78

A Study on an Early Attempt of Establishing

a Three-step Realization Mode contained in
a Tangut Sub-commentary to Kamalaśīla’s
Prajñāpāramitā-vajracchedikā-ṭīkā

Li Mengxi
(Renmin University of China)

Buddhist followers suffered with great loss after the historical Buddha past
away. They imitated the endeavor of the historical Buddha of achieving Buddhahood
in order to comfort this loss. In this case, the historical Buddha could be brought
back in a certain sense. A three-step mode of achieving Buddhahood copied from the
behavior of the historical Buddha has been constructed gradually, which consists of
generating bodhicitta, accumulating qualities in three countless kalpa-s, and achieving
of Buddhahood.
This mode has been given by many early Tibetan works1, but it is not clear which
work could be considered as the origin. There are several traces of its formation. In the
Samayapradīpika, the first step of generating bodhicitta happened in the first countless
kalpa of accumulating saṃbhāra, in which way the first two steps have been linked

1
For the discussions and examples, see Wangchuk (2007), pp. 92–94.
 A Study on an Early Attempt of Establishing a Three-step Realization Mode contained in a ... 79

together2. The Bhaiṣajyavastu in Vinayavastu contains a version in which one particular

story employed for generating bodhicitta and second steps were told successively.
This three-step mode was also employed in the Tangut commentary3 that has
borrowed the framework from Kamalaśīla’s Prajñāpāramitā-vajracchedikā-ṭīkā. It
can be proved that this work was originally written in Tibetan and translated by a
Tangut master named Huizhao no later than the end of twelfth century, which made
it a relatively early source of this popular description of the three-step mode. Sum-pa,
the author, did not arrange these interpretations into the main body of his text, i.e., the
part contained the framework borrowed from Kamalaśīla, but supplied them himself in
the beginning introduction where he described the series occasions of how “speaker of
dharma” in his own words, namely the historical Buddha, achieve Buddhahood. The
detail will be analyzed in the following passage.

1. Generating of Bodhicitta4
Sum-pa popularized and visualized the process of generating bodhicitta with three
past lives stories of Buddha ( jātaka). He arranged these stories in a unique order, by
which he did not only reveal his individual understanding of bodhicitta, but also given
his own resolution of the paradox appeared in the different initial resolves of achieving
Buddhahood consisted in these jātaka stories.
1.1 Story of the experience in the hell
The first story can be found in the fourth chapter of both Chinese and Tibetan
version of the Gratitude from Buddha with great means (Thabs La mkhas pa chen po
sangs rgyas kyi drin lan bsab pavi mdo), yet it had been greatly simplified in our sub-
commentary. The comparison is shown as below:

2
As for the passage in the Abhidharmasamayapradīpika (same in the Nyāyānusāriṇī) (阿毗达磨藏
显宗论), see CBETA, T29, no. 1563, p. 888, c27–p. 889, a6. The passage in the Abhidharmamahāvibhāṣa
(阿毗达磨大毗婆沙论) also reveals the same tendency, see CBETA, T27, no. 1545, p. 892, a2–7.
3
It is described in the sub-commentary: “Firstly, regarding to series occasions of how Buddha
the speaker achieve Buddhahood: all Buddhas, begin with generating great bodhicitta, followed by
accumulating and completing two kinds of saṃbhāra in three countless kalpa-s, eventually achieving
Buddhahood (𗪘,𘎪𗇋, 𗢳𗗙𗦫𘔼𗫂，𗱕𗢳𗄑𗄑，𗪟，𘜶𘏞𘛛𗤶𗰱𗄈；𘐡𘂳，𘕕𘜔𗤋𗑱，𗍫𗣷𘃠𗄭，𗩾𘚔，
𗌮𗸷𗣼𗫨𗵆𘎪)”.
4
Tucci employed cittotpāda for “generating bodhicitta” in his enumerating of the eighteen points
on the path to Buddhahood presented by Vasubandhu, Tucci (1978), p. 133. As for the discussion of the
differences between these two terms, see Sparham (1992).
80 China tibetology No 1, March 2020

Translation of the
Story narrated in Translation of the
story narrated
Tangut Tibetan narrative a
in Tangut
Requeries from After that, the bodhisattva King of happiness
the bodhisattva (Pramodyarāja) requested Bhagavat in these words:
King about Bhagavat! If the understanding of gratitude by bodhisattva is
the reason (resolving) himself (in) generating of bodhicitta, and the repaying
for tathāgata of gratitude by bodhisattva is instructing other sentient beings
to initially to resolve in generating of bodhicitta, it is for what reason that
generate tathāgata would initially generate bodhicitta in former saṃsāra-s,
bodhicitta during the time of saṃsāra?
Arising 𗰜𘘚（𗷅 When the It was replied by Bhagavat:
of “great 𗡝𗚛𗐱 。b） original teacher Noble son! In former countless aeons, (I) traveled
compassion” (Śākyamuni) was
𘁟𘎳𗚉𗪙𘟂 through saṃsāra-s under births and deaths, and surposed to
in the hell animals, (he has
𘝨，𘘋𗷩𗅁 been born) in expierence eight enoumous hells of sentient beings, namely
𗅳𘖗𗇋𗪺𘜶 the hell as a cart the enoumous hell of a ha ha, a la la, a tsha tsha, boiling
□□□□ puller who owned
huge strength. kettle and giant boiling kettle, black stone and giant black
𗖌𗑠𗅳𘖗
He was made stone, down to the hell of firing cart, due to (my) defilements
𗟻𘂧，𘎆 to pull the cart from deeds of body, speech and mind. By that time, I have
𗪺𗤨𘔼， with a ... . Under
𘖗𘖑𘘭𗖵， this situation, his fallen into the hell of firing cart, with another (one) two of
□□□□ companion could us pull(ed) the firing cart. A Bang, the guard of the hell, sat
not pull due to his on the top of the cart and stared (at me), grimaced (with) his
𘟪𘐬𗳒𗜽，
weakness. Because
𘜶𘍔𗉛𗨙。 of this,... beat ... teeth and blew the fire. While fire blazing from his mouth,
𘕜𗣊𗰜𘘚“ with an iron steak eyes, ears, and nose, smoke diffused. Moreover, the body of
(𘜶)□□□□” a n d (m a d e h i m) the guard was extremely giant and dark. He sat on the cart
𗗙𘘣。“𘌽 suffered g reatly.
Our original with crossed legs, and struckc on me with the metal stick held
𗗙𘅇𗥖𘉞， teacher ... the so in (his) hand. Bearing the suffering from pain, I pulled the cart
𗧓𘞪𘖗𗧓。” called “g reat ...” with the most effort I could make. Since my companion was
𘘣。𘒩𘕤 ( H e) s a i d : “ D o
not beat him, I weak and not able to pull, A Bang, the guard of the hell, held
□□□□
will pull (the cart) up the trident and stabbed into (his) chest, blood flew down
𗪺𗖵，𗅳𘖗
myself.” By ..., he after struck by iron hammer. The sound of moan arose at
𗇋𗞞𗨻。“𗍳 became the puller.
𘕣𘔼𗕿𘖛？” (The guard of the that time because that man could not bear the suffering from
𘘣。𘟪𘐬（𗳒） hell said to the pain, sometimes (he) yelled for mother and father, sometimes
□□□ original teacher), for wife and son, yet useless. Just then, since I saw that (he)
“Why being
𗋕𗀔𗤷𗍣。 compa ssionat e!” was experiencing that kind of great suffering, the heart of
𗪘𗈁𗄈𗖵， (Therefore he compassion (karuṇa) arose (skyes). In that way, bodhicitta
𘓐𘂧𗋚𘎳。 beat the or iginal would be generated (bskyed) on account of the arising of great
teacher) with iron
steak into death. compassion. Then, (I) made a request to A Bang the guard out
On account of the of that experience of suffering, ‘Let a bit of compassion arise
initial generating for the suffering experience of this man!’ The guard of the hell
of compassion, (the
or iginal teacher) became furious and hatred thought arose, so that (he) held up
was able to be born the trident and stabbed into my neck. After died under that
as a human being. (situation), I was freed from the hell of firing cart of sentient
beings. Approximately eight aeons of wrongdoings became
purified. Like that I became liberated from the hell of firing
cart of sentient beings by generating unexcelled complete
bodhicitta. ”
Bhagavat replied the Pramodyarāja:
The person who pulled the firing cart by then, today
is me, having generated bodhicitta, I immediately became
accomplished in the state of realization.
 A Study on an Early Attempt of Establishing a Three-step Realization Mode contained in a ... 81

Va r iou s Therefore, the reasons for each sentient beings to

r e a s o n s of generate bodhicitta could not be subsumed into one, (for)
gener at i ng some (bodhicitta) arise by compassion, some arise by
bodhicitta hatred, some arise by giving, some arise by mean, some
arise by joy, some arise by grief, some arise by being freed
from attachment, some arise by befriend with hostile
enemy, some arise by following a spiritual teacher, some
arise by following an unwholesome teacher, some arise by
having seen Buddha, some arise by having heard dharma.
This being the case, the generating of bodhicitta for each
sentient being is likewise individual.
The reason why bodhisatt va mahāsattva
Pramodyarāja understand gratitude and repay gratitude
should be considered in this way.

The Tibetan version has been translated directly from the Chinese version, which is
a
said to be compiled in China, so that there is no Sanskrit original text. Even so, it could be
suspected that the story in Sum-pa’s text was paraphrased from the Tibetan translation instead
of the Chinese original as he did in most of cases. The Tibetan text is shown as below, which I
only noted important differences within two Tibetan versions, i.e. sTog (abbr. T) and sDe dge
(abbr. D), themselves, and neglected the differences in end words of sentences (lo/to) or the
position of punctuations (shad (/)). As for more discussions and a brief paraphrase of this story,
see Wangchuk (2007), p. 96.
Thabs la mkhas pa chen po sangs rgyas kyi drin lan bsab pavi mdo (D353 vol. 76 fols.
117a2–118a2; T180 vol. 71 fols. 290b7–292a5): de nas byang chub sems dpav dgav bavi rgyal
pos bcom ldan vdas la vdi skad ces gsol to// bcom ldan vdas byang chub sems dpav drin lan
shes pa ni bdag byang chub tu sems bskyed pavo// byang chub sems dpav drin lan bsab pa ni
sems can pha rol po byang chub tu sems bskyed du bcug pavo zhes bgyi na/ de bzhin gshegs pa
sngon vkhor ba na vkhor bavi tshe thog ma dngos po civi rgyus byang chub tu sems bskyed par
gyur/ bcom ldan vdas kyis bkav stsal pa/ rigs kyi bu sngon gyi bskal pa grangs med pavi bar du
skye shir vkhor ba na vkhor zhing/ lus dang/ ngag dang/ yid kyi nyon mongs pavi las chen pos
sems can dmyal ba chen po brgyad myong bar gyur to// vdi lta ste/ a ha havi sems can dmyal
ba dang/ a la lavi sems can dmyal ba dang/ a tsha tsha1 vi sems can dmyal ba dang/ zangs khol
mavi sems can dmyal ba dang/ zangs khol ma2 chen povi sems can dmyal ba dang/ rdo nag povi
sems can dmyal ba dang/ rdo nag po chen povi sems can3 dmyal ba nas/ mevi shing rtavi dmyal
bavi bar duvo// nga devi tshe na mevi shing rtavi dmyal bar lhung nas/ gud na4 gcig dang gnyis
kyis mevi shing rta vdren te/ dmyal bavi srungs ma a bang5 ni shing rtavi steng na vdug cing
mig bgrad/ so gtsigs te me vbud pa6 kha dang/ mig dang/ rna ba dang/ sna nas me vbar/ dud pa
vthul te/ srungs ma de yang7 lus shin tu che zhing gnag la/ shing rtavi steng na skyil mo krung
bcas te vdug nas/ lag pa na lcags kyi dbyug pa8 thogs te nga la rdeg9 go// devi tshe nga na bavi
sdug bsgnal ma bzod nas stobs ci nus kyis shing rta drangs so// ngavi grogs shig nyam chung
ste vdren ma nus pas dmyal bavi srungs ma a bang10 gis lcags kyi mdung rtse gsum pa thogs nas
brang du btsugs te/ lcags thos brdegs11 nas khrag char par bab12 bo// devi tse mi de na bavi sdug
bsngal mi bzod pas na tshavi13 skad chen po byung14 nas/ bar vgav ni pha ma zhes vbod/ bar
vgav ni chung ma bu zhes bos kyang phan pa med do// nga devi tshe na15 de lta buvi sdug bsngal
chen po myong bar16 mthong nas snying rjevi sems skyes so// de ltar snying rjevi sems chen po
82 China tibetology No 1, March 2020

skyes pavi rkyen gyis byang chub tu sems bskyed par gyur to// de nas sdug bsngal myong ba
devi phyir dmyal bavi srungs ma a bang17 la sdug bsngal myong bavi mi vdi la snying rjevi sems
cung zad skyed cig ces gsol ba btab pa dang/ dmyal bavi srungs ma khros nas zhe sdang gi sems
skyes pas lcags kyi mdung rtse gsum pa thogs nas/ ngavi gnyav bar btsugs nas/ der tshevi dus
byas pas mevi shing rtavi sems can dmyal ba las thar te/ bskal pa brgya snyed kyi mi dge bavi
sdig pa byang bar gyur to// de ltar ngas bla na med pa yang dag par rdzogs pavi byang chub tu
sems bskyed pas mevi shing rtavi sems can dmyal ba las thar bar gyur to// bcom ldan vdas kyis
dgav bavi rgyal po la bkav stsal pa/ devi tshe mevi shing rta vdren pa de ni da ltar nga yin te/
byang chub tu sems bskyed pas myur du sangs rgyas su grub par gyur to// de bas na sems can
thams cad kyis byang chub tu sems bskyed pa ni don gyi dngos po18 gcig tu ma zad de/ la la ni
snying rjevi rkyen gyis skyevo// la la ni zhe sdang gi rkyen gyis skyevo// la la ni sbyin pavi rkyen
gyis skyevo// la la ni ser snavi rkyen gyis skyevo// la la ni dgav bavi rkyen gyis skyevo// la la ni
mya ngan gyi rkyen gyis skyevo// la la ni vdod pa dang bye bral gyi rkyen gyis skyevo// la la ni
dgra sdang ba dang phrad pavi rkyen gis skyevo// la la ni dge bavi bshes gnyen la sten19 pavi
rkyen gyis skyevo// la la ni mi dge bavi bshes gnyen gyi rkyen gyis skyevo// la la ni sangs rgyas
mthong bavi rkyen gyis skyevo// la la ni chos thos pavi rkyen gyis skyevo// de bas na sems can
rnams la byang chub tu sems bskyed pa ni de ltar so sor mi mthun20 te/ dgav bavi rgyal po byang
chub sems dpav sems dpav chen pos drin lan shes pa dang drin lan bsab pavi don gyi dngos po
vdi ltar rig par byavo//.
1. tsha tsha] D, tsa tsa T 2. ma] D, ba T 3. sems can] D, om. T 4. gud na] T, gud nas D
5. bang] D, wang T 6. vbud pa/ ] D, vbud na T 7. de yang] D, devng T 8. dbyug] T, da byug
D 9. rdeg] D, brdeg T 10. bang] D, wang T 11. brdegs D], brdabs T 12. bab] D, phab T 13.
na tshavi] D, na tsha bavi T 14. byung] T, phyung D 15. na] D, om. T 16. bar] T, ba D 17.
bang] D, wang T 18. dngos po] T, dngos po ni D 19. sten] D, rten T 20. mthun] T, vthun D
b The words “𗷅𗡝𗚛𗐱” are supplied from the remain and the context.
c The Tibetan word here is “rdeg”, the present tense of “strike”, yet I translate it with
the past tense in order to fit the context. Similar situations also happened on the following
verbs. (The notes end here.)

In the original Tibetan narrative, this story was told to reveal the reason of the
initial generation of bodhicitta in order to show what are real “understand gratitude
(drin lan shes pa)” and “repay gratitude (drin lan bsab pa)” by bodhisattva. “Gratitude
(drin lan)” here refers to the role model of achieving Buddhahood by tathāgata. The
one truly understand it should generate himself, the one wish to repay it should
benefit others by encouraging them to generate, the idea of achieving Buddhahood,
i.e., generating bodhicitta5. In this case, one need to first understand the reason why
tathāgata generate bodhicitta, this lead to the discussion of the arising of compassion,
5
Historically, “understand gratitude” and “repay gratitude” are not truly happened events, and on the
other hand, tathāgata did not achieve Buddhahood for the sake of setting a good example as well. But the
combination of these two ideas reveals the loss in follower’s heart of the historical Buddha, and the wish
of them to bring him back in all kinds of way, including imitate his endeavor to achieve Buddhahood, in
another word, themselves become the Buddha.
 A Study on an Early Attempt of Establishing a Three-step Realization Mode contained in a ... 83

which is the main reason given by the Tibetan story. However, it has been noted in the
last paragraph that the reasons for generating bodhicitta cannot be subsumed into one, it
is individualized. Compassion, giving, befriend with hostile enemy, etc., can be seen as
the reason on the altruistic dimension, whereas being freed from attachment, following
a spiritual teacher, having heard dharma relate more to self-realization.
However, the topic has been changed from generating bodhicitta into the arising of
compassion in the Tangut paraphrase of the same story. In another word, compassion is
one of the reasons in generating bodhicitta in the Tibetan narrative, but this concept has
been brought out as an individual topic in Sum-pa’s interpretation. On the other hand,
Sum-pa has also neglected the background of discussing about this initial generation of
bodhicitta. It is possible that Sum-pa acquired his material not from the folios in hand,
but the words from mouth, when the story was deprived from the specific context.
Moreover, it is told in the Tibetan version that the historical Buddha “immediately
became accomplished in the state of realization after generating bodhicitta”. This idea
from the original context contradicts the theory of gradual realization. It could be seen
as another reason why Sum-pa only drew the main body out of the Tibetan story.
An interesting point surfaced with the help of the Tibetan text is philological
and in some extent philosophical. When refers to the “great compassion”, the original
text employs the heteronomous verb “skyes (present tense skye)”, which indicates
that the “compassion” can “arise” naturally without efforts. On the other hand, for
“generating bodhicitta”, the text uses “bskyed (present tense skyed)”, which means
“bodhicitta” need to be generate with endeavors. This is the starting point of the
logic of the bodhicitta theory, where may be implied that the compassion is an inherit
potential of sentient beings. It is similar to first noble truth “suffering” which comes
from experience, and do not need to be traced further back or it will lead to a logical
circulation. In this case, it is not necessary to discuss the reason for the arising of
compassion. If think about it under the argument that imitating the initial resolve of
generating bodhicitta of the historical Buddha is to memorize Buddha himself, then
it is also one reason for the historical Buddha to turn the dharma wheel, since this
compassionate nature of sentient beings is universal. But it is another situation when
regarding to bodhicitta. The necessity of generating bodhicitta indicates that bodhicitta
does not owned by every sentient being and does not originally exist. One thing must be
born from another in the generating mode, so that it is reasonable in our context that the
later acquired bodhicitta is born from the innate compassion. It is also for this reason
that the behavior of historical Buddha could be imitated later, since all sentient beings
share the common starting point. This may be considered as one of the logic of Sum-pa
84 China tibetology No 1, March 2020

and other Tibetan authors who put compassion as the first step of generating bodhicitta.
1.2 Story of the son (khyevu) of a poor potter (rdza mkhan)
It has been pointed out by scholar that Buddha Śākyamuni was said to be
born as the son (khyevu) of a poor potter (rdza mkhan) in the Bhadrakalpika Sūtra,
similar as the content of the second story given by Sum-pa, but what consisted in
the Sūtra are only scraps of words instead of a complete story.6 However, there are
also traces in the Abhidharmasamayapradīpika (same in the Nyāyānusāriṇī) and the
Abhidharmamahāvibhāṣa, both of which are linked to the second step of achieving
Buddhahood, namely, the accumulating of saṃbhāra. The story preserved in the sub-
commentary is as below:

𗽁𗍅𗖌□□□□𘝨，𗯨𘂧𗢳𗖌𗋚𗧊，𗦻𗫂，‘𗷅𗡝𗚛𗐱’，
𘂀𗚉（𗀚）□□□𘓐𗄑𗄑𗢳𘋩𗶷，𗴿𗒀、𗹙𗨉𗫶𘟀，𘝵𘂆𗢳𘋩𗶷𗧠，
𗴿𗒀𗦇𘔮𗂙𗤋，𗉝𗈪𘏌𗇒𗜐𘔅𘙇𘃡，𗢳𘋩𘙌𗼒。“𗧓𘂆𘀍𗍊𗢳𘗐𗨻。”𘘣。
𘏞𘛛𗤶𗈪𗄈𘓁，𗜐𘔅𗳒𘈚𗤼𗟥、𗈪𗮔𗟻𗖵，𗋕𗿳，𗽁𗍅𘈷 “𗭼𘃨”𘘣。
𗦻𗪛𗋕𗍊，𗮅𗄻𗹬𘋩𗫸𗫸𗤶𗄈，𗫸𗫸𘙇𗳆，𗅋𗳜𗆮𗤶𗷝𘜘。
When ... (the son of) a potter, a Buddha called Śākyamuni was born to
instruct ordinary people ... Everyone went for Buddha to make offerings to
him and to listen to dharma. Seeing (that, the son of a potter) wished to go for
Buddha as well, yet he had nothing to offer. (In this case,) he bound the hay
into a torch and offered it to the Buddha. He generated bodhicitta with the
wish “I shall become Buddha like you”, and lightened the darkness with the
torch. His name was “Brightness” at that time because of this. Similar to his
name, he generated the wish again and again in acquiring more knowledge,
yet (also) lost it repeatedly. He had not attain the irreversible (bodhi)citta.

From concluding the main theme among the three stories, it is known that “the
son of the potter” here refers to the original Buddha as well. He was born as a human
on account of the “great compassion” that has arose in the former story. In Sum-pa’s
narrative, this bodhicitta has been generated by making offers to and making wishes
in front of the past Buddha. It has not been considered as the irreversible one, since it
extinguished like the sparkling of the torch-fire although it had been bright once. No
matter in the original story this story was expressed positive, negative or neutral, in
Sum-pa’s paraphrase it served as a foil to the real bodhicitta, namely the unsurpassed,
true and complete bodhicitta.
The initial bodhicitta is divided into two types in the Bodhisattvabhūmi, the
6
The Tibetan version of the Bhadrakalpikasūtra was translated from Chinese instead of Sanskrit into
Tibetan, but so far I did not find the according passages in both versions. See Wangchuk (2007), p. 97.
 A Study on an Early Attempt of Establishing a Three-step Realization Mode contained in a ... 85

irreversible (nges par vbyin pa) and reversible (nges par vbyin pa ma yin pa); and the
later could be further distinguished into two, the permanent reverse one (gtan du ba)
and impermanent reverse one (gtan du ba ma yin pa).7 The bodhicitta revealed in this
second story could be subsumed into the impermanent reversible type of bodhicitta.
This immature bodhicitta was directly the result of making physical offerings
instead of mental training, and indirectly the result of the “great compassion”. This
interpretation is different from the one in the Bodhisattvabhūmi, where generating
bodhicitta is considered as the reason for the arising of compassion.8
1.3 Story of the king and the elephant
The third story is the most famous among three and have been used greatly by
Tibetan authors for the discussion of generating bodhicitta.9 The original story comes
from the Bhaiṣajyavastu in the Vinayavastu, which can be found in both Tibetan and
Chinese translation. It discusses more about the desire that made the elephant lose its
mind, whereas Sum-pa’s narrative pruned this part and focus more on drawing forth of
the mind trainer Buddha. The comparison is shown as below:

Story Translation of the

narrated in story narrated in Translation of the Tibetan narrative①
Tangut Tangut
When, in mind, did venerable Bhagavat
Raising the
initially truly generate unsurpassed, true and
question
complete bodhicitta?

7
In the Tibetan translation of the Bodhisattvabhūmi: “byang chub sems dpavi dang po sems bskyed
pa de yang mdor na rnam pa gnyis te/ nges par vbyin pa dang/ nges par vbyin pa ma yin pavo// vde lav
nges par vbyin pa ni gang skyes nas gtan du vjug la phyir ldog par mi vgyur bavo// nges par vbyin pa ma
yin pa de ni gang skyes nas gtan du mi vjug la phyir ldog par vgyur bavo// ”, and “sems bskyed pa devi
ldog pa la yang rnam pa gnyis te/ gtan du ba dang/ gtan du ba ma yin pavo// de la gtan du ba ni vdi ltar
sems lan cig log nas phyis byang chub kyi phyir mi skye bavo// gtan du ba ma yin pa ni vdi ltar sems log
kyang byang chub kyi phyir yang dang yang skye bar vgyur bavo// ”. As for the critical edition of the cited
passages, see Wangchuk (2007), p. 383 (2.1.0. and 2.2.0).
8
In the Tibetan translation of the Bodhisattvabhūmi: “byang chub sems dpav sems can sdug bsngal
ba rnams la snying rje dang ldan zhing/ vyongs suv bskyab par sems pa yang sems de skyed par byed de/ de
lta bas na sems bskyed pa de ni snying rjevi rgyu mthun pa yin no//”. As for the critical edition of the cited
passage, see WANGCHUK (2007), p. 383 (1.2.3.).
9
As for the discussion of the Tibetan references of this passage, see WANGCHUK (2007), p. 95, n. 18.
86 China tibetology No 1, March 2020
Training the 𗏡，𗂧𗖌 Later, when... of a
elephant and □□□□ kingdom, (someone)
encounter 𗿳，𘟙𗗙 payed homage to
with danger 𗍰𗦇𘛣② the elephant rode by
𘇇𗞞𗼋。 the king. (The king)
𗇋𗗙𗞞 s e nt one f r om t he
𘓯，𗌻𗟻。 group of elephants
𘕣?”𘘣。 to ..., and made them
‘𗅲𗖵’ t rain it. He asked:
𘘣……”。 “W ho is the tamer
𗌭𘟙𘋩𘙌 of t h e e l e p h a n t ? ”
𗼒。𘟙𘇇 (A nswered): “(The
𗁜𗀔𗶠，
one) named ‘dharma-
□𗏣𗞞
𘙇，𗖌𗑠 follower’ (is the
𗈪𗔫，𗱢 tamer).” ..., he offered
𗜈𘖑𗳢。 (the elephant) to the
𘟙𗞞𗃬， king. The king sat
𘃡。” on the back of the
𘘣。 elephant, the tamer....
(They) encountered
with a g roup of
elephants. W hile
hav i ng se n se d t he
a d o r a bl e s m el l of
a female elephant,
( k i n g ’s e l e p h a n t
w ished) to go (for
it) and became not
cont rollable. T he
king was frightened
and asked “what to
do” ...
There was once an ancient great king called
“King of the brightness (King Bhāsvara)” .
In his region appeared a precious elephant,
which was white as the color of water-lily,
well settled with its seven limbs③, well shaped
in form, elegant, and pleasant to look. Then,
King Bhāsvara said in these words after the
experienced elephant tamer was summoned
by the messenger: “You, experienced tamer,
let this precious elephant become well trained
right away, and (then) offer (it) to me, (you)
may follow the superior speech.” After
listened to (the request) from King Bhāsvara,
the experienced elephant tamer trained that
precious elephant and later offered (it) to the
king knowing that it have became disciplined.
Since the precious elephant owned by his
highness indeed became disciplined, when
the time arrived, his highness immediately
requests to be acquainted with the knowledge
of (riding). Then King Bhāsvara, along with
the elephant tamer, rode onto the top of the
precious elephant, and set off to chase wild
animals. Before long, that precious elephant
sensed the smell of female elephant from the
woods, so that it rushed to the trace of that
smell. After that, the king has been carried
away by the windly speed of the precious
elephant, and spoke to the tamer of the
precious elephant: “Listen! Elephant tamer!
It is like that the sky has trembled, like that
every directions have gathered together
immediately, like that the entire earth has been
rolled like the wheel and turned over the sky;
like that this power of the elephant is similar
to the moving of the snow mountain, after saw
it moved, thought that this mountain moved,
rashly and immdiately (other) mountains
moved ④ . Listen! Tamer of the precious
elephant! Be sure to restain the power of the
elephant! While having subjugated the power
of the precious elephant, try to do something
good! Since the precious elephant carrys rigid
neck, I am not sure what would happen!”
 A Study on an Early Attempt of Establishing a Three-step Realization Mode contained in a ... 87

The first time It was said by the tamer of the precious

to discuss elephant: “Your highness! Even if (I) recite
the negative the mantra said by Ṛṣivara, and also exert to
power of the subjugate (the precious elephant) with iron
disire pin, it would be similar to treat (the elephant)
with those which would surely make one
dea d , t h is ele pha nt w il l ove rcome my
strength. Any power from human, no matter
the iron pin, the noose, or anything else, are
not able to subjugate the mind that have been
carried away by the obstinate desire. The
torment of the mind that filled with desire
would arise one day, with some conditions it
would become extended and with some (it)
would also become subsided.”
Escaping 𘇇𗌻𗇋 The tamer said: When that elephant tamer was not able
“You’d bet ter hold to turn the elephant back on any point, (he)
from 𘒣：“𘕰
onto the branch of said to the king: “Your highness, since this
the danger 𗛆𗗙𘙌 the tree.” Therefore, precious elephant is delusional, let us grasp
𗜼𘉞。” when comi ng near the branch of the tree!” Then, the king and
by the tree, (the king) the tamer grasped the branch of the tree and
𘘣𗖵， held onto the branch. remained. After being freed from the edge
𘕰𗎙𗶚 of death, the king said to the tamer: “You
offered the precious elephant to me when it
𘅍，𘕰
hasn’t been trained!” (The tamer) said: “Your
⑤
（𗛆 ） highness, I indeed trained it, however, after
sensed the smell of female elephant from the
□□□
woods, (the elephant) have no mind to listen
𗟧。 (any more).” Though indeed like that, it won’t
be long after it evaluated (the condition) and
missed (home). Later, that precious elephant
became freed from drunk, (when) the seventh
day arriving, (it) came back to and stayed in
its own place out of the evaluation and the
exteme missing (of home).
88 China tibetology No 1, March 2020

The 𗫌𘋩𘙇𗆐， Back to the palace,

punishment to 𘟙𗕣，𗌻𗇋 the king raged. He
the tamer and sa id t o t he t a me r:
𗗙𘘣：
“𗍳
the reconsider “You...my elephant...
𗧓𗗙𘇇𗌹 made me killed. You
from the king
□□□ sh a l l b e k i l le d by
𗤷𗈪𗍣。 sl ic i ng you r b o d y
i nt o pie ce s ove r a
𗍳𗗙𘛽𘕿
few days with claws,
𗾞𘜔𘁯𗳒
f ive t aels each!”
𗏁𗍬𘍾𗁮 ( T h e n h e p u t) t h e
𗰸𘃡，𘗐 tamer into the jail.
𗜍𘉞。” T he defen sor s of
the palace said like
𘘣。𘍓𗷩
this in the dream
𗅁𗜦。𘟙 of the king: “Even
𗗙𗎭𗓑𗼈 though the body
𘜔𘝦𘃡𘟙 of the elephant has
𗗙𘈞𘇂， been t rained, its
m i nd ha s not, a nd
𘌽𗍊𘒣，
(this) shocked your
𘘣：
“𘇇𗗙 h ig h ness. (If k ill
𘛽𗞞𗌻𗫶， the tamer), how to
𗤶𗷝𗌻𗖵， c o m m a n d it wh e n
seven days later the
𘟙𘓒𗃬𗟻。
elephant come back
𗒹𘜍𗅉𗏣，
itself?” In this case,
𘇇𘝵𗄼𘅍， they told (the king):
𘕣𘒩𗠪？” “Do as you told, do
𗖵𘘣，
“𗨉 not k i l l t h i s m a n ,
(but) release him.”
𗄊𘃡，𘌽
The tamer also yelled
𘓐𘅇𗜍，
with (this excuse).
𗞞𘌬𘉞。”
𘘣。𘇇𗌻𗇋
𘂆𗋕𗖵𗅮𗢴。
 A Study on an Early Attempt of Establishing a Three-step Realization Mode contained in a ... 89

The 𘟙𘒣： The king said (to the The tamer of the precious elephant then
experiment “‘𘛽𗫂， tamer): “How could hastily spoken to the king: “Your highness, the
to prove you say that you have precious elephant is here!” The king said: “You
□□□□
that the body already made its body
did not make it disciplined!” “Your highness,
𗌻𘉞’ disciplined?”
of the elephant
it has been disciplined. Where to tell? (Let me
is disciplined 𘝶𗦜? ”
show it) in front of you!” With (these words),
(the tamer) brought one iron ball which was
ripely burned on the seat of fired clay to the
investigating ground, and had (the elephant)
fetch (the ball). Then, while (the elephant)
fetching (the ball) with out hesitating, the
elephant tamer said: “Your highness, though it
is possible (for the elephant) to fetch (the ball),
it would be killed.” The king said: “Listen!
Tamer! Like that (it) has indeed been trained,
we are distracted by this, what is the reason of
it?” “Your highness, didn’t I reply before that
though the body had been trained, the mind
did not. I could train the body, yet could not
deal with the mind.” The king said: “Have you
ever saw or heard if there is somebody who
could train the mind?”
90 China tibetology No 1, March 2020

The one who 𗋕𘓐𘒣： That man After being urged by the king, (the
could train answered: “Training tamer) said: “Your highness, the body tamer
“𗤶𗌻𗫂，
the mind of the mind is not what and mind tamer would be Buddha Bhagavat
the elephant, 𗧓𗗙𘅫𗅔， I could do, that is ....” (and his followers). Although strives with
and the The king asked: “The many (efforts) in order to overcome the
𗋕（𗫂⑥）
second time mind trainer, namely, faults arose out of desire, knowing that it
to discuss □□□□ Buddha, where is would not work makes the (effort) reverse
about desire he?” Buddha was at... after the diligence fades away. Although
𘃞。”𘘣。
by t hat t i me, bot h perserverences like that have been made
𘟙𘒣：“𗤶 of them went to (see many times here and there, (one) will not set
𗌻𗇋𗋕𗢳 the Buddha). After out from the foot of the attachment woods.
expressi ng “I w ill Wishi ng to overcome the desi re, some
𗫂，𗰓𘋩
also become Buddha abandon every object, eagering to conquer
𗫻？”𘘣。 o n a c c ou nt of t h e it, others joyfully entertain sense faculties.
⑦ training (of the mind), All these worldly (beings), namely divinity
𗉘（𗿳 ），
si nce I also hea rd and non-divinity, human and lion, tiger and
□□□□ the way to do so”, serpent, billions of worms, and butterflies,
𗫻，𗍱𗍫 (the king) generated (their) mind are bound by the extremely tiny
the real bod hicit ta nooses of the desire, rotate again and again
𗋕𗶷。“𗤶
with his whole heart, in the dark samsaric activites. I trained the
𗌻𗡶𗹙𗓁 which did not stop excellent elephant that has beautiful body
until achieving with various kinds of ways like this. As for
𗖵，𗧓𘂆
Buddhahood. king, the beautiful one, the subtle mind could
□□□□ not be disciplined by ‘eating (only) sacred
□□𗌻𘃡 water (like) Ṛṣi’, as for the tamer of the
precious elephant, the one does not have good
𘔼，𗢳
appearance, the subtle mind could not be
𘗐𗨻。” disciplined by ‘eating (only) water (like) Ṛṣi’,
if so, with what would formless mind arise?
𘘣，𗈪𗤶𘞌
A noble one came to the human world, the
𗒘𘏞𘛛𗤶 great king, the Buddha, the powerful man,

□□□□ who abandoned the defilements and contained

with courage and strength, on account of him
□𗢳𗨻𗫡 and any followers who were similar to him,
𗺓，𗍣 the formless mind would arise.”

𗷝𗬬。
 A Study on an Early Attempt of Establishing a Three-step Realization Mode contained in a ... 91

Making 𗉘𗿳，𗥃 After (offered to) all After heard the strength and diligence of
offerings to 𘓺𘟙𘓁𘊝 ......, including the four Buddha Bhagavat (and his followers), the
all (sentient h e a ve n l y g u a r d i a n King Bhāsvara gave donations, did merit,
𘈈（𗑗⑧）
beings), and gods, Śakramūrddhan, made aspirations on the unsurpassed, true
□□□
the eventual and so on, (the king) and complete Buddhahood. As the great king
generating of 𗄑𗄑𗄊𗴿 gasped in admiration thought: “After I myself appeared as sentient
bodhicitta 𗒀𘃡。𗅉 in these words: “As being and achieve Buddhahood on account of
𘌽𗍊𗁦 for today I turned to these extensive donations, I should liberate
bod hi, I shall make those beings who have not been liberated
𗡙:“𗟱
offerings to you all, by the victorious ones from ancient age. I
𗾞（𘕿），
who exist in this world shoud (make) all beings acheive Buddhahood
□□□□ out of the generation with whatever merit coming out of properly
𘏞𘛛𗏣𗫂， of (bodhi)citta.” By sustaining or out of giving, and free those
𗤶𗄈𗖵， s a y i n g t h e s e , t h e worldly beings from the burning fever of
k i ng ge n e r a t e d t h e desire.” The ver y one who became King
𗍳𗫈𗯨𘂧，
ir reversible (bod hi) Bhāsvara of that time and place, is me myself
𗄑𗄑𗗙𗒀，
cit ta. This is called at that time and place. I initially generated the
𘅇⑨ (𗩾） “ t h e g e n e r a t i n g of unsurpassed, true and complete bodhicitta
□□□” bodhicitta”. under that condition.
𘘣𗖵，𗅋𗳜
𗆮𘏞𘛛𗤶
𗈪𗄈。𘌽
𗫂,“𘏞𘛛
𗤶𗄈”𗡶𘟂。

① The Tibetan and Chinese versions are slightly different with each other, sometimes
their tones are excatly the same, yet in other ocassions the complete sentences are missing in the
Chinese version. Since this sub-commentary lies its origin in Tibetan, and Vinayavastu is also
among the earliest texts that have been brought to Tibet, it could be suspected that this story
must have been influenced by the Tibetan other than the Chinese version as well, even though
the Tangut version is only the paraphrase of the original. The critical edition of Vinayavastu
(D1 vol. kha fols. 273a3–274b5; T1 vol. kha fols. 365a5–367b3) is shown as below: btsun pa
bcom ldan vdas kyis bla na med pa yang dag par rdzogs pavi byang chub tu thog mar thugs
gang du bskyed lags/ rgyal po chen po sngon byung ba rgyal1 po vod ldan zhes bya ba byung
ste/ devi yul du glang po rin po che me tog ku mu da2vi mdog ltar dkar ba/ yan lag bdun shin tu
gnas pa/ gzugs bzang ba/ mdzes pa/ blta na sdug pa zhig byung ngo// de nas rgyal po vod ldan
gyis glang po vdul mkhan mkhas pa pho nyas bkug nas vdi skad ces smras so// mkhas pa des pa
khyod kyis glang po che dam pa vdi myur du legs par dul bar byos la nga la phul cig// lha bkav
bzhin vtshal zhes/ glang po3 vdul mkhan mkhas pas rgyal po vod ldan las mnyan nas glang po
che dam pa de vdul bar byed de/ de dul bar rig nas rgyal po vod ldan la phul te/ lhavi glang po
che dam pa ni dul lags pas lha da devi dus la bab par mkhyen par mdzad du gsol/ de nas rgyal
po vod ldan glang po che dam pa de la zhon te/ glang povi vdul mkhan yang gong du zhon nas
ri dags vchor du song ngo// ji tsam na glang po che des nags kyi bal4 glang movi dri tshor nas
92 China tibetology No 1, March 2020

des dri devi rjes bzhin du brgyugs so// de nas rgyal po glang po che rlung ltar mgyogs pas khyer
ba dang/ glang po chevi vdul mkhan la smras pa/ kye glang po vdul mkhan nam mkhav vgul ba
vdra zhing phyogs kun myur du vdu bar vgro ba vdra// sa ni mthav dag vkhor lo bzhin vkhor
shing rnams mkhav la vkhor ba vdra// glang povi dbang po gangs ri vgro ba lta bu vdi rgyug
mthong nas ni// ri bo vdi rgyug snyam nas ri rnams gya tsom myur du rgyug pa vdra// kye glang
po che vdul mkhan glang po chevi dbang po thul cig thul cig// glang chen dbang po tshar gcad
par// bzang po rab tu vbad par gyis// glang chen gnyevu5 rengs khyer ba yis// kho bo cir vgyur
gtol med khyer// glang po che vdul bas smras pa/ lha drang srong dam pas smras pavi gsang
sngags bzlas bgyi zhing// vdi la lcags kyus tshar bcad vbad pa yang bgyi na// vchi bar nges pa
rnams kyi tshe yis sman bzhin du// glang po vdi ni bdag stobs zil gyis mnan nas mchi// mi yi
dbang po lcags kyuvam// zhags pavam yang na lcag gis kyang// vdod chags gnyevu6 rengs khyer
bavi sems// tshar gcad nus pa ma lags so// vdod chags sems kyi zug rngu ni// ji zhig ltar na skye
vgyur te// tshul vgav zhig gis rgyas vgyur la// vgav zhig gis kyang zhi bar vgyur7// gang gi tshe
glang povi vdul mkhan des glang po che dam pa de gnas thams cad du bzlog par ma nus pa devi
tshe rgyal po la smras pa/ lha glang po che vdi ni vkhrul gyis shing gi yal ga la vjus mdzod cig//
de nas rgyal po dang vdul mkhan shing gi yal ga la vjus te vdug go// de nas divu8 shi ba las thar
te bde bar gyur nas/ rgyal pos vdul mkhan la smras pa/ khyod kyis glang po che dam pa ma dul
bar9 nga la phul lo// des smras pa/ lha vdi bdag gis zhin tu dul bar bgyis te/ von kyang nags kyi
bal10 glang movi dri tshor nas nyan du ma btub lags so// lha de lta lags mod kyi/ dpyad dran nas
ring po mi thogs par mchi bar vgyur ro// de nas glang po che de myos pa dang bral bar gyur
nas zhag bdun lon pa dang dpyad rjes su dran nas rang nyid gnas su vongs te vdug go// de nas
glang po che vdul mkhan gyis rings pa rings par rgyal po la smras pa/ lha glang po che de ni
mchis lags so// rgyal pos smras pa/ khyod kyis ni vdi ma thul do// lha thul lags so// ci mngon/
lhavi spyan sngar bab par bgyivo zhes des lcags kyi thu lum so mal du tshos par bsregs pa zhig11
dpyad kyi sar khyer te len du gzhug par brtsams so// de nas des bag tsha ba med pas blang bar
brtsams pa dang/ glang po vdul mkhan gyis smras pa/ lha len du ni btub na von kyang vgum
par vgyur ro// rgyal pos smras pa/ kye mkhas pa de ltar shin tu dul ba vdis bdag cag g.yengs pa
vdi la rgyu ci zhig yod/ lha bdag gis sngar lus thul gyi12 sems ni ma lags so zhes ma gsol tam/
bdag ni lus vdul ba lags kyi/ sems vdul ba ni ma lags so// rgyal pos smras pa/ sems vdul ba vgav
yod par khyod kyis mthong ngam thos sam/ de lhas bskul nas smras pa/ lha lus vdul ba dang
sems vdul ba/ sangs rgyas bcom ldan vdas rnams mchis so// vdod pavi rgyus byung nyes gzhom
phyir// mang pos brtson par byed mod kyi// mi nus par ni shes nas kyang// brtson vgrus nyams
nas ldog par byed// de dang der ni de lta buvi// vbad pa rnam pa mang byas kyang// vdod pavi
vdod chags nags tshal gyi// rtsa13 nas phyin par mi vgyur ro// vdod pa gzhom par vdod pa ni//
kha cig yul rnams spong bar byed// de gzhom vdod pa gzhan dag ni// dgav bzhin dbang po tshim
par byed// lha dang lha min mi dang seng ge stag dang sbrul dag dang// srin bu bye ba14 phye
ma leb dang vjig rten vdi dag kun// vdod pavi zhags pa zhin tu phra mo rnams kyis yid bcings15
nas// srid vgro16 thibs po vdir ni vkhor lo bzhin du shin tu vkhor// bdag ni sna tshogs thabs kyis
vdi lta bu17// gzugs bzang phun sum tshogs pavi glang po vdul// rgyal po gzugs can ma lags phra
sems ni// drang srong chab klung vtshal bas ma thul to// glang chen vdul ba gzugs med phra bavi
sems// drang srong chu klung za bas ma thul na// gang gi dbang du gzugs med sems vgyur te//
mi yi vjig rten dag na yod dam kye// gang gi dbang du gzugs med sems vgyur te// lha gcig19 mi yi
vjig rten na mchis te// rgyal po chen po sang rgyas mthu bo che/ nyon mongs spangs pa dpav bo
 A Study on an Early Attempt of Establishing a Three-step Realization Mode contained in a ... 93

stobs ldan pa// de dang gang dag de vdrar rjes vbrang ba// devi dbang vdir ni gzugs med sems
vgyur ro// de nas rgyal po vod ldan gyis sangs rgyas bcom ldan vdas rnams kyi btshon vgrus
dang stobs thos nas sbyin pa dag byin/ bsod nams dag byas te/ bla na med pa20 yang dag par
rdzogs pavi byang chub tu smon lam btab pa/ sbyin pa rgya chen gyur pa vdi yis su// vgro bar
rang byung sangs rgyas gyur nas ni// sngon gyi rgyal dbang rnams kyis ma bsgral ba// skye
bovi tshogs dag bdag gis bsgral bar bya// bdag gis skye dgu legs bskyangs las byung bavam//
btang ba las byung bsod nams yod pa gang// des ni sangs rgyas nyid thob vjig rten dag21// vdod
pavi rims nad las rab22 thar par bya// rgyal po chen po ji snyam du sems/ devi tshe devi dus kyi
rgyal po vod ldan du gyur pa gang yin pa de ni/ devi tshe devi dus na nga nyid de yin te// ngas
der thog mar bla na med pa yang dag par rdzogs pavi byang chub tu sems bskyed do//
1. ba rgyal] T, brgyal D 2. da] D, ta T 3. glang po] T, glang po che D 4. bal] D, ba T 5.
gnyevu] D, gnyav T 6. gnyevu] D, gnyav T 7. vgyur] D, vgyu T 8. do] T, divu D 9. dul bar] D, thul
bar T 10. bal] D, ba T 11. zhig] D, zhi T 12. gyi] D, gyis/ T 13. rtsa] D, va T 14. bye ba] D, phye
ba T 15. bcings] D, bcing sa T 16. vgro] D, vgrovi T 17. bu] D, bur T 18. chen] D, pon T 19. lha
gcig] T, lhan gcig D 20. med pa] D, med T 21. dag] D, dang T 22. rab] D, ni T
There are many specific studies under the theme “the king and the elephant”, such as Schlingloff
(1977) and Panglung (1981). Besides, a Japanese translation of the Bhaiṣajyavastu of the Vinayavastu
focuses on the excat chapter where this passage lies, see Yao (八尾史) (2013). As for more references of
this story, see Wangchuk (2007), p. 95.
② The word “𘛣” cannot be comfirmed yet.
③ There are at least two interpretations of seven limbs of elephant. Aprat from the four legs and
one tail that consisted in both interpretations, one version supplies nose (or head) and the outer genital
organ, whereas the other lists the two giant teeth of elephant. These seven limbs represent the seven
branches on the path of achieving Buddhahood (saptabodhyaṅgāni). As for the references, see the fifth
chapter of the Bodhisattvagocaropāyaviṣayavikurvānanirdeśa (《大萨遮尼乾子所说经》卷3 〈王论品
5〉 (CBETA, T09, no. 272, p. 331, b2–3)); and first chapter of the Sūtra of Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna (《正
法念处经》卷2 〈十善业道品 1〉 (CBETA, T17, no. 721, p. 9, b14–15)).
④ I could not offer a precise translation here, yet a parallel passage is consisted in the Chinese
translation of the Bhaiṣajyavastu, which says that “the feet of the elephant did not move, as it was soaring
into the sky; (felt that) all the back mountains follow, when watching the front mountain coming forward.”
As for the Chinese translation of the Bhaiṣajyavastu, see 《根本说一切有部毗奈耶药事》卷15：“象
足不曾移，犹如腾空去；观前山走來，后山无不动。” (CBETA, T24, no. 1448, p. 72, c12–14)
⑤ “𗛆” is supplied from the context.
⑥ “𗫂” is supplied from the remaining half and the context.
⑦ “𗿳” is supplied from the remaining half and the context.
⑧ The word “𗑗” cannot be comfirmed yet.
⑨ The right radical of the word “𘅇” is more likely to be written as “𘤩” in the manuscript, it can not
be comfirmed yet. (The notes end here.)

This story reveals that the unsurpassed, true and complete bodhicitta comes out
of disciplining one’s mind, and specifically restraining the fire of desire. Compare to
the former reversible bodhicitta, the real bodhicitta in Sum-pa’s opinion related more to
94 China tibetology No 1, March 2020

one’s inner endeaver other than physical offerings.

This particular story among all stories of generating bodhicitta, has been linked
directly with the second step of realization, namely the accumulating of qualities in
three countless kalpa-s in the Vinayavastu.10
1.4 Kamalaśīla’s understanding of generating bodhicitta and its comparison
to the three stories supplied by Sum-pa
Kamalaśīla expressed his steps of achieving Buddhahood from the arising of great
compassion, generating bodhicitta, to several stages of meditation in his first Stages of
Meditation (Bhāvanākrama).11 What concern here are the first two steps.
Different f rom Su m-pa’s ar rangement of the ser ies of stor ies, in the
Bhāvanākrama, “great compassion” is instructed as an individual section instead of
the first step of generating bodhicitta. It has been discribed by Kamalaśīla generally
under the following topics: its status, its arising reason, its relation with knowledge,
its practicing approach, and its definition. Having seen the suffurings from all levels
of sentient beings, from those in the hell to humen and deities, bodhisattva would
try to save them regardless of his own happinesses and troubles in a long distance of
time. This trying of saving others would finally lead to omniscience, which makes the
“great compassion” foundamental of all dharma-s.12 In this sense, Kamalaśīla consider
“compassion” as the indispensable precondition for Mahāyānic Buddhists, and made it
acccordingly the starting point along the path of practice for bodhisattva.
It could be reconfirmed here what has been discussed above that for Kamalaśīla
compassion seems to be as an inherent potential, since for the arising reason he gave
only the facts of suffering which can be observed in daily lives, but did not analyze
why sufferings would inspire the arising of compassion.13 However, this compassion

10
As for this connection, see volume 15 of the Vinayavastu.
11
Kamalaśīla’s first Bhāvanākrama has been examined by many scholars, Tucci’s critical edition was
one of the most classical work among them, see Tucci (1978).
12
It is said in the first Bhāvanākrama: “de ltar shin tu bya dkav ba la zhugs nas ring por mi thogs
par tshogs yongs su rdzogs te gdon mi za bar thams cad mkhyen pavi go vphang thob par vgyur ro// de
bas na sangs rgyas kyi chos thams cad kyi rtsa ba ni snying rje chen po kho navo//”. As for the critical
edition of the cited passage, see Tucci (1978), p. 541. Kamalaśīla also cited similes in the sūtra-s and gave
his own analogies about “great compassion” in his first Bhāvanākrama, such as the army of the Universal
King (vkhor los sgyur bavi rgyal povi vkhor lo rin po che gang du mchis pa der dpung gi tshogs tham cad
mchivo/); the life-organ among other organs (srog gi dbang po mchis na dbang po gzhan rnams vbyung bar
vgyur ro/); and the inner breath and outer wind for life (dbugs phyi nang du rgyu ba ni mivi srog gi dbang
po sngon du vgro ba yin no/), to emphasize the improtance of this notion. As for the complete explanations
of the similes, see Tucci (1978), p. 540.
13
It is said in the first Bhāvanākrama: “de yang sdug bsngal bavi sems can la dmigs shing yid la bya ba
mang du byas pas skye bar vgyur te/”. As for the critical edition of the cited passage, see Tucci (1978), p. 541.
 A Study on an Early Attempt of Establishing a Three-step Realization Mode contained in a ... 95

needs to be cultivated as well.14 It seems that even though the potential of the arising
of compassion is inherent, the real arising and the extent of how great it would arise
are individualized. In this case, compassion should be cultivated by observing the
sufferings of others as the sufferings of oneself, from relatives, gradually to those
who are not related, then to enemies, and eventually to all sentient beings in all ten
directions. One could only be considered of having attained the name of the “great
compassion” by the time he naturally equally wishes all sentient beings to be freed
from sufferings just like he would not send more love particularly to the adorable.15
This is the understanding of “great compassion” by Kamalaśīla.
Compassion is an individual conception in some other context. For instance,
in the Bodhisattvabhūmi, as the top among the four states of Brahmanic behavior
(brahmavihāra), it will also lead its practitioner to the state of bodhi.16 But for
Kamalaśīla, who put compassion before the topic of generating bodhicitta, and in
erpreted it as the former step leading to the generation of bodhicitta, while claiming
the fundamental status of this concept, he actually limited the exaggeration of the
importance of it. Sum-pa, who includes compassion as the first step of generating
bodhicitta, went even further on this trail. It has been argued by scholar that there are
generally two types of bodhisattva, the high-classes and the ordinaries. The former
ones are considered similar as Buddha whom would implement pure altruism, while the
latter ones still own personal desires for Buddhahood.17 In this case, there are always
paradox between the pure altruism and the self-benifis by pursuing of Buddhahood.18
Since compassion is greatly concerned with altruism, it may be speculated that in both
Kamalaśīla’s and Sum-pa’s context, compassion is seen more as a mean of accumulating
mercies for generating bodhicitta, and finally to achieving Buddhahood, besides the
pure reveal of the qualities of a bodhisattva. On the other hand, as what has been
mentioned with the second story supplied by Sum-pa, compassion is not necessarily to
be the first step before generating bodhicitta. In fact, these two steps could be vise versa
as the situation in the Bodhisattvabhūmi. The difference lies on whether compassion is
14
It is said in the first Bhāvanākrama: “de ltar vgro ba thams cad sdug bsngal gyi me lcevi phreng
bavi sa yin par bltas la/ ji ltar bdag nyid kyi sdug bsngal mi sdug pa ltar gzhan dag gi yang de dang vdra
ba sems shing sems can thams cad la snying brtse ba kho na bsgom par bya ste/ ”. As for the critical edition
of the cited passage, see Tucci (1978), p. 543.
15
It is said in the first Bhāvanākrama: “gang gi tshe yid du vong bavi bu mi bde ba bzhin du sems can
thams cad la yang sdug bsngal gtan nas dbyung bar vdod pavi rnam pavi snying rje rang gi ngang gis vjug
pa bdag nyid kyis mtshungs par gyur ba devi tshe de rdsogs pa yin pas snying rje chen povi ming thob ste/”.
As for the critical edition of the cited passage, see Tucci (1978), p. 544.
16
As for more detailed discussion, see Dayal (1932), pp. 226–227.
17
Ibid., pp. 180–181.
18
Facing this paradox, Śāntideva gave an interesting but to me slightly plausible argument. He
claimed that the benifiting oneself in this situation is actually an approach of benifiting others, see Dayal
(1932), p. 181.
96 China tibetology No 1, March 2020

conditional or universal. This issue needs further examination.19

The generation of bodhicitta includes two sections in Kamalaśīla’s interpretation.
The former one would arise naturally without efforts when bodhisattva expressing their
desire to save sentient beings from suffering, as long as they are acquainted with “great
compassion”.20 Even though this bodhicitta does not relate to practice in this former
section, it still consists of great result, namely the fruit of Buddhahood.21 It fits for those
who could not practice dharma in the six pāramitā-s, since it has been considered as the
bodhicitta subsumed by means (upāya).22 This bodhicitta of means shall be beared in
mind in whatever actions of daily life by those who could not acomplished the pāramitā
of insight (prajñā).23 Rejoicing (rjes su yi rang ba) in the supremeness of the supreme
ones and offering to all sentient beings are also important in this section, and by doing
so, it will even benefit the worldly affairs, such as the political status. However, insight
and means are always act as an integral whole even though they may not be viewed as of
excatly same value. It is revealed in later passages of the first Bhāvanākrama that none
of them is indispensable in the real practice (pratipatti).24 In sum, bodhicitta of means is
considered as the first yet unneglectable stage of bodhicitta according to Kamalaśīla.
Compare to this bodhicitta, the later one is the unsurpassed, true and complete
bodhicitta (anuttarāsamyaksaṃbodhi). It is related directly to the stages of meditation,
or in other words, to the practice on the six pāramitā-s, and could further be divided
19
As Dayal suggested, Kṣemendra had a discussion for the nature of compassion, see Dayal (1932),
p. 181.
20
It is said in the first Bhāvanākrama: “snying rje goms pavi stobs kyis sems can ma lus pa drang
bar dam bcas na bla na med pa yang dag par rdsogs pavi byang chub tu smon pavi rang bzhin gyis byang
chub kyi sems sgrim mi dgos pa kho nar skye ste/”. As for the critical edition of the cited passage, see Tucci
(1978), p. 544.
21
In the first Bhāvanākrama, the unpracticed bodhicitta is compared to the precious vajra, which still
better than gold even it has been broken. This is to say that although practicing is important along the path
of realization, the beginning point, i.e. the root, matters the most. This character of bodhicitta relates to the
theory of Buddha nature.
22
This sentence was subsumed by Tucci under the topic of the unpracticed bodhicitta: “gang pha rol
tu phyin pa rnams la rnam pa thams cad kyi thams cad du slob mi nus pa des kyang vbras bu che bavi phyir
thabs kyis yongs su zin par byang chub tu sems bskyed par bya ste/ ”. As for the critical edition of the cited
passage, see Tucci (1978), p. 545. The problom here is that whether the perfection of giving (dānapāramitā)
should be excluded out of the bodhicitta subsumed by means or not.
23
This opinion is shown in a citation of the Sūtra of Rājāvadāka (vPhags pa rgyal po la gdams pavi
mdo) in the first Bhāvanākrama, and slightly contradicts with what expressed by Kamalaśīla himself. In the
Sūtra only pāramitā of insight is mentioned, whereas Kamalaśīla generalized it into all six pāramitā-s. It
may be understood here that what Kamalaśīla refers to is also pāramitā of insight, since in later passages of
the first Bhāvanākrama, insight and means are instructed as a pair in practice (pratipatti). And interestingly
this “means” refers back to the great compassion. See Tucci (1978), p. 546.
24
Insight and means are instructed as a pair in practice (pratipatti) in the first Bhāvanākrama: “byang
chub sems dpavi sgrub pa de yang mdor na thabs dang shes rab kyi ngo bo yin te/ shes rab vbav zhig kyang
ma yin te/ thabs vbav zhig kyang ma yin no/ ”. As for the critical edition of the cited passage, see Tucci
(1978), p. 548.
 A Study on an Early Attempt of Establishing a Three-step Realization Mode contained in a ... 97

into two, the one which is “a mere aspiration” (praṇidhicitta) and the one could be
“seen as involving practical application” (prasthānacitta).25 In another word, the initial
aspiration to achieve Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings is praṇidhicitta,
while the holding and accomplishing of the vinaya from the very moment of making
the vow is prasthānacitta.26
In sum, the three stories supplied by Sum-pa seem to be inspired by, even though
not exactly correspondence to Kamalaśīla’s three-step mode of generating bodhicitta
in the first Bhāvanākrama. The plain narrative has been popularized and visualized
through the form of story. In both Kamalaśīla and Sum-pa’s discriptions the steps
of generation bodhicitta begin with the arising of “great compassion”, and both of
them have not gave any necessary relations between the “great compassion” and the
sufferings of sentient beings. As for the second step, even though Sum-pa did not bring
about the notion of “bodhicitta subsumed by means” which is raised up by Kamalaśīla,
the features in his story are obvious, namely the phyisical offering represented by the
hay torch, and the admiration of the supreme one. Since the original Buddha has been
reborn as a king in the third story, Sum-pa arranged a worldy fortune for him just as
the promise of “wordly benefit” suggested by Kamalaśīla. Sum-pa put the elephant
story which tells about how to generate the unsurpassed, true and complete bodhicitta
in the final step. This complete bodhicitta has been mentioned also for the first time
in Kamalaśīla’s second section of generating bodhicitta, which is just the third step
if considered the arising of great compassion as the first. The main idea in Sum-pa’s
story is that the real bodhicitta needs and could only be generated by mind training, in
another word, the inner endeaver. This reveals the biggest difference between “bodhicitta
of means” and “the complete bodhicitta” argued by Kamalaśīla, that is to say, if this
bodhicitta relates to the pāramitā of insight. Moreover, as for the elephant story chosen

25
Dorji Wangchuk has given a brief but more thorough discussion about the different interpretations
between these two kinds of bodhicitta, yet he did not directly cite from Kamalaśīla. However, I employ one
of Wangchuk’s interpretations which follow Dharmamitra and Ratnākaraśānti. One thing to be noted is that
in Dharmamitra and Ratnākaraśānti’s explanations, for prasthānacitta, the practical application is involved
“from the very first generation of resolve onwards”. As for the detailed discussion of the definition, see
Wangchuk (1978), pp. 246-251. Among those scholars who have taken the two kinds of bodhicitta as their
studying object, Sato Akira (佐藤晃) is the one that focus on Kamalaśīla’s understanding of these terms, see
Sato (2012). But he made a mistake here by mixing the bodhicitta inspired by compassion which does not
related to practice, with the one inspired by wish (praṇidhicitta) which belongs to the broader category that
related to practice. In another words, Sato Akira has negelected the first category of bodhicitta completely.
As for more discussion about these two terms and the different understanding among ancient Tibetan
scholars of bodhicitta, see also Dargay (1997).
26
It is said in the first Bhāvanākrama: “de la vgro ba mthav dag la phan pavi phyir sangs rgyas su
gyur cig ces gang thog mar don du gnyer ba de ni smon pavi sems so// gang phan chad sdom pa bzung ste
tshogs rnams la zhugs pa de ni zhugs pavi sems so// ”. As for the critical edition of the cited passage, see
Tucci (1978), p. 547.
98 China tibetology No 1, March 2020

by Sum-pa, the training of mind focuses mainly on the restrain of desire, which is also
the main mission of prasthānacitta, namely, holding and accomplishing the vinaya.
Even though praṇidhicitta and prasthānacitta have not been distinguished and raised up
straight forward by Sum-pa, the trace of Kamalaśīla’s three-steps could be roughly seen
in his three chosen stories.
As what has been briefly mentioned above, Sum-pa did not put the same value
into these three stories, instead he rearranged them into a certain sequence in order
to express his understanding of generating bodhicitta. Inspired by the idea in the first
Bhāvanākrama, he made the inherent compassion the starting point, the reversible
bodhicitta the interim process, and the unsurpassed, true and complete bodhicitta
the final goal. This differentiating of the value can also be seen as an early attempt
made by Tibetans to harmonize the different expressions of jātaka-s about the initial
resolve in generating bodhicitta. However, there is no direct evidence to prove that
this arrangement must come from the idea in the first Bhāvanākrama instead of other
texts, or even oral instructions which may be popular by the time of Sum-pa. Other
than the similar intentions contained in both texts, my suspection is only made since
the framework of the main body of this sub-commentary is also comes from the
commentary written by Kamalaśīla. It is possible that Sum-pa could attain Kamalaśīla’s
other texts at the same time and absorb the idea from the same master.

2. Accumulating “the Two” in Three Countless Kalpa-s and

Achieving of Buddhahood
The second and third steps of this three-step mode could be found in many
Abhidharma, as well as Vinaya works, but they are not as complicated as the one Sum-
pa gave. Sum-pa’s interpretation could be seen as following:
𘐡 𘂳 27, “ 𘕕 𘜔 𗤋 𗑱 ， 𗍫 𗣷 𘃠 𗄭 ” 𗡶 𗫂 ， 𘈩 𗡪 𘜔 𗤋 𗑱 𘂧 ，
𗒹𗕑𗏁𗡞𗢳𗑠𗈪𗄛，𗴿𗒀𘒇𗷾，𗤓𗹙𗨉𗨙，𗼕𘄡𗍫𗣷，𘞌𘙇𘃠𗄭。
𗋕 𘂧 ， 𗩾 28𗪟 𗢳 𗫂 ， 𘜶 𗷅 𗡝 𗚛 𗐱 𘟂 ； 𗩾 𘚔 𗢳 𗫂 ， 𘜶 𘏨 𗵣 𗪢 𗢳 𘟂 ；
𗉘𗿳，𘑨𘒑、𘝦𘎲𗍫𗎭𗨫𘃪。𗍫𗡪𘜔𗤋𗑱(𘂧)，□□□𗡞𗢳𗑠𘄏𗄛，
𗪘𗍊𗍫𗣷𘃠𗄭。𗩾𘚔𗢳𗫂，□□□□□。𗋕𗿳，𘟀𗵘𗪟𗼻、𗹢𗵘𗒹𗼻，
𗹢 𗵘 𗨫 ( 𘃪 ) 。 □□（ 𘕕 𘜔 ） 𗤋 𗑱 𘂧 ， 𗒹 𗕑 𗒹 𗡞 𗢳 𗑠 𘄏 𗄛 ， 𗍫 𗣷 （ 𘃠 𗄭 ）
□□□□𗫂，𘋠𘝯𗢳𘟂。𗋕𗿳，𘝦𘎲𘕕𗼻𗈪𗨫（𘃪）。□□□□□。
《𗸷𗏴𗹙𗔇》𘂧，𗋕𘜔𗨁𗄈𗤢𘐡𗖵，𘋠𘝯（𗢳） □□□ 𘕕𘜔𗤋𗗙𘚔𗖵𗧊。
𗩾𗪟“𗷅𗡝𗚛𗐱”𘟂。□□□（𘕕）𘜔𗤋𗑱𗤁𗌗𗹢𗳒，𗍫𗣷𘍞𗈪𘏋𗟻。

27
“𘂳” is the most probable choice, but the right part is written a bit different in the manuscript.
28
The left part of “𗩾” is written like the left part of “𗼃” instead of “𘢌” in the manuscript.
 A Study on an Early Attempt of Establishing a Three-step Realization Mode contained in a ... 99

Furthermore, as for the accumulating of the two29 in three countless

aeons (kalpa):
Encountering with seventy-five-thousands of Buddhas, among which
firstly with Mahāśākyamuni and eventually with Ratnaśikhin, in the first
aeon, worshiping (them), listening to and receiving precious dharma (from
them), and truly accumulating both virtuous (puṇya) and insight ( jñāna).
By then, the stages of equipment (sambhāramārga) and beginning practice
(prayogamārga) have been accomplished.
Encountering with (seventy-six-thousands) 30 of Buddhas, among
which eventually with ..., in the second aeon, accumulating the two like
before. By then, the first stage (which corresponds to) the path of seeing
(darśanamārga), and the seventh stage (which corresponds to) the path of
practicing (bhāvanāmārga), (namely, all the stages before) path of practicing
have been accomplished.
Encountering with (seventy-seven-thousands) of Buddhas, among which
eventually with Vipaśyin, in the third aeon, accumulating the two like before.
By then, the three stages (subsumed in) the path of beginning practice31 have
been accomplished.
In the Abhidharmakośa 32 , from top to bottom, those (Buddhas) ..:
Vipaśyin ..., (who) was born with the end of the three countless aeons, while
the first was Śākyamuni. ...practicing six perfection (pāramitā) with three
countless aeons, and accomplished the two (qualities).
𗩾𘚔，（𗌮𗸷𗣼 33）𗫨𗵆𗡶𗫂，𘜶𗒛𗰜𗖵：𘞌𗒘𗢳𗫂，𗩨𗩾𘃪𗎭，
𘃝𗒐𘍞𘏋𘛽𗖵𗢳𗵆；𘅜𘛽𗢳𗫂，𗰗𗍫𗎭𗖵，𗲠𗠁𗲌𘍞 34 𗅁𗢳𗞞𗵆，𗾟𗫂，
𘑬𘂧𗄻𗦇。
Eventually, as for achieving realization (mngon rtogs), (if) following (the
29
The “two” here refers to the two qualities of virtuous (puṇya) and insight (jñāna) according to the
following sentence.
30
This number was supplied according to the parallel passages in various Abhidharma texts.
31
The “path of beginning practice” here may be a mistake made by either the recorder or the
translator of this text, it could be speculated that aśaikṣamārga is more properly under this context. It is
unimaginable to think that Sum-pa would make this mistake, unless he held specific purpose.
32
The Tangut translation employed the translation from meaning of the Abhidharmakośa instead of
transliteration, which shows the traces that this title has been translated from a Tibetan text other than a
Chinese text, as the later often use transliteration.
33
“𗌮𗸷𗣼” is supplied on account of the parallel passages in this text itself.
34
“𗲠” could not be found in the Tangut word list. The middle-below part should be “𘡰” instead of “𘠮”
in the manuscript, but the meaning of the whole term “𗲠𗠁𗲌𘍞” has not been affected. “𗠁 (bu̱ ) 𗲌 (mja)”
may be considered as the transliteration of puṇya. “𘍞” means either perfection or the domain. “𗲠𗠁𗲌𘍞”
could be reconstructed as Puṇyaprasavā, which is the name of the twelfth heaven which is mentally
accessible to a bodhisattva. As for the enumeration of the eighteen heavens, see Dayal (1932), p. 232.
100 China tibetology No 1, March 2020

tenets) of Mahāyāna: the real Buddha35 achieved Buddhahood at akaniṣṭhā

with the body of enjoyment (sambhogakāya)36; the Buddha of emanation
body (nirmāṇakāya) achieved Buddhahood with the twelfth heaven in the
domain of puṇyaprasavā37. These shall be generally known in mind.

The citation from the Tangut commentary is different from the normal three
countless aeons theory, because five path and ten stages have been alloted to each aeon,
namely: first aeon includes sambhāramārga and prayogamārga, along with the first
bhūmi; second aeon includes darśanamārga and bhāvanāmārga, along with the bhūmi-s
up to seven; third aeon includes aśaikśamārga, along with the last three bhūmi-s. The
most similar passage could be find in one of the commentary to Vasubhandu’s śāstra
of Vajracchedikā-prajñāpāramitā Sūtra with the title of “Commentary attributed to
*Vajraṛṣi” (金剛仙论). The problem is that this work is suspected to be a compilation
truly made by its translator Bodhiruci in China. There is a big chance that Sum-pa
could not reach or understand this work. However, I would like to give the parallel
passage as below (CBETA, T25, no. 1512, p. 807, c6–19)38:

Futhermore, even though the understanding of anutpattika 39 which

belongs to darśanamārga of the first bhūmi has been realized, and also all
phenomena considered with three kinds of equality of the two truths have
been observed when the first aeon has been accomplished, practices in those
bhūmi-s and sarvākāra-jñāna are still incomplete, observation has not been
pervaded on all objects, kleśa have not been completely cutted, the (state
of) great brightness (Buddhahood?) has not been attained. Therefore, (a
bodhisattva) must again engaging himself in millions of practices, develop
(his understanding in) darśanamārga, become excellent in all virtues, and
even go through and accomplish the second aeon, only then could he achieve
Buddhahood. In this case, if (a bodhisattva) could pratice those pāramitā-s
35
“Real Buddha” here refers to the historical Buddha, because Akaniṣṭhā in these sentences could
only be attended with the fourth dhyāna, which is the most suitable dhyāna of achieving Buddhahood.
36
Sambhogakāya could be attend after going through the three countless aeons.
37
This correspondence has not been comfirmed yet. As for the suspection, see note. 47.
38
The Chinese original passage is cited from the second volume of this work as following: “然虽一
大僧祇行满证初地无生见道之解，并观三种二谛平等照万有，犹地行未圆、一切种智未满，观境
未周、断惑未尽、大光明[12]未具足，必须重修万行，增习见道，备[13]精众德，更径二大阿僧祇
行满[14]或尽，方能进趣证于佛果。是故菩萨若能始从二地终于远行，以不取心行诸波罗蜜，遣功
用相尽，乃得证于八地已上无功用位，[15]备修十地，得一切种智，是故第四次辨如实修行分也。
就此经中，始[16]未具明三道。何者是？前之住分，局在初地，即是见道；此如实修行分，二地已
上至于七地，即是修道；下断疑分中言违于不住道者，即是八地至十地，无功用道也。”(CBETA,
T25, no. 1512, p. 807, c6–19)
[12]未＝末【甲】＊ [13]精＝修【甲】 [14]或＝惑？ [15]备＝满【甲】 [16]未＋（亦)【甲】
39
It has been argued by Dorji Wangchuk and Hejung that this anutpattika may refer to the jñāna of
anutpattika. I have not yet found a supporting passage for this, but owe my thanks to them.
 A Study on an Early Attempt of Establishing a Three-step Realization Mode contained in a ... 101

without the thought of grasping and with his every effort from the second
bhūmi up to the bhūmi of dūraṅgamā (the seventh bhūmi), until he attained
the eight bhūmi, or even uper to the stage of aśaikṣa, namely (until he)
accomplished all ten bhūmi-s and achieved sarvākāra-jñāna, (only then could
he achieve Buddhahood). This is the reason of arguing for fouth time of this
chapter “proper practice”.
As for this Sūtra, the three mārga-s have not been completely revealed.
What are (the three)? (Those who are) limited in the first bhūmi in the formor
chapter of state are subsumed in darśanamārga; (those who) have properly
practiced as (told in this chapter), from the second bhūmi up to the seventh
bhūmi are subsumed in bhāvanāmārga; and (those who) are discussed in
the following chapter of clarification of doubt, namely from eighth to tenth
bhūmi, are subsumed in aśaikṣamārga.

3. Concluding Remarks
It has been argued by scholar that after the idealizing of the historical Buddha, a
giant gap has appeared between Buddha and ordinary sentient beings. The devotion to
Buddha (bhakti) could not be easily made, so that the concept of bodhisattva gradually
formalized to fulfill this gap.40 The whole process of how a bodhisattva achieving
Buddhahood contained in the three-step mode also reveals this tendency, since it can
be regard as a model that an ordinary individual could follow. The only problem is that
this model became again idealistic. Sum-pa’s attempt in either arranging the process of
generating bodhicitta in three vivid story of different degree, or alloting the concepts of
bhūmi-s and mārga-s into the theory of three countless aeons may be seen as an effort
to make this mode more practical.

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40
As for the detailed discussions, see DAYAL (1932), p. 31.
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