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Building social and emotional competence: The PATHS

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 32
The PATHS Curriculum
Promoting Emotional Literacy, Prosocial
Behavior, and Caring Classrooms

Carol A. Kusche
THE UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON, SEATTLE

Mark T. Greenberg
PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY AND THE PREVENTION RESEARCH
CENTER FOR THE PROMOTION OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT.

Abstract

Social and emotional learning skills are crucial for success at school and in life and thus
should be a central feature of education. Based on developmental models drawn from
diverse theories, PATHS (Promoting Alternative THinking Strategies) and Preschool
PATHS were designed to promote social and emotional development, as well as school
success. The PATHS curricula have been carefully researched and have been implemented
throughout the United States and in other countries. In addition, they have been shown
to increase protective factors for healthy development, reduce emotional and behavioral
problems, and foster caring classrooms. Empirical support has been found for a direct
relationship between the implementation of PATHS and both improvements in executive
functions and reductions in behavioral problems.

The world of today is not the same as the one in which most professionals grew up. When we
were young, a misinterpreted social cue or hostile comment might end up in a fist fight, but now
it can result in serious violence. In many communities, students fear for their lives simply walk-
ing to school and an alarming percentage of children report being bullied (U.S. Department of
Tustice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2007). As a result of these unfortunate changes, education
thdrt sufficed in the past is insufficient today; soon it will be archaic.
Emotional literacy, social competence, and motivation to participate as healthy, contributing
members of society are now as important for success in school and work as reading, math, and
computer skills. The development of insight, empathy for others, and healthy relationships pro-
motes success in both academics and life and decreases risk for aggression, violence, and depression
(Greenberg, Kusche, & Riggs, 2004). Furthermore, increases in protective factors have been

435
Carol A. Kusche and Mark T. Greenberg

shown to improve academic performance, as well as brain development (Greenberg & Kusche,
1993; Weissberg & Greenberg, 1998). Finally, social emotional learning (SEL) transforms class-
rooms into caring, inviting environments where children feel nurtured; this, in turn, further
facilitates academic achievement (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, & Schellinger, 2011).
In order to promote proficient social and emotional development, however, well-constructed
curricula are of crucial importance. Moreover, SEL should begin as early as possible, at least by
the preschool years, and proceed in a developmentally appropriate manner until the end of high
school.
Providing this type of comprehensive, developmentally sequenced, teacher-ready SEL cur-
ricula was the primary goal in the conception and refinement of PATHS (Promoting Alterna-
tive THinking Strategies, Kusche & Greenberg, 1994) and Preschool PATHS (Domitrovich,
Greenberg, Kusche, & Cortes, 2004). These universal prevention/intervention programs were
designed to be used by teachers and support staff in preschool and elementary classroom to
promote emotional and social competencies, reduce aggression and disruptive behaviors, and
enhance the overall educational process.
PATHS curricula have been used over the last quarter century in regular education, Head
Start centers, and a variety of special needs programs (learning disabled, behavioral problems,
mildly mentally delayed, autistic spectrum disorders, and gifted). Since its development in the
early 1980s, PATHS has been delivered throughout the United States and in over 20 countries
(with numerous translations). Ongoing research has consistently shown that the PATHS model
leads to improvements in emotional literacy, social competence, cognitive abilities, and caring
classroom atmospheres (Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group, 1999, 2010; Greenberg
& Kusche, 1993, 1998; Greenberg, Kusche, Cook, & Quamma, 1995).

Brief Descriptions of Grade Level PATHS and Pre K/K PATHS

Due to the fact that ability and needs differ considerably between developmental stages, PATHS
is divided into two separate curriculums, one for elementary age children and one for pre-
schoolers and kindergarten. The Grade Level PATHS Curriculum (Greenberg, Kusche, & Con-
duct Problems Prevention Research Group, 2011; Kusche, Greenberg, & Conduct Problems
Prevention Research Group, 2011) consists of separate volumes of lessons for each grade level
(grades 1-5), all of which include developmentally appropriate pictures, photographs, posters,
and additional materials (http://www.channing-bete.com/prevention-programs/paths/) . Five
conceptual domains, integrated in a hierarchical manner, are included in PATHS lessons at
each grade level: self-control, emotional understanding, positive self-esteem, relationships, and
interpersonal problem-solving skills. Throughout the lessons, a critical focus of PATHS involves
facilitating the dynamic relationship between cognitive-affective understanding and real-life sit-
uations. PATHS is designed to be taught two to three times per week (or more often if desired),
with daily activities to promote generalization and support ongoing behavior. PATHS lessons
follow lesson objectives and provide scripts to facilitate instruction, but teachers have flexibility
in adapting these for their particular classroom needs. Further, although each unit of PATHS
focuses on one or more skill domains (e.g., emotional recognition, friendship, self-control, prob-
lem solving), aspects of all five major areas are integrated into each unit. Moreover, each new
unit builds hierarchically upon and synthesizes the learning which preceded it. To encourage
parent involvement and support, parent letters, home activity assignments, and infOrmation are
also provided.
The PreK/K PATHS Curriculum (Domitrovich, Greenberg, Kusche, & Cortes, 2004) con-
sists of 45 lessons of original PATHS concepts developed specifically for younger children.
PreK/K PATHS is divided into thematic units that include lessons on such topics as compliment-

436
 The PATHS Curriculum

ing, basic and advanced feelings, a self-control strategy based on the "Turtle Technique" (Robin,
Schneider, & Dolnick, 1976), manners, and problem solving. Various puppets, as well as pictures,
photographs, and feeling faces, are used in the lessons to introduce and illustrate the concepts.
Lessons are delivered weekly by early childhood educators during "circle-time" sessions and
then practiced with extension activities (e.g., group games, art projects, music, story time, etc.);
concepts also can be integrated into the existing "center" structure of typical preschool and
kindergarten programs.

Theoretical Rationale and Conceptual Framework of PATHS

In developing PATHS, we incorporated seven factors that we deemed critical for effective,
school-based SEL curricula. These included the use of

• an integration of a variety of successful approaches and promising theories

• a developmental model, including neuropsychological brain development
• a multi-grade level paradigm
• a strong focus on the role of emotions and emotional development
• generalization of skills to everyday situations
• ongoing training and support for implementation
• multiple measures of both process and outcome for assessing program effectiveness

PATHS and Preschool PATHS are based on five conceptual models, described in greater
detail elsewhere (Greenberg & Kusche, 2006; Kusche & Greenberg, 2006b). The first, the ABCD
(Affective-Behavioral-Cognitive-Dynamic) Model of Development (Greenberg & Kusche,
1993) focuses on the promotion of optimal growth and on the developmental integration of affect
(i.e., emotion, feeling, mood), emotion language, behavior, and cognitive understanding.
The second model involves the domains of neurobiology and brain structuralization/orga-
nization, focusing on the crucial development of neuronal connections between the prefrontal
orbital cortex and the more primitive subcortical limbic areas (prefrontal lobe deficits have been
linked to higher levels of impulsive and aggressive behavior, Brower & Price, 2001; Schore,
1996). Interhemispheric communication (Kusche, 1984; Kusche & Greenberg, 2006a) is also
emphasized, and the crucial importance of language for the regulation of emotional states has
been substantiated by recent findings in neuroscience (Lieberman et al., 2008), as has the impor-
tance of mirror neurons (networks in the brain that process observed behaviors modeled by
others as if the individual were actually doing these him or herself, believed to facilitate nonver-
bal learning, understanding, and empathic identification).
A third paradigm involves concepts from psychoanalytic education to enhance emotional and
cognitive growth, promote mental health, and prevent emotional distress (Kusche, 2002; Kusche,
Riggs, & Greenberg, 1999). Among other things, this application of psychoanalytic theory
emphasizes positive teacher-student relationships, internalization of prosocial values, use of cre-
ativity, optimal emotional and cognitive integration, appropriate expression (rather than repres-
sion) of affect, and learning as a process of joyful discovery. It can be noted that the incorporation
of psychoanalytic theory distinguishes PATHS from the vast majority of other SEL curricula.
The fourth model incorporates an eco-behavioral orientation, which focuses on classroom
and schoolwide systems change and generalization of skills to improve classroom and school
climates. A fifth model relates to emotional literacy, or as it is more popularly labeled, emotional
intelligence (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). As Dan Goleman (1995) noted, Is] elf-awareness—recog-
nizing a feeling as it happens is the keystone of emotional intelligence.... People with greater
—

certainty about their feelings are better pilots of their lives" (p. 43).

437
Carol A. Kusche and Mark T. Greenberg

We believe our broad conceptual approach has been a key factor in the effectiveness of PATHS;
to affect significant changes in children's social and emotional competence, it is necessary to take
a holistic approach that includes a focus on the integration of affect, behavior, and cognitions.
Similarly, when developing PATHS, we felt it was of utmost importance to incorporate knowl-
edge from diverse areas (e.g., emotional intelligence, neurocognitive development, psychoana-
lytic theory, school ecology, etc.) and to translate this information into language and dialogue
that could be easily understood and utilized by classroom teachers. In addition, most children
and teachers report that they greatly enjoy PATHS, which we believe is another very important
reason for its efficacy. A summary of these implications for practice can be found in Table 32.1.

Promoting Protective Factors, Decreasing Behavior Problems, and Enhancing

Classroom Atmosphere

Protective factors (e.g., reflective thinking, problem solving, and accurate evaluation of situa-
tions) are of crucial importance for decreasing maladjustment. These skills increase children's
access to positive social interactions, provide opportunities for a greater variety oflearning expe-
riences, contribute to the amelioration of significant underachievement, and help prevent vio-
lence and other antisocial adolescent problem behaviors in the future (e.g., aggression, substance
abuse, and dangerous risk-taking).
Another crucial factor for success in society involves the ability to tolerate frustration and
to control behaviors when impulses are strong. Several strategies are used in PATHS to teach
self-control that are based on the importance of neuronal structuralization and growth between
the frontal cortex and limbic system (i.e., optimal "vertical" control). Relatively simple motor
control is taught during the early years (the "Turtle Technique"), followed by more complex
models utilizing language and cognition (Control Signals Poster and formal problem solving).

Table 32.1 Implications for Practice: Why Use PATHS?

1. Emotional literacy and social competence are as important for success as reading achievement.

2. Acquisition of SEL skills decreases risk factors (e.g., aggression, violence, and depression), increases
protective factors, improves academic performance, and facilitates optimal brain development.

3. Social-emotional education is important for all children.

4. PATHS and Preschool PATHS, universal prevention/intervention programs used by teachers in
elementary classroom and preschool settings, are effective for both regular and special education
and for both prevention and intervention.
5. PATHS and Preschool PATHS have been delivered effectively to almost one million students in the
U.S. and many other countries.
6. PATHS has received high recognition and recommendations from numerous sources.
7. Teacher and staff training in the use of PATHS and Preschool PATHS is available.
8. Careful randomized research consistently shows that PATHS (1) increases protective factors such as
emotional understanding, social-cognition, and social competence; (2) decreases externalizing
problems such as aggression; (3) reduces internalizing distress; (4) promotes a caring classroom
environment; (5) has positive effects on neurocognitive development; and (6) improves academic
performance.

9. Research also shows that improvement in executive (prefrontal lobe) functioning is directly related
to reductions in behavioral problems following PATHS implementation.

10. PATHS and Preschool PATHS are based on five conceptual models, including brain development;
our eclectic conceptual approach and the fact that children and teachers enjoy these programs are
two key reasons for their effectiveness.

438
 The PATHS Curriculum

Developmental models indicate that children's ability to understand and discuss emotions is
related to their automatic utilization of internal language (i.e., verbal "inner speech") to mediate
emotion regulation, maintain self-control, and inhibit aggressive behavior. Moreover, children's
ability to understand their own and others' emotions is a central component of effective prob-
lem-solving and social interactions. When emotional awareness is not sufficiently emphasized in
SEL programs, children can model optimal problem-solving skills as a cognitive exercise, but do
not utilize them when strong emotions are experienced during real life experiences. Children
must be able to effectively regulate their emotional arousal and accurately process the emotional
content of a situation in order to successfully employ cognition to solve a problem.
Additionally, if children misidentify their own feelings or those of others (e.g., the misinter-
pretation of social cues and feeling disrespected are common causes of gang shootings), they are
likely to generate maladaptive solutions to a problem, regardless of their intellectual capacities.
In addition, motivation to engage in the discussion of feelings and to problem solve in interper-
sonal contexts is also greatly impacted by the modeling and reinforcement of others. Although
emotional understanding is implicit in many SEL models, they are rarely a central focus (Kusche
& Greenberg, 2006b).
Based on the importance of verbal mediation and interhemispheric communication, verbal
identification and labeling of emotions is emphasized throughout PATHS. Students and teach-
ers use Feeling Face cards during the first few grades of PATHS (PreK through Grade 2); these
cards include both the facial drawing of each affect (recognition of which is mediated by the right
hemisphere) with its printed label (which is mediated by the left), which optimizes hemispheric
integration. In addition, a color-coded differentiation of comfortable (yellow) versus uncomfort-
able (blue) feelings is incorporated. Teachers encourage children to discuss feelings, experiences,
opinions, and needs during lessons, in recollection, and when they are actually occurring. They
also provide explanations of actual experiences, label emotions (including their own), promote
the use of imagination, and model problem-solving cognitions (which affects mirror neurons).
Because research strongly suggests that learning experiences in the context of meaningful rela-
tionships influence the development of neural networks, PATHS strategies are designed to opti-
mize the nature and quality of teacher-child and peer-peer interactions (Kusche & Greenberg,
2006a). When children feel listened to, supported, and respected by both teachers and peers,
they internalize being valued, cared for, appreciated, and part of a social group. This, in turn,
motivates children to value, care for, and appreciate themselves, their environment, their social
groups, other people, and their world (a crucial antidote to violence).
Internalization of prosocial values is further encouraged by helping children to understand
why they are important and how their behavior affects others. For example, students discuss the
consequences of good versus bad manners and evaluate why good manners are important (e.g.,
the way we act affects how other people feel). In this way, students come to "own" the concepts as
belonging to themselves (i.e., they internalize them), which minimizes resistance and defiance to
adopting positive values; as a result, children ultimately choose to use good manners voluntarily
because they believe that is the right thing to do.
The need to belong to a group (originally tribe) is a powerful, biologically-based deterrent
to the enactment of violent behaviors towards other group members. In PATHS, we encourage
classroom cohesion through regular activities including ongoing complimenting, stories, and
teaching sharing as a positive endeavor. However, the same need for group membership can also
promote destructive actions and maltreatment towards members of "other" groups (e.g., the basis
of gang warfare, genocide, etc.). Thus, in addition to reinforcing classroom inclusion, we also
emphasize an awareness of larger group memberships (i.e., neighborhood, global community,
and as part of life on our planet) and the nurturing of compassion towards others.

439
Carol A. Kusche and Mark T. Greenberg

Implementation & Staff Training

We recommend that implementation of PreK/K PATHS begin with all of the children enrolled
at the center. Grade Level PATHS, on the other hand, can be used solely in individual class-
rooms, but is most effectively utilized on a school (or district) wide basis. There are numerous
models for scaling up across an entire school and PATHS has been initiated in a variety of ways
including whole-school training as well as building the process one or a few grade levels at a
time. When beginning a schoolwide implementation of PATHS, we suggest beginning in tht*
earlier grades (K-2) during the first year and expanding by one additional grade each year as
the children matriculate. However, decisions regarding implementation can be made with indi-
vidual consultation to fit the unique environments of different school settings.
Teacher and staff training in the use of PATHS are optional, but highly recommended, as it
will go far to ensure the highest quality implementation. Trainings are provided on site and are
conducted by certified PATHS trainers (http://pathstraining.com ). Workshops generally take
place over two consecutive days and can accommodate up to 30 participants (teachers, staff, prin_
cipals, etc.). PATHS trainers also provide ongoing phone/Internet support. We strongly encour-
age the attendance of school principals from each site, as our research (see below) has shown a
very strong effect for the role of the principal (i.e., the more active the principal in supporting
PATHS, the more effective the implementation).
In successive years, experienced teachers and support staff are encouraged to take on the roles
of co-trainers for new teachers in the school. Thus, over a two or so year period, local trainers
should have assumed control of the training and conduct of the curriculum implementation with
technical assistance provided by outside trainers on an as-needed basis. (See Greenberg, Kusche,
& Mihalic, 1998, 2002, for a more extensive discussion of PATHS and issues in implementation.)
A summary of implementation guidelines can be found in Table 32.2.

Awards and Recommendations

PATHS has been recognized as a highly effective, evidence-based program by numerous state
governments, the U.S. federal government (e.g., U.S. Department of Education, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, U.S. Surgeon General's Report on Youth Violence), and other
countries. PATHS is also the only elementary SEL program with proven effectiveness for both
regular and special education (e.g., learning disabled, serious behavior disorder, deaf and hard of
hearing) that has achieved "Blueprints" status (http://www.colorado.edu/cspv/blueprints/mod-
elprograms/PATHS.html; Greenberg, Kusche, & Mihalic, 1998, 2002).

Research and Program Effectiveness

Increasing Protective Factors and Reducing Maladaptive Outcomes

Several randomized controlled trials of PATHS have been conducted with different child popu-
lations: Typical children in regular education, children with special education needs, and those
who are deaf/hearing impaired (Greenberg & Kusche, 1993, 1998; Greenberg, Kusche, Cook, &
Quamma, 1995; Kam, Greenberg, & Kusche, 2004; Riggs, Greenberg, Kusche & Pentz, 2006).
All of these clinical trials showed that children who received at least one school year of PATHS
significantly improved emotional recognition and understanding, as well as social problem-
solving skills. Moreover, teachers reported significant improvements in self-control, emotional
understanding, and ability to tolerate frustration for both regular education and deaf children.
Cognitive testing indicated that use of PATHS with both normal and special needs children
decreased impulsivity, improved working memory, and increased ability to integrate informa-

440
 The PATHS Curriculum

Table 32.2 Implications for Practice: Using PATHS

1. Evaluate Institutional Ecology

a. Are teachers ready and willing to teach PATHS?
b. Does the principal/director support implementation?
c. Is the district/ center committed to implementation?
d. Is funding available? If not, what are the options? (e.g., grants)
2. Ascertain Implementation and Training Needs (First Year)
a. Which grades will implement PATHS?
b. Will teacher training be utilized? If so, when will workshop(s) be held?
c. Will ongoing technical support from the trainer be arranged? If so, how will time be
apportioned?
d. Will a staff member serve as faculty consultant?
e. Will regular meetings for ongoing support be held for PATHS teachers?
If so, when and how often will they convene?
f. How will parents be informed and/or involved?
3. Determine Practical Considerations for Each Classroom
a. When and how often will PATHS be taught?
b. How long will PATHS sessions be?
c. Where will PATHS charts and posters be displayed?
d. How will PATHS be integrated with academic or other subjects?

e. How will the teacher communicate with parents about PATHS?

4. Prepare Overall Implementation for Each Classroom

a. Review Table of Contents and skim through PATHS for overall perspective.
b. Determine lessons to be covered during the school year.
c. Consider ways for new students to be integrated into ongoing PATHS lessons.
d. Reproduce or buy Feeling Faces for all lessons prior to beginning PATHS.
S. Plan Ahead for Each PATHS Session
a. Read several lessons ahead to attain a sense of continuity.
b. Read through each lesson at least once prior to teaching it.
c. Estimate the number of PATHS sessions needed for each lesson.
d. Refer to the materials section of each lesson for requisite preparation.
e. Obtain any desired supplementary material.
6. After the First Year
a. Which new grades will receive PATHS?
b. How will teachers coordinate curricular transitions from one year to the next?
c. How will new teachers be trained?
d. How will new students be integrated into classes with previous PATHS experience?

tion and plan ahead when solving complex tasks (Greenberg & Kusche, 1998; Riggs, Greenberg,
Kusche, & Pentz, 2006). Improvements in cognitive flexibility and reading achievement were
also found with deaf children (Greenberg & Kusche, 1998).
Findings also indicated that PATHS significantly increased protective factors and reduced
behavioral and emotional problems. Significant reductions in aggressive and disruptive behaviors

441
Carol A. Kusche and Mark T. Greenberg

16.00

14.00
4
12.00

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44.

10.00

8.00
♦ •
6.00
♦♦
4.00 *NI Treatment —

2.00
■110..•••■ Control

0.00
Pre-test Post-test Follow-up

Figure 32.1 Special needs students who received PATHS showed a decreased trajectory for problem
behavior two years post-PATHS. (Kam, Greenberg, & Kusche, 2004)

were reported by teachers for both regular and special needs students at one year follow-up (see
Figure 32.1) (Kam, Greenberg, & Kusche, 2004; Riggs, Greenberg, Kusche, & Pentz, 2006).
In addition, significant decreases in depressive symptoms were found in teacher ratings and
self-reports of students who had high pre-test levels of depression (Kam, Greenberg, & Kusche,
2004).

Fast Track Project

Fast Track was a large, multifaceted intervention in four American cities (Seattle, WA; Nashville,
TN; Durham, NC; and rural Pennsylvania) designed to reduce serious aggression and conduct
problems. Approximately 14 schools (intervention and control) in high crime neighborhoods
were included in each site. PATHS served as the universal intervention (five other programs
were also utilized only with children with behavioral problems). Three cohorts of first graders
of mixed ethnicity (approximately 7,000 children) received PATHS over three successive years
(198 program classrooms and 180 matched comparisons). The effects of PATHS were assessed at
the end of first grade through the use of three types of measures: (a) peer sociometric interviews,
(b) teacher ratings of each child's behavior, and (c) independent ratings of classroom atmosphere.
Findings at the end of first grade indicated improved social adaptation at multiple levels in
PATHS schools. Relative to control classrooms, children receiving PATHS showed lower mean
levels of peer-nominated aggression, hyperactivity, and disruptive behavior and higher numbers
of prosocial peer-nominations. Teachers rated PATHS students as having less disruptive behav-
ior, and independent observers rated PATHS classrooms as having a more positive atmosphere
(Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group, 1999).
A second study with Fast Track schools involved longitudinal analysis with 2937 children who
remained in the same intervention or control schools for first, second, and third grade (Conduct
Problems Prevention Research Group, 2010). At the end of third grade, PATHS was found to be
effective for both promoting social competence and reducing aggressive behavior problems. Sig-
nificant main effects for intervention were found for all three teacher-rated outcomes (Authority
Acceptance, Cognitive Concentration, and Social Competence) and for two' of the three peer-

442
 The PATHS Curriculum

rated outcomes for boys (aggressive and hyperactive-disruptive nominations). The FAST Track
study of Grade Level PATHS was the largest study of an SEL curriculum to demonstrate the
efficacy of a school-based, universal intervention during the elementary school years.

Improvements in Frontal Lobe Functioning

In order to test our mediation hypotheses regarding recruitment of language and prefrontal
cortical control for regulating emotions, a randomized controlled study of 318 second-and third-
grade children with one year of PATHS intervention was conducted (Riggs, Greenberg, Kusche,
& Pentz, 2006). Internalizing and externalizing behavior problems were rated by classroom
teachers, while prefrontal control (i.e., executive functions) was assessed in children with two
well-known tests of inhibitory control and verbal fluency related to activation of the anterior
cingulate and dorso-lateral prefrontal cortex (Ravnkilde, Videbech, Rosenberg, Gjeede & Gade,
2002). Intervention children were rated by teachers at one year follow-up as having significantly
fewer externalizing and internalizing problems. Similarly, PATHS also led to significantly greater
improvements with regard to verbal fluency and inhibitory control at post test. Finally, using
structural equation models, findings demonstrated that one important way in which PATHS led
to lower rates of behavioral and internalizing problems was through improvements in executive
functions. In other words, PATHS builds cognitive abilities that children recruit to manage their
emotions and behavior.
These findings are especially exciting, as they provide empirical support for one of the neu-
ropsychological theories underlying PATHS, that is, that improvement in frontal lobe executive
functioning directly relates to reductions in behavioral problems. As previously noted, prefrontal
lobe deficits are associated with higher levels of impulsive and aggressive behavior, and PATHS
is one of the first models shown to successfully improve prefrontal cortical functioning (Riggs
& Greenberg, 2009).

International Replications
Several independently implemented studies have also shown that PATHS significantly reduces
risk factors and increases protective factors. A quasi-experimental study conducted in The Neth-
erlands with 141 boys (mean age = 7.2 years) showed a significant reduction in aggression after
children received PATHS for one year (Louwe, van Overveld, Merk, Orobio de Castro, &
Koops, 2007). The effectiveness of PATHS for Aftercare (a 12-lesson version developed for
afterschool contexts, Kusche & Greenberg, 1995) was examined in a quasi-experimental study
of 93 children in Southern Germany (Hacker, Losel, Stemmler, Jaursch, Runkel, & Beelmann,
2007). A significant reduction in problem behavior was found at post-test and maintained at one
Year follow-up. Finally, a quasi-experimental design was utilized with 55 deaf children in eight
primary schools in Southern England (Hindley & Reed, 1999). Significant differences were
found between intervention and control groups in emotional adjustment, ability to accurately
recognize and label emotions, and positive self-image one year after implementation.

Preschool PATHS
The effects of PreK/K PATHS have been subject to two evaluations. In the first, a randomized
controlled trial was conducted involving 248 children of varied ethnicity in 20 Head Start Class-
rooms in urban and rural Pennsylvania (Domitrovich, Cortes, & Greenberg, 2007). Both teach-
ers and parents reported that children receiving Preschool PATHS evidenced significantly better
social skills in comparison to controls at the end of one year of implementation. In addition,

443
Carol A. Kusche and Mark T. Greenberg

PATHS children showed significant improvements in identifying emotions, both expressively

and receptively. Furthermore, intervention children were less likely to misidentify facial expres-
sions as being angry (i.e., they showed less "anger bias" which has been linked to behavior prob-
lems, Schultz, Izaid, & Ackerman, 2000).
A second cluster-randomized clinical trial was recently completed using a randomized design
with 20 Head Start classrooms in both rural and urban Pennsylvania communities (Bierman et
al., 2008). The study involved 250 4-year-old children over 2 cohorts. Posttest findings indi-4
cated significant effects on children's social-emotional skills and social behavior. Children in the
intervention classrooms showed significantly greater gains on measures of social knowledge and
problem solving compared with children in the control classrooms. Teachers rated intervention
children as showing greater levels of self-control and emotion regulation and lower levels of
anxious/withdrawn and aggressive behaviors. Independent classroom observations were consis-
tent with teacher reports and also showed lower levels of off-task behavior in the intervention
classrooms. Preschool PATHS appeared to be equally effective for both genders and at all levels
of risk.

Administrative Leadership
Teachers do not work in a vacuum, and effective principals are leaders who promote positive
social climates and prosocial norms in their schools. Moreover, the readiness and willingness of
schools to undertake new interventions and forward planning on a school and/or districtwide
basis are vitally important for the success of SEL programs (Weissberg & Elias, 1993). Principal
support and the quality of teacher implementation at the classroom level were both critical fac-
tors in determining the success of PATHS in a group of inner-city public schools (Kam, Green-
berg, & Walls, 2003). Significant decreases in student aggression were only found in those settings
where both principal support and teacher implementation were positive. This is consistent with
literature indicating principal support as an important factor in the success of curricular innova-
tion (Hallinger & Heck, 1996; Leithwood & Duke, 1999).

Summary
PATHS and PreK/K PATHS are comprehensive, universal programs designed to promote emo-
tional literacy, improve social competence, reduce behavioral problems, decrease emotional
distress, enrich educational environments, improve academic performance, and facilitate brain
development in preschool and elementary school-aged children. Both curricula are effective
for prevention and intervention in regular and special education, which is especially impor-
tant because all children need comprehensive social-emotional education. Careful randomized
research has shown that PATHS (a) increases protective factors such as emotional understanding,
social-cognition, and social competence; (b) decreases externalizing problems such as aggression;
(c) reduces internalizing distress; (d) promotes a caring classroom environment; (e) has positive
effects on neurocognitive development; and (f) improves academic performance. We believe that
the integration of a number of different theoretical models and the fact that most children and
teachers enjoy PATHS both contribute to this success.

References
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