International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 38 (1998) 1419–1436

Micro-end-milling—I. Wear and breakage

I. Tansel*, O. Rodriguez, M. Trujillo, E. Paz, W. Li
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, USA
Received 24 November 1997

Abstract
Unpredictable tool life and premature tool failure are major problems in micro-machining. In this study,
the failure mechanisms of micro-end-mills were studied during the machining of aluminum, graphite elec-
trodes and mild steel workpieces. Hundreds of machining operations were performed, and the pictures of
cutting edges were taken with a scanning electron microscope to identify fatigue and extensive stress-
related failure mechanisms. Also, the cutting force variation was monitored, i.e. the relationship between
the utilization-related changes at the tool structure (wear), and the outcomes (increasing cutting force which
means raising stress on the tiny shaft). Inspection of the cutting force variation patterns of large numbers
of micro-end-mills indicated that tool failure occurs with chip clogging, fatigue and wear-related excessive
stress depending on the characteristics of the workpiece. Two tool breakage prediction methods were
developed by considering the variation of the static part of the feed direction cutting force. These methods
used segmental averages and wavelet transformation coefficients. The accuracy of the proposed approaches
were tested with experimental data and the agreement between the predictions and actual observations are
reported.  1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Micro-machining; Micro-tool; Micro-end-mill; Wavelet transformation; Wear; Failure; Monitoring; Metal
cutting

1. Introduction

Reducing size and weight can substantially increase the convenience and value of many pro-
ducts. Many manufacturers have miniaturized the components of their products in order to increase
their market share. The future of many manufacturers will rely on how quickly and successfully
they can implement micro-machining in their operations. Wear and tool failure mechanisms are

* Corresponding author.

0890-6955/98/$19.00  1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

PII: S 0 8 9 0 - 6 9 5 5 ( 9 8 ) 0 0 0 1 5 - 7
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known to be complicated in micro-machining. Tool life is acceptable at a very low feed-per-tooth.

At higher feed-per-tooth values, tool life becomes unpredictable and short. In this study, the
relationship between usage-related changes (wear) of the micro-tool and the stress on the tiny
drive shaft of the micro-tool has been investigated. Two approaches are proposed to predict tool
breakage slightly in advance of the event. These approaches use either the segmental averages or
wavelet transformations.
Conventional end milling operations have been studied for more than 20 years. Various studies
have been conducted to model cutting mechanism [1–3], to study the characteristics of cutting
forces [4,5], and to detect tool failure [6–13]. Cutting force characteristics of micro-end-milling
operations are almost the same as those of conventional milling; however, the wear and breakage
mechanisms are very different.
The cutting edges of conventional end mills wear out when they lose material; as a result, craters
are formed and generally the cutting edges break one by one. The purpose of wear monitoring is
to estimate when the tool will not be able to remove material at the desired quality standard.
Conversely, it is the tiny shafts of the micro-tools that break when either the cutting edges become
dull (because of material loss or because they are covered with particles of workpiece material)
or a chip clogs. For a micro-tool the most important concern is how the cutting force (and there-
fore, the stress) changes as it performs the cutting operation, as there is a relationship between
the usage (wear) and the stress (cutting force).
Manufacturers frequently encounter premature failure or extremely unpredictable tool life when
they use conventional machines for micro-machining operations. Miniature tools are expensive.
Also, once the tool breaks on a workpiece, one generally discards that piece, because inspection
and resetting of the machine is very time consuming. Efficient operation requires high spindle
speeds (over 10,000 rpm) so that a very small feed rate per tooth can be used while still main-
taining reasonable feed rates. However, this is an expensive option since it usually requires the
purchase of a special machine tool and/or a high-speed spindle. In addition, parts often have to
be moved from one machine to another for machining operations with different size cutting tools.
Konig and coworkers’ studies indicated that the main reason for tool failure in their micro-
drilling operations was chip clogging [14]. Tansel and coworkers [15–17] observed that the
characteristics of cutting force and tool vibration signals changed slightly during micro-drilling
operations just before the tool breaks. In this study the cutting force variation of micro-end-milling
operations was studied during machining of aluminum and steel workpieces to find a new
approach to predict tool breakage.
In this study, one of the important indicators of tool condition to predict possible breakage was
found to be the change of the static component of the feed direction cutting force in slot milling
operations. The static component of the cutting force was monitored through the use of segmental
averages and wavelet transformations [18]. The segmental averages are easy to calculate with a
microcomputer. The wavelet transformation approach can be executed much faster than the calcu-
lation of segmental averages if special parallel processing hardware is used. In the following
sections, the theoretical background, tool breakage mechanism, and the proposed tool breakage
prediction methods will be outlined. Finally, the accuracy of the proposed methods will be evalu-
ated on the experimental data.
 I. Tansel et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 38 (1998) 1419–1436 1421

2. Wavelet transformation

Wavelets are obtained by creating a family of functions derived from a single function [19–
24]. An expression for such a system can be written in the following form:

h(a,b)(x) = 兩a兩−1/2h 冉 冊
x−b
a
, (1)

where a and b are the dilation and translation parameters, respectively. In the above equation,
h(a,b) represents the family of wavelets obtained from the single h function by dilations and trans-
lations. The given data consist of the f function in the given x coordinate.
An original function, f(t), can be represented (also reconstructed) by the following expression:

冘 冘冘
⬁ ⬁ ⬁

f (x) = c(n)⌽n(t) + d(i,j)⌿i,j (t) (2)

n=−⬁ i=0 j=−⬁

where
c(n) = 兰f(t)␾n(t)dt
d(i,j) = 兰f(t)⌿i,j (t)dt
where c(n) and d(i,j) are the coefficients of the wavelet transform.
It can be proven that the basic function (scaling function), ⌽(x), of a wavelet system, can be
calculated with the following recursive equation:

⌽(x) = 冘
n
c(n)⌽(2x − n), (3)

where c(n) is the wavelet coefficient and n is the index. The primary wavelet, ␺(x), can be obtained
with the following expression:

⌿(x) = 冘n
( − 1)nc(n + 1)⌽(2x − n) (4)

In this study, where c(n + 1) is the coefficient, a well-known wavelet system (Haar) was used
to represent the static part of the signal.

3. Experimental setup

The experimental setup is presented in Fig. 1. The workpiece was attached to a Kistler 9257B
three-component dynamometer. The dynamometer was assembled on a linear table. The linear
table moved the workpiece in the feed direction by using a servomotor, which was controlled by
a microcomputer. The linear table was fixed on the top of a steel table. To eliminate the inertia
forces (created by machine vibrations) and the related noise from the dynamometer signal, the
steel table which carries the linear table and machine tool were isolated from the spindle. The
steel legs gave excellent rigidity to the table and its wood top damped the oscillations transmitted
1422 I. Tansel et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 38 (1998) 1419–1436

Fig. 1. Experimental setup.

to the structure through the floor. The machine tool table was lowered and was not used in this
study. The micro-end-mills with 0.015 in. (0.38 mm) diameter were attached to the spindle of the
Bridgeport Series I milling machine for tests at the low rpms and a separate spindle which reaches
40,000 rpm. The tools were centered and the spindle speed was calibrated by using a Polytec
OFV 2500L laser vibrometer.
During the tests, an aluminum, a graphite electrode and a mild steel workpiece were machined.
The experimental data were digitized with a Nicolet 310 digital oscilloscope at a 1 ms sampling
interval. The digitized data were analyzed on a microcomputer.

4. Breakage mechanism of micro-end mills

In previous studies chip clogging was observed as the main cause of tool breakage in micro-
drilling operations [14]. However, inspection of the cutting forces during micro-drilling operations
for some other materials [15,16] suggested that the characteristics of the cutting force changed
several revolutions before the failure happens. In this study the tool breakage mechanisms were
investigated during the machining of aluminum workpieces by evaluating the cutting force data.
In this section wear will be redefined for micro-machining, and three possible breakage mech-
 I. Tansel et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 38 (1998) 1419–1436 1423

anisms will be outlined. The existence of the proposed tool breakage mechanisms will be estab-
lished in the results Section 6.

4.1. Redefinition of wear in micro-machining

Tool wear has always been discussed in the context of conventional machining operations. It
is necessary to consider the size of micro-tools and redefine the wear considering their dimensions
and their consequent drastic influence on various developments, which can be considered negli-
gible in conventional cutting operations.
Various changes occur to the cutting tool as a result of its use in machining operations. Some
of these changes are loss of tool material, deposition of small workpiece particles on the tool
surfaces and change of tool geometry with deflection. In this study, any difference between a new
and used tool is referred to as “wear”. For example, microscopic damage to the cutting edges
with gradually developing dullness, or filling of the empty spaces around the cutting edges with
deposits of small particles with build up on the edge, are all considered wear.
In a micro-machining cutting tool, the metal removal rate and cutting forces are very small. A
small material loss with 0.00375 in. × 0.005 in. dimensions at one cutting edge of a half inch
end-mill may increase the cutting force at the tool tip a few percent and deteriorate the surface
finish. Although the stress on the shaft of the cutting tool will slightly increase, it is not a major
concern since a small increase will not cause tool shaft breakage. Previous studies on conventional
tools have tried to establish a relationship between tool quality (wear, acceptability of machining
quality), remaining life of cutting edges and indirect measurements (acoustic emission, cutting
force, acceleration, etc.), tool wear and acceptability of machining quality.
The same material loss (0.00375 in. × 0.005 in.) would eliminate the half of one cutting edge
of a micro-tool with 0.015 in. diameter and may easily double the cutting force on the other edge.
The stress on the tiny shaft of the cutting tool will increase in proportion to the force increase.
Since the allowable stress on the tiny shaft of a micro-tool is only several times bigger than the
stress under normal cutting conditions, the failure probability of the tool will drastically increase.
As illustrated by this example, changes at the cutting edges of micro-tools are a major concern
since they can create drastic increases in the stress at the shaft and cause tool breakage.
When soft and brittle material such as graphite electrodes are cut on machine tools, micro-
tools can achieve prolonged tool life if the cutting conditions are selected conservatively. When
the cutting edges lose material, the sharp tips may round, and then become dull. The cutting
forces increase when the tool gets dull. The increase of the cutting forces creates bigger tool
deflections and geometric accuracy of the part deteriorates. As a result, it might be necessary to
run the same part program again with another (new) tool to obtain the desired part dimensions.

4.2. Chip clogging and breakage

If chip clogging occurs, the cutting force increases continuously as long as the chip stays at a
critical point and obstructs the movement of the cutting edges. A sharp increase is expected in
the cutting force. In most of the micro-end-milling operations (with miniature cutting tools with
two cutting edges), chips can be removed from the machining area effectively since the selected
depth of cut is small and each cutting edge at most (in slot cutting) removes material only for
1424 I. Tansel et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 38 (1998) 1419–1436

half a revolution. If chip clogging occurs, cutting forces and stresses increase beyond the endur-
ance limit of the tool and breakage will occur in a few rotations. High-speed steel (HSS) tools
tolerate chip clogging better than carbide tools since they are much more flexible. In this case,
the tool wear may have very little influence on the breakage mechanism. Breakage is unpredictable
and happens in a very short time after clogging begins. It is almost impossible to predict chip
clogging ahead of time.

4.3. Fatigue-related breakage

Fatigue-related breakage may happen if the cutting force and the stress (at the tool shaft)
increase as a result of tool wear, and then stay at that level for an extended period of time. If
the stress is below the endurance limit of the shaft but it is above the normal level, the tool will
not be broken immediately. The stress on the shaft will change repeatedly while it is rotating.
This means that the strain distribution will also change repeatedly at the tool shaft and create
fatigue. The increase of the cutting forces beyond the normal force range will indicate the exist-
ence of wear. The tool will eventually break with fatigue. When relatively soft and brittle materials
such as graphite electrodes are cut this type of tool failure might take place. The tool life is
otherwise very long.

4.4. Excessive stress-related breakage

Breakage will occur very quickly if the usage-related problems are extensive and the cutting
force increases beyond the strength of the tool. The cutting force might increase for two reasons.
First, the cutting edge might lose its sharpness if it gets dull or tiny workpiece particles create a
thin coating on the cutting edge. Second, the cutting edge(s) is/are partially damaged or deposition
of workpiece particles fills the tiny groves (or a built-up edge is created). In this case, the cutting
edges cannot remove enough material to open satisfactory space for the central section (shaft) of
the tool. The workpiece starts to push the shaft of the tool and it deflects. The deflection of the
tool and the stress will increase with every rotation. The static component of the feed direction
force will continuously increase until the tool breaks. The main reason for the breakage in this
case is the excessive stress beyond the endurance limit of the tool.

5. Estimation of future feed direction force

In this study, the relationship between an increase in the cutting forces during a machining
operation and changes in the tool condition was investigated. An increase in the absolute value
of the static part of the feed direction cutting force while the cutting conditions are constant
indicates that problems are developing. Therefore, tool failure may be predicted by considering
the trend.
Two different approaches were used to calculate the static component of the feed direction
cutting force:
 I. Tansel et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 38 (1998) 1419–1436 1425

5.1. Use of segmental averages

The averages of 80 data point long data segments (which correspond to approximately four
spindle rotations) were calculated for the data collected at low spindle speeds. The averages of
100 data points were calculated for the tests at high rotational speeds. The slope and intercept of
a line equation were calculated from three segment averages by using the least square method.
The two and four-steps-ahead segmental averages were estimated by using the parameters of the
calculated line equation. The forecasts predicted the averages of future static force values 0.16 s
(two-steps-ahead forecast) and 0.32 s (four-steps-ahead forecast) in advance.

5.2. Use of wavelet transformation coefficients

Calculation of the segmental averages is the best approach with present day computers. How-
ever, use of wavelet transformations has two advantages: first, they represent the system more
accurately than segmental averages if the waveform is optimized by considering the characteristics
of the signal. Second, wavelet parameters can be used for many other purposes such as identifi-
cation of runout. As multipurpose wavelet transformation hardware becomes affordable, wavelet
transformation coefficients could be calculated faster and easier by using generic systems. The
c(n) approximation coefficient of the wavelet transformation (Eq. (2)) can be calculated by using
the Haar wavelet transformation system. To find the trend, a line equation can be fitted by using
linear regression on the parameters of the wavelet transformation. Future static force values can
be estimated by means of this line equation. In this study, the c(n) coefficients were obtained
after the transformation was repeated four times by using the Haar wavelet transformation system.
This process reduced the data to about one-sixteenth of its original size. The parameters of a line
equation were obtained by using the linear least squares method from 19 approximation coef-
ficients. The last approximation coefficient of the next wavelet transformation was estimated by
using this line equation. The estimated approximation coefficient corresponds to the future static
force value about 0.32 s ahead.

6. Results and discussion

In this section, the experimental results will be presented and the effectiveness of the proposed
remaining tool life estimation procedure will be outlined:

6.1. Experimental study and results

More than 50 tools were broken at different cutting conditions while an aluminum (5052) and
mild steel workpieces were cut with an HSS micro-end-mill of 0.015 in. diameter. A HSS tool
with a 0.03 in. diameter was used to cut a graphite workpiece. A typical raw cutting force signal
and its moving average are presented in Fig. 2 for aluminum without any offset and scale-related
correction. The cutting force had a repetitive pattern (almost sinusoidal) in each rotation since
two cutting edges were engaged in turn with the workpiece. Also, the moving average of the
signal is plotted in Fig. 2 to show the trend of the static part or very low-frequency characteristics
1426 I. Tansel et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 38 (1998) 1419–1436

Fig. 2. Raw cutting force data.

of the signal. To study the static cutting force characteristics at different cutting conditions, the
averages of 80 point long segments of the feed direction cutting force were calculated; these are
presented in Figs 3 and 4. The cutting conditions for low-speed cutting tests are presented in
Table 1. The spindle speed and depth of cut were 30,000 rpm and 0.004 in. respectively for the
high-speed cutting tests respectively. The feed rates were 2 in./min for aluminum and 1 in./min
for mild steel.

6.2. Tool breakage mechanisms

The variation of the cutting force just before the breakage is demonstrated in Figs 3–6. The
experiments were repeated at 30,000 rpm with aluminum and mild steel workpieces. All plots
Table 1
The experimental cutting conditions for low-speed cutting experiments with aluminum material

Data Cutting speed (rpm) Feed rate (in./s) Depth of cut (in.)

WAVE-01 (W01) 3000 0.005 0.005

WAVE-23 (W23) 3000 0.003 0.010
WAVE-31 (W31) 3000 0.003 0.015
WAVE-33 (W33) 3000 0.003 0.015
WAVE-35 (W35) 3000 0.003 0.015
WAVE-39 (W39) 3000 0.001 0.015
WAVE-43 (W43) 3000 0.001 0.015
 I. Tansel et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 38 (1998) 1419–1436 1427

Fig. 3. The segmental averages of the feed direction cutting force. Fatigue-related breakage occurred.

Fig. 4. The segmental averages of the feed direction cutting force. Excessive stress-related breakage occurred.
1428 I. Tansel et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 38 (1998) 1419–1436

Fig. 5. Comparison of two different cases demonstrating the cutting forces at breakage while machining aluminum.

Fig. 6. Characteristic trend of segment averages of cutting forces in mild steel.

 I. Tansel et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 38 (1998) 1419–1436 1429

show that the static part of the force increased after the tools were used for a period of time.
When the static part of the cutting force increases the stress at the tool shaft increases. Since the
tool rotates, the stress distribution at the cutting tool will vary and a repetitive load is encountered.
The direction and magnitude of the cutting force is going to have a repetitive pattern while the
tool is rotating.
The static part of the force had a constant value and breakage occurred without the force
reaching very high values in the four cases presented in Fig. 3 and one of the cases (Tool No.
1) presented in Fig. 5. In Fig. 4 and the other case (Tool No. 11) presented in Fig. 5, the absolute
value of the static part of the feed direction cutting force increased and breakage occurred more
quickly than the cases in Fig. 3 because of excessive stress. In Fig. 6 the existence of similar
characteristics is demonstrated for mild steel. The reader should consider the absolute value of
the force when we refer to the increase or decrease. In Fig. 4 for example, the absolute value of
the cutting force increased until failure occurred. In all the plots, the force was negative because
of the selected positive direction.
Figs 3–6 verify the following facts:
1. As the tools were used, the static part of the feed direction cutting force signal increased (Figs
3–6).
2. The static part of the feed direction cutting force was constant until fatigue-related breakage
occurred in Figs 3 and 5 (Tool No. 1) for five different cases.
3. The static part of the feed direction cutting force (absolute value) increased rapidly until the
tool broke with excessive stress in Figs 4 and 6.
To investigate the wear and breakage mechanisms, pictures of the tools were taken using an
electron scanning microscope. The tip of a relatively new cutting tool (after 7.5 in. of cutting on
aluminum material) is presented in Fig. 7(a). Fragments of the workpiece material can be seen
adhering to the surface of the cutting edges. The surface is fairly flat indicating the almost perfect
condition of the tool. Only very minor damage was observed at the cutting edges. The tip of
another cutting tool is presented in Fig. 7(b) after 17.5 in. of cutting. A very large amount of
small workpiece particles adhered to the surface. In addition, the not so straight cutting edges
indicate the dullness and the possibly high cutting forces. In Fig. 7(c) a new and worn 0.03 in.
end-mills are compared in this picture which was taken by optical microscope. The worn tool
was used for more than 4 h to machine a graphite electrode. Portions of the cutting edges of the
used tool were eroded. Typically, micro-tools that are used to cut metals are broken before they
are this badly worn out.
These observations verify the explanations in Section 4 about the usage-related changes in the
tool, an increase in the cutting forces and the development of higher stress on the tool shaft. The
higher stresses eventually cause fatigue or excessive force-related tool breakage.
The trend of the cutting force variations in Fig. 4 is studied in Fig. 8. It presents a linear fit
of exponential functions to data just before failure. The linear functions [Fig. 8(a)] fit the small
sections better, and exponential functions fit the complete curve better. These observations suggest
that in the short term damage reduces metal removal and at every single rotation the tool will be
bent slowly because of the constant feed rate. This mechanism creates a linearly increasing static
force (or stress) before the tool is broken. On the other hand, the better fitting exponential function
[Fig. 8(b)] to the whole segment of data indicates that when damage or chip clogging occurs, the
1430 I. Tansel et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 38 (1998) 1419–1436

Fig. 7. Pictures of new and worn tools. (a) The tip of a micro-tool after 7.5 in. of cutting in aluminum material. (b)
The tip of a micro-tool after 17.5 in. of cutting in aluminum material. (c) Comparison of a new tool with a worn one
which was used to cut graphite electrode for more than 4 h.
 I. Tansel et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 38 (1998) 1419–1436 1431

Fig. 8. The trend of the feed direction cutting force just before excessive stress-related breakage occurs. (a)Linear
approximation. (b)Exponential approximation.
1432 I. Tansel et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 38 (1998) 1419–1436

tool will eventually cause problems and the condition of the tool deteriorates. For example, the
increasing cutting forces may create more damage at the other sections of the cutting edges.

6.3. Performance of the proposed breakage prediction method

Monitoring the static part of the feed direction cutting force was very effective in estimating
the tool breakage ahead of time. In all seven cases presented (Figs 3 and 4), the static part of
the force just one second before the breakage was higher than typical values with a new tool. A
selected threshold of − 2.5 N was sufficient to detect the deteriorating cutting edges in Fig. 3 if
the cutting edges are only slightly dull or dysfunctional (with damage or with little chips stuck
to them).
Excessive stress-related breakage was estimated from the trend of the static part of the feed
direction cutting force. In Fig. 9, two and four-steps-ahead predictions from the segmental aver-
ages (see Section 5.1 for the procedure) are compared with the actual values. The accuracy of
the estimations were satisfactory to take proper action 0.16 and 0.32 s ahead. Depending on the
speed of the available hardware (controller and machine tool) two or four segmental averages
ahead predictions can be used.
In Section 5.2, the use of wavelet transformation coefficients was proposed to forecast 0.32 s
ahead. In this section, the original digitized numbers (2-byte integers) are used to demonstrate
more realistic signal processing since in an actual application, digitized numbers are used directly
without wasting computational time with scaling and offsetting. In Fig. 10(a), the wavelet coef-
ficients were calculated from the experimental feed direction cutting force data and presented. In

Fig. 9. The two and four-steps-ahead predictions from the segmental averages.
 I. Tansel et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 38 (1998) 1419–1436 1433

Fig. 10. Wavelet coefficients. Arbitrary Y-axis without offset and scale. (a)Wavelet coefficients from the experimental
feed direction cutting force data. (b)The original data and the reconstructed waveform are presented just before and
after breakage takes place.

Fig. 10(b), to show the accuracy and function of the wavelet transformation, the original data
and the reconstructed waveform are presented just before and after breakage takes place. The
reconstruction was realized by using Eq. (2) and part of the coefficients (just around breakage)
in Fig. 10(a). The accuracy of the 0.32 s ahead estimations are presented in Fig. 11. Wavelet
coefficients smoothed the data and provided reasonable estimations.
The segmental averaging and wavelet transformation-based estimations had comparable accu-
1434 I. Tansel et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 38 (1998) 1419–1436

Fig. 11. The accuracy of the 0.32 s ahead predictions from wavelet transformation. Arbitrary Y-axis without offset
and scale.

racy. Although segmental averaging is presently much more straightforward than the wavelet
transformation method of present-day commercial microcomputers, if wavelet transformation
hardware becomes available at reasonable prices, these calculations can be performed much faster
using parallel processors. Also, instead of the Haar transformations, special waveforms may be
designed to obtain better accuracy.
Time-series models have also been used for forecasting [25]. However, time-series models
require continuous updating of the model and the accuracy of the estimations begins to deteriorate
after the first two predictions. A linear model is simpler to program and the accuracy of future
estimations after many steps ahead are still reasonable as long as the trend of the data has not
changed.

7. Conclusion

The tool breakage mechanisms in micro-end-milling operations were investigated in this study.
A relationship was found between tool condition (wear, cutting edge-damage, little particles stuck
to the tool surface), and the static part of the feed direction cutting force. Usage-related stress
was found to be an important factor in fatigue and excessive load-related micro-tool breakage.
Two tool breakage prediction methods were proposed by using segmental averages and wavelet
transformations.
The static part of the feed direction force was found to be a simple and reliable indicator of
 I. Tansel et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 38 (1998) 1419–1436 1435

tool condition in slot cutting operations. The deteriorating tool condition can be detected by moni-
toring the absolute value of the static part of the feed direction force. When it increases more
than three or four times while the cutting conditions are the same, appropriate actions should be
taken to avoid breakage.
Two methods were proposed for estimation of the static part of the cutting force in 0.16–0.32 s
ahead. The first method calculates the averages of 80 s-long feed direction cutting force segments
and predicts the future averages 0.16 and/or 0.32 s ahead. The other prediction method calculates
the wavelet transformation and predicts the future values in about 0.32 s ahead. Both approaches
estimate the future values with acceptable accuracy.
The number of manufactured miniature parts and intricate sections of conventional designs
have been increasing dramatically. To produce these parts, micro-machining operations will be
used more commonly in the future. Especially by adding high-speed spindles to the conventional
machine tools reasonable feed rates with very small feed-per-tooth can be achieved. To increase
the feed rates further on these machines, monitoring of the feed direction cutting force will be
useful for predicting breakage and taking proper action. Also, many manufacturers will feel press-
ure to use conventional machine tools for micro-machining applications either because of their
limited budget or to eliminate time consumption by setting up the same parts on several machines.
Monitoring of the static part of the feed direction cutting force and adjustment of the feed rate
during machining will allow use of high feed rates, increase tool life, and minimize breakage
during the machining of a part.

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