiny,
destiny,
andandtime
time
as the
as the
destroyer.
destroyer.
of the term
term was
was extended
extended to
to abstract
abstract properties
propertiesof ofthe
therhythmic
rhythmic Based
Based onon the
thesemantic
semanticclusters
clustersforfor
these
these
twotwophonetically-
phonetically-
system, the
the metal
metal cymbals
cymbals that
that marked
marked thethetime,
time,and
andspecific
specific related
related terms,
terms,ititisisnot
nottoo
too
far-fetched
far-fetchedto to
assert
assert
thatthat
kalakala
repre-
repre-
hand motions. sents
sents creative,
creative,continuous,
continuous,subjective,
subjective,
"special"
"special"
timetime
(the(the
timetime
More interesting are two similar words--kala and kala- of becoming),
becoming),whereas
whereaskala
kalastands
stands
for
for
precisely
precisely
measured,
measured,
distinguished only by vowel quantity, both of which are terms objective,
objective, regular
regularclock
clocktime
time(the
(thetimetimeof of
being).
being).
applying to musical and general time and are frequently juxta- If kala
kala has
has aaparallel
parallelininGreek,
Greek, it it
is is
thethe
word
word
chronos
chronos
-a word
-a word
posed by Indian authors, perhaps in another attempt at problemof very
very dubious
dubiousorigin
originthat
thatmeans
meanstime
time
in in
general
general
as well
as well
as a as a
solving. Kala, the term for beat and the small musical durationunit
unit of
of time
timeand
anda amusical
musicalduration.
duration.Chrdnos
Chrdnosclearly
clearly
represents
represents
measured by the beat, comes evidently from the IE *(S)KEL measured,
measured, clock
clocktime.
time.ItItis isinteresting
interestingto to
compile
compile
a short
a short
list list
of of
("cut"). The general meaning of kala in Sanskrit is a sixteenthtemporal
temporal terms
termsthatthatseem
seemtoto have
havenono
useful
useful
application
applicationin the
in the
part, or a very small part of anything, even an atom. What thistheoretical
theoretical literature:
literature:thetheGreekGreek kair6s
kair6s
("fateful
("fateful
time,time,
the the
mo-mo-
term expresses in music is the need to divide and measure time ment
ment of
of decision")
decision")that
thatcuts
cuts such
sucha prominent
a prominent figure
figure
in the
in the
AtticAttic
very precisely. And it is interesting to note that tempus, the most drama
drama is
is entirely
entirelyabsent
absentfrom
fromthe
the
literature
literature
of of
musical
musical
specula-
specula-
general Latin word for time, is related to the Greek temno tion. tion. The
The Sanskrit
Sanskritiyus,
iyus,Greek
Greek aion,
aion,
andand
thethe
Latin
Latin
aevum
aevumall all
("cut") and to the cognate noun temenos ("that which is cut, a mean
mean the
the time
timeofoflife
life("lifespan")
("lifespan") andand
do do
notnot
appear
appearin musical
in musical
section or division-of space or of time"). Both tempus andcontextscontexts totomymyknowledge.
knowledge. Sanskrit
Sanskrit hashas
a Vedic
a Vedic
wordwordrtu rtu
withwith
templum share this common derivation, the one a temporal and the the meaning
meaningof oftime
timeasasdetermined
determined byby
cosmic
cosmic
law,law,
regular
regular
time,time,
the other a spatial construct. The IE *TEMP meant originally season
season of
of the
theyear;
year;again
againI have
I have notnotencountered
encountered thisthis
word word
in any
in any
"pull, draw, extend," from which one can see how the range of linkage
linkage with
withmusic.
music.
meaning had already travelled. We
We have
have seen
seenvery
verylittle
littleofofthetheChinese
Chineseattitude
attitudetoward
towardab- ab-
But, returning to Sanskrit, kala -the general word for time as stract
stract musical
musicaltime
timeand andhave
have merely
merely noted
notedthethe
pictorial
pictorial
symbols
symbols
well as for the time of music-comes from the IE root *KEL. the
the Chinese
Chineseused
usedtotorepresent
represent itsits
two
twoproperties
propertiesof succession
of succession
Pokomy lists ten conjectural Indo-European roots *KEL,10 and and
and segmentality.
segmentality.The TheChinese
Chinese system
system of of
regular
regular
quadruple
quadruple
there are three Sanskrit roots as potential sources, raising the meter
meter seemed
seemedto toprovoke
provokelittlelittlespeculation,
speculation,andand
musical
musical
timetime
possibility of a rich mingling of meanings. The three mostwas was otherwise
otherwisetaken
takenvery verymuchmuch forfor
granted.
granted.Also,
Also,
a monosyl-
a monosyl-
relevant IE roots appear to be these: (4) to have spots, be
labic
labic language
languagethat
thatdepends
dependsupon
upon
compounding
compounding
to express
to express
articulated; (5) to drive, impel to quicker movement; and (6) complex
to
complex ideas
ideasisisless
lesslikely
likelytoto
develop
develop
wide
wide
ranges
ranges
of meaning
of meaning
for the individual word-elements. But in both Chinese and
Greek thought, it is the idea of regular, seasonally-recurring
objective time-the time of being -that dominates the theory of
10Julius Pokorny, Indogermanisches etymologisches Worterbuch, 2 vols.
(Bern: Francke, 1959-69). musical rhythm. Of our three cultures, only in Indian musical

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 Musical Time 101

speculation
speculation can
can
wewefind
find
clear
clear
verbal
verbal
indications
indications
that time tinuous
thatwastimeone,
wasproceeding through cycle after cycle: in the initia
conceived
conceivedasas both
bothbeing
beingand and
becoming.
becoming.
The Indo-European
The Indo-European matter is split and differentiated into all the
phase, primal
roots
rootsthat
thatare
are
the
the
sources
sources
for for
European
European
words words
signifying the individual
signifying atoms and life forms; when these have been distrib
timethe time
of
of music
musicsuggest
suggest a definite
a definiteconfiguration
configuration
of meanings: uted and
of meanings:
flow, arranged, they are maintained in ordered time; finall
flow,
hold,
hold,cut,
cut,pull,
pull,
drive
drive
-all -all
verbals
verbals
and ways
and ways
of either eitherthey
of stimulating are melted and dissolve back into primal matter, complet-
stimulating
or
or restraining
restraining motion.
motion. ing the cycle. Kala ("beat") is connected with the first phase b
its function as that which divides; kala ("general time") i
.. .. .. and
and(2)
(2)
are,
are,
at at
thethe
samesame
time,
time,
cosmological
cosmological
statements
statements
similarly connected with the second phase, that of motion main-
that
that revealrevealinin
part
part
howhow
their
their
parent
parent
culture
culture
perceived
perceived
the in ordered
tained the time; and laya (the space between beats: rest
universe. and/or tempo) with the dissolution back into elemental matter
Laya is derived from the root lF ("to adhere, be sticky, melt
The metaphors implicit in rhythmic terms and the complex ofdisappear"). The Indian concept of laya is much more subtle
meanings that gradually developed suggest that the languagethan
of it appears to be on initial inspection, and I might point ou
that early Indian theorists appear to have achieved insights int
musical temporality functions as a kind of cosmological state-
the role of silence in music that eluded not only the Greeks bu
ment and an explanation of music in terms that parallel explana-
tions of how the world was created, maintained, and expectedmany
to later authors. The connection I have been describin
end. Music has long been linked with cosmology: pitch, as thebetween musical rhythm and creation in Indian thought was
vertical element in music, has often been symbolized in dia- made explicit by the great eleventh-century commentato
Abhinavagupta in the compound kala-kala-laya, which he ex-
grams and illustrations by the world mountain, tree, or cosmic
serpent, as in the famous frontispiece to Gafori's Practica pounds in the introductory comments to Chapter 31 (the tila
musicae;11 and the scale of music has been taken, in both chapter) of the Natyasastra, and which has been a fixture of
Western and Asian literature, to be the scale on which the Indian musical thought ever since.12
cosmos is laid out and its harmonic ratios those between the Several Indian performers have told me that the feeling of thi
planets. I suggest that duration, the horizontal dimensioncycle of is a regular part of their performance. They described th
music, may similarly represent the coordinate dimensionopening in improvisation (alapana) as welling up from an undif-
cosmological thinking, oriented to the cardinal directions, ferentiated the inner pool of sound (nada), then set in measured
world cycles, the subcycles of seasons, the stages of life, motion and when the actual tala begins, and subsiding into inner
their presiding deities. formlessness at the end of the piece, even if it means maintain
A few substantiating examples may be cited from rhythmic ing a few extra moments of concentration while the audience i
terminology: perhaps the most striking and overt link between applauding.
musical terms and cosmology is to be found in Indian literature. Chinese thought has consistently linked both musical pitch
The process of creation in traditional Indian thought is a con- and duration with the seasons of the year, and the recurring cycl
of four beats became analogous to a miniature cycle of seasons
in which each beat possessed its own specific properties, yin o
1 IFranchinus Gaffurius, Practica musicae (1496), translated and transcribed
by Clement A. Miller (American Institute of Musicology, 1968), MSD 20. For and its own specific savour. And this regular succession,
yang,
another edition see The Practica Musicae ofFranchinus Gafurius, trans. and ed.
Irwin Young (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969). 120p. cit.

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102 Music Theory Spectrum

celebrated
celebrated in in
rituals
rituals
and and
proceeding
proceeding
in accordance
in accordance
with the with
rules the rules
admit
admit an
anerror
errorinin the
the
text,
text,
thethe
commentator
commentator was at was
pains
at pains
to
of
of propriety,
propriety, waswas
whatwhat
bound
bound
heavenheaven
and earth
andtogether.
earth together.explain
explainthat
thatthe
theauthor
authorused
used
thethe
second
second
left left
because
because
it meant
it meant
the
As
As mentioned
mentioned above,
above,
the the
Greek
Greek
authorsauthors
described
described
rhythm in
rhythm in of
opposite
opposite ofright!
right!I was
I was
somewhat
somewhat shaken
shaken
by the
by logic,
the logic,
but mybut
spatial
spatialterms
termsandand
attributed
attributed
it to bodies
it to bodies
at rest as
at well
restasasbodies
well in Indian
Indianin
as bodies mentor
mentorcalmly
calmly
accepted
accepted
it asita as
typical
a typical
example
example
of pandit
of pan
motion.
motion.Greek
Greekrhythmic
rhythmictheory
theory
-like the
-like
Greek
thecosmos
Greek-is cosmos
all rationalization.
rationalization.
-is all This
This example
examplemay maybe dismissed
be dismissed
as sheer
as sheer
non- no
state
stateand
andnono
process,
process,
and and
they they
insisted
insisted
on using
onthe
using
same the
set of
same set but
sense,
sense, of
butititpoints
pointsto to
a very
a very
realreal
problem
problem
in the
ininterpretation
the interpretatio
of
topics
topicsfor
forrhythm
rhythm
thatthat
theythey
set forth
set forth
for thefor
parallel
the discipline
parallel of ancient
ancient
discipline oftexts.
texts.And
Anda too
a too
facile
facile
approach
approach
to the
to emendation
the emendation
of
harmonics.
harmonics. In In
thethe
theory
theory
of Greek
of Greek
music the
music
semeia
theare
semeia
the are the error
scribal
scribal errorhas
has
itsits
own
own
dangers.
dangers.
points
pointsthat
thatmark
markthe the
extremities
extremities
of musical
of musical
figures, figures,
a dancer's a dancer's
We
We have
havealready
already seen
seen
two
two
more
more
constructive
constructive
waysways
of recon-
of reco
pose,
pose,the
theextremity
extremity
of aof
gesture,
a gesture,
speechspeech
syllables.
syllables.
Both Aris-
Both Aris-
ciling
ciling contradictions:
contradictions:(1)(1)
thethe
juxtaposition
juxtaposition
of two
of similar
two similar
words wo
tides
tidesand
andAristoxenus
Aristoxenus
clearly
clearly
thought
thought
of single
ofmusical
single tones
musical tones
with
with different
differentmeanings
meanings (kala
(kala
andand
kala)kala)
and (2)
andthe
(2)incorpora-
the incorpo
and
andsingle
singleminimal
minimaltimetime
unitsunits
as "points."
as "points."
And music,
Andasmusic,
a tion
tion as
of adifferent
ofdifferent meanings
meaningswithin
within
a single
a single
wordword
(rhythmos),
(rhythmos),
due
discipline,
discipline, was
wasrelated
related
to geometry
to geometry
and astronomy,
and astronomy,
all of which
all oftowhich
to its
its ambiguous
ambiguousetymology.
etymology. It was
It was
not not
accidental
accidental
that kala
thatand
kala
could
couldbe berepresented
representedby aby
network
a network
of lines
ofand
lines
points,
andrather
points,
likerather
kala like
kala were
werejuxtaposed
juxtaposed
in in
thethe
theory
theory
oftala
oftala
to explain
to explain
the apparent
the appare
aa child's
child's"dot-to-dot"
"dot-to-dot"
pictures.
pictures.
And so
And
musical
so musical
time, in time,
a muchin contradiction
a much
contradiction between
betweentwo
two
kinds
kinds
of temporalities
of temporalities
in music;
in music;
and
different
different and
and
simpler
simpler
way,way,
was connected
was connected
with thewith
idea of
the idea ofthe
world the fusion
fusionof
world oftwo
twooror
more
more
root
root
meanings
meanings
in the
in semantics
the semantic
of
structure;
structure; the
the
stability
stability
and hierarchical
and hierarchical
structure
structure
of the Greek
of the Greek evidently
rhythm6s
rhythm6s evidentlyproduced
produced
a convincing
a convincing
fusion
fusion
of theofideas
the of
ideas
cosmos
cosmoswas
wasreflected
reflected
in the
in organization
the organization
and vocabulary of musicalof
and vocabulary motion and limitation.
musical
musicalrhythm.
rhythm.
The terms for temporality in music also (4) are concerned
These
Theseterms
termsalso
also
(3) attempt
(3) attempt
to reconcile
to reconcile
seemingseeming
contra- contra-
with the idea of regulation and the coordination of time with
dictions
dictionswith
with
that
that
happy
happy
ambivalence
ambivalence
that is that
often is
found
often the other
in found in musical dimensions. ...
the
the meanings
meanings of of
technical
technical
terms
terms
.... ....
The idea of regulation, limitation, coordination is promin
II have
havementioned
mentionedthatthat
the development
the developmentof the technical
of the technical
lan- in early
lan- rhythmic terminology. Music is hard to start, but
guage
guageofofmusical
musical
rhythm
rhythmrepresents
represents
a sort of
a sort
problem
of problem
solving for started
solving for it must not get "out of hand." This concern is expre
aa culture,
culture, a way
a way
of reconciling
of reconciling
apparent
apparent
contradictions
contradictions
per- inper-
a number of different ways in ancient theoretical literat
ceived in music or the words used to describe music. The One of the most important of the Indian taila topics is yati,
phenomenon is not confined to music: technical termslaw fromthat regulates all aspects of music. Derived from the v
many fields often contain diametrically opposed meanings, common root yam ("hold, restrain, control, regulate"), yat
sometimes requiring real virtuosity in explanation. I will thepoint
law that regulates laya, the flow of tempo, and in mo
out just three musical examples. First, in a famous passage from
usage has come to mean the sequence of tempi, i.e. from slo
the Natyasastra, a typical sequence of tala beats is described, fast or vice versa. But the earlier meaning seems to have b
much
using two different words forleft instead of the left and right broader.
that
the context clearly shows was the author's intent. 13 RatherPaini
thanis another tala topic that reveals a concern for control
and regulation; it is the law that keeps performers "in phase"
13Ibid., Ch. 31, v. 37. with one another, not only at the beginning of a piece but at all

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 Musical Time 103

than
than
critical junctions of the music. Pani means literally those
those
"hand," of theof
taila
thesystem,
taila since
system,
the Greeksince
chorusthe
leaderGreek choru
stood
stood
and indeed the hand gestures that controlled both the with
talawith
the
and chorus
the onstage
chorus andonstage
marked the andarsesmarked
and theses the arses an
with
with
rhythmic systems were overt regulators of the performance.hishis
foot foot
or arm.or
The Thearm.
eight tala
The gestures
eightdescribed
tala gestures
below describe
were
were
idea of regulation is also prominent in the Greek doctrineproduced
produced
ofin a sitting
in aposition,
sitting display
position,
a wider range
display
of a wider r
motions
motions
ethos: the various rhythmic figures were thought to have and directions,
strongand directions,
are lighter are
in energy
lighter
and weight,
in energy
and and weig
influence on the movement of the blood through consequently
the bloodsuggestsuggest
consequently a more intricate
a more and intricate
sophisticated rhyth-
and sophisticated
vessels and on the flow of meaning through the mind.mic style.
Thus
rhythm could have powerful effects upon the nervous and circu-
latory systems if unrestrained or unregulated. the tala gestures
A more technical type of regulation occurs in metrics where
Nihsabda
Nihsabda
such devices as catalexis, resolution, anceps, and others were (silent
(silent
employed to fit surface irregularities of the individualavapa
phrases palm up, fingers
fingers folded
folded
niskrdma palm down,
down, fingers
fingers extended
extended
into a larger framework of regularity, to give pauses for breath,
viksepa casting folded
folded hand
hand to
to right
right
and to set the more jagged patterns of speech into what was
pravesa palm down,
down, fingers
fingers folded
folded
considered a more musical time structure. I suggest that com-
plex rhythmic systems have a need for such built-in regulators,
Sasabda (sounding)
indispensable concepts in any hierarchical system with a large
samya right hand
hand slaps
slaps left
left palm
palm
number of moving parts. Mythical statements have a talaway of left hand
hand slaps
slaps right
right palm
palm
expressing important cultural concerns, and the Greeks vividly
sannipata hands clap
clap together
together
symbolized their concern for moderation and regulation in the
dhruva a finger snap,
snap, just
just before
before aa beat
beat or
or
person of the innkeeper Procrustes, who trimmed or stretched timed on the half-beat
his guests to fit his beds!

... and (5) denote physical gesture as well as the more The silent gestures give a very distinctive character to I
abstract thing that is measured by the gesture: musical time rhythm: when interposed between sounding beats, the nih
is thus given motion, direction, energy, and weight-as well gestures were placed upon the main beats, leaving the s
as duration. .. motions for subordinate beats. Also the silent gestures fo
attention upon the control of time during the duration of th
Hand motions accompanied both the Indian and Greek sys- at its onset. In the gestural aspect of ancient rhy
not just
systems
tems of musical rhythm. Probably the idea of rhythm began the physical evidence may perhaps supply further
with
the physical feeling and only later developed into theablemore
information when collated with the evidence of th
abstract concept of a measured duration in time. These hand texts.
scriptive
gestures contain vital clues to the rhythmic "feel" of a music,
and it is possible to draw some tentative conclusions ...
as (6) contain implanted value judgments as to what
to the
type of motion, the direction, the energy level, and thestitutes
accentual "proper" musical rhythm ...
weight imparted to the music by the gesture. To me the drsis and
thesis of the Greeks represent more dynamic, heavier The rhythm of music is "good," "proper," and "nat
accents

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104 Music Theory Spectrum

It is well known that musical terms,

terms, like
like technical
technical terms
terms from
from
concepts
concepts in Greek
in Greektheory.
theory.
Indeed theIndeed
construction
the construction
of temporal of temporal
other fields, can easily acquire value
value judgments.
judgments. In In Greek
Greekwords
words from
from
spatial
spatial
metaphors
metaphors
is so prevalent
is so that
prevalent
one is tempted
that one is tempted
rhythmic literature rhythmos ("rhythm")
("rhythm") and
and arithmos
arithmos ("num-
("num-
to
towonder
wonder whether
whether rhythmrhythm
has anything
has anything
to do with temporal
to do with temporal
ber") were often contrasted. It seems
seems inevitable
inevitable that
that these
these two
two
thinking.
thinking. All All
the languages
the languages
we have we beenhave
citingbeen
contain
citing
perti- contain perti-
terms would be juxtaposed, given
given their
their phonetic
phonetic similarity.
similarity.nent
nentexamples:
examples:
kala inkala
Sanskrit
in Sanskrit
means "a small
means part";
"a small
the Greek
part"; the Greek
Greek authors were fond of drawing
drawing aa distinction
distinction between
betweenpous
pousmeans
means"foot"
"foot"
and has
and
approximately
has approximately
the same rangetheofsame range of
figures constructed from proper
proper proportions
proportions (these
(these manifested
manifested
meaning
meaningas the
as the
English
English
word foot;
wordrests
foot;
in Greek
rests were
in called
Greek were called
rhythm6s) and those formed by by number
number alone
alone (arithmos):
(arithmos): aakenoi
kenoichronoi
chronoi("empty
("empty
times").times").
In Latin tempus
In Latin
is a tempus
section cutis a section cut
musical figure of eight beats could
could not
not properly
properly be
be constructed
constructed
out
outofof
something,
something, and spatium
and spatium
was a common
was aexpression
common forexpression
a for a
from 5 + 3, since this is not a true
true rhythmic
rhythmic proportion,
proportion, i.e.,
i.e., ""is
isspace
spaceof of
time."'
time."'
And further,
And further,
most terms
most
for formal
termssections
for formal
of sections of
not natural and regular. music
musicareare alsoalso
spatial.
spatial.
It is quite
It is
clear
quite
that clear
we arethat
used to
we are used to
And secondly, rhythm was valued
valued for
for its
its function
function ofof "limit-
"limit-
thinking
thinking about
about
time time
in spatial
in metaphors
spatial metaphors
and have a poor
andprocess
have a poor process
ing" the possibilities. Aristoxenus
Aristoxenus remarked,
remarked, "that
"that which
which is
is vocabulary.
vocabulary.
musical appears in but few forms,
forms, that
that which
which is is unmusical
unmusical ininThe
Thetrend
trendcontinues
continues
today. today.
George Rochberg,
George Rochberg,
in one of the in one of the
numerous."14 And as Aristotle observed
observed in
in his
his Rhetoric
Rhetoric in
in aa first
firstissues
issues
of Perspectives
of Perspectives
of New Music,
of Newargues
Music,
persuasively
argues persuasively
section on rhythm and speech,
speech, "that
"that which
which is unlimited that
is unlimited is
is
unpleasant and unknowable."15 ItIt was
was the
the task
task of
of rhythm
rhythm toto
In the new music, time as duration becomes a dimension of musical
organize the sounds of music into
into natural,
natural, coherent
coherent patterns
patterns
space. The new spatial image of music seeks to project the permanence
which could then be perceived by
by the
the aisthesis,
aisthesis, our
our faculty
faculty of
of
of the world as cosmos, the cosmos as the eternal present. It is an image
sense perception. of music which aspires to Being, not Becoming.16
Limitation of possibilities and sense
sense perception
perception were
were not
not
among the purposes of tala, butbut Indian
Indian authors
authors were
were nono less
lessOne cannot prove nor disprove such a florid assertion, but it
convinced that the accurate performance
performance ofof tala
tala was
was an
an end
end in
in
suggests several possibilities. If we agree that Rochberg's in-
itself. And in ritual performance
performance the
the meticulous
meticulous observance
observance of of
terpretation confirms what we instinctively feel about much of
tala was obligatory. In later Western
Western literature
literature being
being "in
"in time"
time"today's music, then we are likely to agree that contemporary
is as good as being "in tune.'" Early
Early Christian
Christian writers
writers referred composers-in their handling of the temporal dimension of
referred to
to
the "rhythmicizing" power of thethe Gospels,
Gospels, the
the Church,
Church, and
andmusic-are reflecting changing concepts of time in twentieth-
God-obviously a process of correcting,
correcting, regulating,
regulating, and
and train-
train-
century thought. But it may also be just another manifestation of
ing. In the most objective technical
technical language
language it
it is
is hard
hard to
to keep
keep
the difficulty we have had in describing music qua process.
value judgments out. I think that we, like the Greeks, are still solving for ourselves
the paradox of musical motion. Our common sense tells us that
. (7) are often spatial in origin ... we perceive motion in music, but we are not sure whether it is
time that moves, the music itself as a whole, or something
I have already referred to the spatialization of musical timewithin the music-or perhaps all of these and more. And when

14'PvOUAtKa 7otxe0LEa 3. 16George Rochberg, "The New Image of Music," Perspectives of New
15Rhetoric III, 140829. Music 2/1 (Fall-Winter 1963), 10.

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 Musical Time 105

we realize that what we are observing consists and

of
anda series
speech
speech of
come
come
together,
together,
one must
one
givemust
way togive
the other;
way they
to the
represent
represent
stimuli, not a continuous thing, the situation is further twotwo
different
compli- different
temporalities.
temporalities.
Music is inherently
Music ismore
inhe
cated. There are several famous paradoxes in the regular
regular than
than
speculation speech,
speech,
and itsand
meaning
its meaning
is communicated
is commu
in a
about time: the river of Heraclitus, into which one cannot
completely
completely step
different
different
modality.
modality.
Applying Applying
the terms ofthe
one terms
to the o
twice; Zeno's racecourse, of which the end is unattainable;
analysis
analysis of of and
the the
otherother
is usually
is usually
unprofitable
unprofitable
and often mislead-
and of
the most famous of all, time's "arrow." I suspect
ing. that music's
apparent motion is a classic paradox still awaiting solution, if
. . . and (9) develop
indeed solution is possible. Until then we shall probably con-these three main themes: movement,
tinue to depend upon spatial metaphors. number (measurement) and limitation, suggesting that
music-to ancient (and perhaps also to contemporary)
man-functions
... (8) are often similar to prosodic terms, but are fre-as a working model of time, a controllable
tonal universe
quently applied in a radically different manner . . . that can be set in motion, precisely measured,
and appropriately restricted.
The rhythm of music, in the ancient speculative literature,
was closely connected to the rhythm of poetry, and Our curiosity
terms about time itself is obviously reflected in the
for one
were frequently applied in analyzing the other. terms
This haswe have
led evolved
to to denote aspects of temporality in
many misunderstandings and controversies, althoughmusic. Our concerns are primitive: How did time begin? How
many
can language
scholars still believe that the temporal patterns of it be measured?
can What keeps it going? How will it end? Is it
lead us to a better understanding of the temporal finite? How can we
patterns ofmark our place in it? Can we in any way
music. One such notable attempt was the systemcontrol
of it?
rhythmic
Music is a useful
analysis proposed by Cooper and Meyer in The Rhythmic Struc- medium in which we reassure ourselves that
ture of Music, 17 but I believe that this attempt toour questions
apply about temporality can be answered; it serves
classical
perhapsto
metric feet on music's many hierarchical levels leads as aa dead
"working model" which we can start and stop,
repeating
end. A better case can be made for rhetorical figures and at will. By naming its parts and aspects we demon-
devices
as paradigms for larger musical structure. Music undoubtedly
strate that we can control it. I suggest that the temporal in music
has of
exhibits both surface features and deeper structures tremendous mythical significance for us, a myth that cannot
language,
easily be
at one time or another, but competent analysis along embodied
these linesin the person of an Orpheus but rather the
requires some of the sophisticated conceptsmore now being
abstract notion of time itself. We may read it as a creation
developed in the relatively young discipline of myth,
linguistics.
if we are attracted by the idea of music as becoming, or as
a vision
Ancient writers faced the problem of fitting music and ofspeech
the eternal cosmos, if we prefer being. Somehow the
together, a problem that is less compelling today. language of musical time has, in its own subconscious way,
Nevertheless
the mutual relation of words and music remainedcome to provide
a sore problem tentative answers to our questions.
throughout music history, so much so that it tends I will to
add arise
a brief postscript on the decline of rhythmic theory
whenever there is little else on which to speculate. in the
When Middle Ages. First, the Latin language provided an
music
impoverished vocabulary for the description of time in music:
temporal
17Grosvenor W. Cooper and Leonard B. Meyer, The Rhythmic concepts
Structure of were effectively expressed through syntac-
Music (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960). tical means, not the development of distinctive terms. Second,

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106 Music Theory Spectrum

Latin
Latinauthors
authors committed
committed at least
at least
one serious
one serious
mistranslation,
mistranslation,
consolidation of our conflicting attitudes toward time and
equating
equatingnumerus
numerus ("number")
("number")with with
rhythmos,
rhythmos,
unawareunaware
of the of the understanding of the temporalities displayed in the mu
fuller
careful
carefuldistinction
distinction between
between
rhythmos
rhythmosand arithmos
and arithmos the of
drawn bydrawn byour
the century.
Greek
Greekrhythmicists.
rhythmicists. ThusThus
the idea
the of idea
mechanical
of mechanical
division division
by by
number
numberwas was substituted
substituted for that
for that
of proper
of proper
proportion.
proportion.
Tempus Tempus
stood
stoodforforallall
kinds
kinds of time,
of time,
but generally
but generallyaccurate, accurate,
measurable,
measurable,
clock
clocktime
time that
that cancanbe divided
be dividedin all insorts
all of
sorts
ways. of ways.
And,
And,third,
third, they
they resorted
resorted
to a to
dieta of
diet
bland
of words:
bland modus,
words: for
modus, for
example,
example,was was applied
applied both
both
to temporal
to temporalevents events
and pitch
andcon-
pitch con-
structs.
structs.TheThe term
term meant
meant
originally
originally
something
something
that wasthat
meas-was meas-
ured,
ured,butbutitsits
meaning
meaning had had
become
become
attenuated
attenuated
to merelyto amerely
man- a man-
ner,
ner,aaway.
way. Bland
Bland words
words
are present
are present
in earlier
in earlier
rhythmic rhythmic
termi- termi-
nology
nologytoo:too: both
both thetheSanskrit
Sanskritgati and
gatithe and Greek
the agoge
Greek mean
agoge mean
precisely
preciselythe the samesame thing:
thing:
a way,a way,
a going,a going,
mannermanner
of going,of going,
hence
henceprogression.
progression. OneOne
can can
argueargue
that athat
smalla supply
small ofsupply
such of such
words
wordsisisuseful
useful in ina technical
a technical
language,
language,
but when butbland
when words
bland words
dominate,
dominate,something
something vitalvital
has gone
has gone
out ofout the of
discourse.
the discourse.
Whatever the reasons, the literature of musical
speculation--with but a few exceptions such as the period of the
fourteenth-century Ars Nova-avoided the temporal issues
raised by ancient authors, concentrating instead on the prescrip-
tion of proper rhythmic notation. Most of the history of music
theory in the last thousand years is devoted to questions of pitch.
Near the end of the last century, stimulated by the studies of such
German scholars as Rudolf Westphal, there was an intense but
brief revival of interest in classical rhythmic theory.
Ethnomusicologists have generally avoided this "tilt" toward
pitch, but their studies have done little to advance our knowl-
edge of rhythmic theory in ancient art musics.
The actual rhythm of music has always been and will remain
more interesting than the mental gymnastics necessary to fit it
into a coherent system, so it is not surprising that many recent
authors have preferred description to speculation. And this was
probably a wise decision, because when basic concepts of tem-
porality are in flux-as I believe they are today-description is a
necessary first step. But now there are signs on every hand that
renewed interest in the theory of rhythm may bring about a

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