The structure of

ecosystems
Environmental factors
Ecological factors: characteristics of the
environment that affect living things

Abiotic factors: related to non-living things. Physical and chemical

conditions that affect living things.
◦ Water, temperature, sunlight, soil, pH, humidity, salt concentration, oxygen
content…

Biotic factors: related to living things. The organisms that share the
same natural environment.
◦ Intraspecific relationships
◦ Interspecific relationships
Limiting factors
Each species has specific environmental requirements that it needs to
develop normally. In order for this to happen, the ecological factors that
affect these requirements have to be within certain limits.
Limiting factors determine the extreme values after which an organism
cannot develop properly. Therefore, they can limit the growth of a
population.
◦ Can be biotic or abiotic:
◦ In terrestrial plants, the most important limiting factor is water.
◦ In aquatic plants it is sunlight.
Limiting factors
Law of the minimum
◦ A plant’s growth is controlled by the least abundant nutrient, even if there
are large quantities of other nutrients.

Tolerance range curve

◦ Representation of a species’ reaction to a limiting factor, in which:
◦ The highest point is the most favourable condition for the growth of the
species and
◦ The two end points are the maximum and minimum tolerance limits.
◦ The interval between the two is the tolerance interval.
Adaptation of living things to
the environment
Adaptation is the evolution of organisms so that
they are able to survive in a specific environment
Adaptation can be morphological, physiological or behavioural.
According to how many different types of habitat species can inhabit
and their capacity to populate them, species are defined as:

◦ Generalist organisms (eurybionts) are able to survive in a greater variety of

environmental conditions.

◦ Specialist organisms (stenobionts) cannot tolerate significant changes to

their environment.
Adaptation of living things to
the environment
Adaptation is the evolution of organisms so that
they are able to survive in a specific environment
Adaptations to water scarcity
Water is scarce in arid zones or in very cold zones where is frozen as ice.
Organisms found in these regions have had to develop special
adaptations in order to obtain water and reduce its loss.
In plants:
◦ Water is stored in special tissues.
◦ Hard, leathery and small leaves, with few stomata
that open at night to reduce water loss.
◦ Deep widespread roots.
◦ Drought resistant seeds.
◦ Annual plants complete their life cycle in the
season that favours their development.
Adaptations to water scarcity
Water is scarce in arid zones or in very cold
zones where is frozen as ice.
Organisms found in these regions have had
to develop special adaptations in order to
obtain water and reduce its loss.
In animals:
◦ Desiccation resistant structures
◦ Insulated bodies in amphibians and annelids.
◦ Reduced water necessities and excretion
products with little water content in reptiles.
◦ Suspended animation in lungfish.
◦ Fat reservoir in camels.
Adaptations to water scarcity
Adaptations to temperature
The physiological functions of living things depend on the external
temperature of their environment.
In plants
Cold temperatures
◦ Underground organs (tuber, bulbs, root stock)
◦ Leaves that fall in autumn to avoid freezing.

Hot temperatures
◦ Leaves orientation to reduce sunlight
incidence (Eucalyptus).
◦ Small hairy leaves to reduce hot air currents (holm oak).
◦ Greater branch density.
◦ They grow in compacted groups.
Adaptations to temperature
The physiological functions of living things depend on the external
temperature of their environment.
In animals - cold
Poikilotherms (cold-blooded) – Fish, amphibians, reptiles and invertebrates
◦ Search for warmer zones
◦ Individuals come together to increase the
temperature around them.
Adaptations to temperature
The physiological functions of living things depend on the external
temperature of their environment.
In animals - cold
Poikilotherms (cold-blooded) – Fish, amphibians, reptiles and invertebrates
◦ Search for warmer zones
◦ Individuals come together to increase the
temperature around them.
Homeotherms (warm-blooded) – Birds and mammals
◦ Skin insulation (fat and hair).
◦ Less blood flow to avoid heat loss.
◦ Metabolic rate slows down in winter (hibernation)
Adaptations to temperature
The physiological functions of living things depend on the external
temperature of their environment.
In animals - hot
Poikilotherms (cold-blooded) – Fish, amphibians, reptiles and invertebrates
◦ Subterranean habits – Earthworms
◦ Nocturnal activity – Insects
Adaptations to temperature
The physiological functions of living things depend on the external
temperature of their environment.
In animals - hot
Poikilotherms (cold-blooded) – Fish, amphibians, reptiles and invertebrates
◦ Subterranean habits – Earthworms
◦ Nocturnal activity – Insects
Homeotherms (warm-blooded) – Birds and mammals
◦ Sweating
◦ Diurnal inactivity
◦ Panting
Adaptations to sunlight
Sunlight is an important factor for green plants and some algae because
they need it for photosynthesis. However, not all species need the same
amount of light.
Most plants prefer sunny areas but there are plants that grow better in
shady places (shade loving plants).
Epiphytes live and climb up on others to find light.
Adaptations to sunlight
Light in water
Some of the wavelengths of light that are used in photosynthesis are
absorbed when the sunlight shines through the water photic zone.

Green algae only have chlorophyll

and have to live near the surface
Adaptations to sunlight
Light in water
Some of the wavelengths of light that are used in photosynthesis are
absorbed when the sunlight shines through the water.

Brown algae have carotene and

can live at greater depths
Adaptations to sunlight
Light in water
Some of the wavelengths of light that are used in photosynthesis are
absorbed when the sunlight shines through the water.

Red algae have phycoerythrin that

allows them to live in deeper zones
Adaptations to sunlight
Animals also adapt to different amounts of sunlight.
◦ Eyes of night predators have adapted to see well in low light.
◦ Echolocation mechanisms in bats.
◦ Bioluminescence.
Adaptations to lack of oxygen
At high altitudes there is less oxygen in the atmosphere.
Animals have to adapt to receive the right amount of oxygen:

◦ Increase in red blood cells and haemoglobin.

◦ Increase lung capacity.
Adaptations to lack of oxygen
Aquatic mammals have to keep the correct
oxygen concentration in their blood when
they dive into water.
Adaptations:
◦ Reduced heart rate when they are underwater.
◦ Cetaceans have a higher percentage of blood
than other mammals, and a higher number of
red blood cells.
◦ Their blood has a higher number or red blood
cells.
◦ They accumulate oxygen in their muscles and
blood.
◦ Reduced blood flow to organs, except heart and
brain.
 Adaptations to salt
concentration
The concentration of salt in the environment is very important because
controls the amount of water that goes in and out of an organism’s cells
by osmosis:
◦ High concentration of salt → Water leaves the organism
◦ Low concentration of salt → Water enters the organism
Cartilaginous saltwater fish Bony saltwater fish.
and marine invertebrates Fish excrete salt through their
The concentration of salt inside gills and produce very little and
the cells is similar to the highly concentrated urine.
concentration of the water.

They have a salt-secreting

gland near their caudal fin
Adaptations to salt
concentration
The concentration of salt in the environment is very important because
controls the amount of water that goes in and out of an organism’s cells
by osmosis:
◦ High concentration of salt → Water leaves the organism
◦ Low concentration of salt → Water enters the organism

Marine birds expel a concentrated

salt solution through special salt
glands connected to their nostrils
Adaptations to salt
concentration
The concentration of salt in the environment is very important because
controls the amount of water that goes in and out of an organism’s cells
by osmosis:
◦ High concentration of salt → Water leaves the organism
◦ Low concentration of salt → Water enters the organism

Halophytes like black mangrove expels salt

through its leaves using specialised salt glands.
Adaptations to salt
concentration
The concentration of salt in the environment is very important because
controls the amount of water that goes in and out of an organism’s cells
by osmosis:
◦ High concentration of salt → Water leaves the organism
◦ Low concentration of salt → Water enters the organism
Bony freshwater fish.
Fish don’t drink and excrete
large amounts of a low concentrated
urine.
Adaptations to lack of food
Food can be scarce at certain times of year.
Adaptations in mammals:
◦ Storing energy reserves in their bodies (bears)
◦ Hibernation (heart and respiratory rate slow
down, decreasing body temperature).
◦ Storing food in hidden places (squirrels)
Adaptations
to lack of
food
Food can be scarce at
certain times of year.

Adaptations in reptiles:
◦ Spend cold months in a
lethargic state, like
hibernating animals.
◦ Reduced metabolism
◦ Reserves of nutrients
stored in their bodies.
Ex. 8-10,12,16

Adaptations to lack of food

Food can be scarce at certain times of year.
Other adaptations:

◦ Migrating to find food (fish, birds and mammals).

How living things change their
environment
Living things and their activities can modify their environments in a
number of different ways.
◦ Oxygen in atmosphere: photosynthetic organisms produce O2 and release it
into the atmosphere.
◦ Many organisms are aerobic: they use O2 in cellular respiration producing
large amounts of energy and CO2.
◦ CO2 is a greenhouse gas because absorbs IR radiation and keeps Earth’s
average temperature about 14 ºC (instead of -2 ºC), allowing life
development.
How living things change their
environment
Living things and their activities can modify their environments in a
number of different ways.
◦ Plant roots, lichens and the action of some animals (earthworms) break up
rocks and turn the soil. This makes it easier for erosion to occur and makes
soil more fertile.
How living things change their
environment
Living things and their activities can modify their environments in a
number of different ways.
◦ Some sedimentary rocks are formed from layers of microorganisms
(Foraminifera).
How living things change their
environment
Living things and their activities can modify their environments in a
number of different ways.
◦ The accumulation of large number of coral skeletons can create islands.
How living things change their
environment
Living things and their activities can modify their environments in a
number of different ways.
◦ Trees increase the humidity of an area because they stop the sunlight
reaching the ground.
◦ The evaporation of water from the leaves of plants creates a humid
microclimate.
How living things change their
environment
Living things and their activities can modify their environments in a
number of different ways.
◦ Some plants have deep roots and can live near sand.
◦ Those roots help hold the soil and prevent erosion (dunes).
How living things change their
environment
Living things and their activities can modify their environments in a
number of different ways.
◦ Human beings modify the environment in the most obvious ways:
◦ Large buildings, roads, airports, ports...
◦ Contamination and air pollution
◦ Agriculture
◦ Forest fires
Populations
A population is a group of organisms of the
same species that live in the same
territory and can reproduce together.

◦ Being part of a population can provide advantages for the individuals in

those populations, but there can also be disadvantages:
◦ Advantages:
◦ Easy reproduction – if organisms can reproduce easily, they produce more
offspring, so the chances of survival are higher.
◦ Protection against adverse environmental conditions – for example, animals
that can huddle together when its cold can provide extra warmth to help
survival.
◦ More efficient defence against predators – groups of individuals can provide
greater defence against predators, e.g. some animals that are prey to lions
group together to protect their young from attack.
Populations
A population is a group of organisms of the
same species that live in the same
territory and can reproduce together.

◦ Being part of a population can provide advantages for the individuals in

those populations, but there can also be disadvantages:
◦ Disadvantages:
◦ Competition between individuals – reproduction is not as easy and
resources are scarcer.
◦ Appearance of infectious diseases – when a large number of individuals are
together, the likelihood of contracting and passing on infectious diseases is
much greater.
◦ Lack of space – when there are too many individuals in a population, there
can be problems with a lack of living space and of resources, such as food
and water.
 Populations
The individuals that make up a population can be distributed in three
main ways:
The population is distributed The population is distributed The population is distributed
without specific groupings in groups with little space with regular spaces between
or organisation between the members of a group each individual
Populations
Intraspecific relationships are established among
the individuals of a population to
◦ Facilitate reproduction
◦ Make finding food easier
◦ Improve protection
◦ Divide labour
◦ Favour migrations

Intraspecific relationships can be:

◦ Cooperative
◦ Competitive
◦ By passive transport
Cooperative
Individuals group in order to make their life
easier. Some of these relationships are
permanent and others are just temporary.

◦ Colonies: individuals join intimately and are a

result of asexual reproduction (all the
individuals are genetically identical).
◦ Corals: individuals are the same
◦ Portuguese man-of-war: individuals are different
Cooperative
Individuals group in order to make their life
easier. Some of these relationships are
permanent and others are just temporary.

◦ Families: they are relationships between

parents and their offspring, so the parents can
look after the offspring. Temporary or
permanent.
◦ According to the individuals that form them:
◦ Parental: made up by the parents and their offspring
(pigeons).
◦ Matriarchal: made up by the mother and her offspring
(chickens).
◦ Filial: made up only by offspring (red tilapia)
Cooperative
Individuals group in order to make their life
easier. Some of these relationships are
permanent and others are just temporary.

◦ Families: they are relationships between

parents and their offspring, son the parents can
look after the offspring. Temporary or
permanent.
◦ According to the number of parents they have:
◦ Monogamous: one male and one female (cormorants)
◦ Polygamous: one male, several females (sea lions)
◦ Polyandric: one female, several males (ospreys)
Cooperative
Individuals group in order to make their life
easier. Some of these relationships are
permanent and others are just temporary.

◦ Caste system: individuals organised in a

hierarchic way, descendants of a particular
female. They have anatomical and physiological
differences, and they divide communal work.
◦ Termites, bees and ants.
Cooperative
Individuals group in order to make their life
easier. Some of these relationships are
permanent and others are just temporary.

◦ Social: individuals live together to help each

other mutually for a specific period of time to
search for food, defend themselves from
predators, migrate long distances (herds and
flocks) or to reproduce (monkeys).
Competitive
Individuals have to compete for a limited resource (sunlight, food, space
or individuals for mating).

◦ This type of competition controls populations.

Ex. 19-21,23,24

By passive transport
The mechanical action of some
agents (wind, water) makes
individuals of the same species
group together.

◦ Mosquitoes, and other insects, are

grouped by the effect of air
currents.
Communities
Communities or Biocoenosis
A community or biocoenosis is the group of
populations of different organisms that live in
the same geographical area and have
relationships between each other.

Biodiversity is the biological variability among

and between species in a community.

Biodiverse communities are more stable, as

they present a greater number of relationships
between species.
Forest

Communities tend to have a predominant species.

In the case of plants, they give
the name to the community, for example, a pine forest.

Pond

Fallen tree trunk

Communities or Biocoenosis
In complex communities, such as forests,
individuals are distributed in different
areas:
◦ Herbaceous strata
◦ Shrubby strata
◦ Arboreal strata
◦ Understory trees
◦ Lower canopy
◦ Canopy
Interspecific relationships
The relationships between individuals of different species that can be
favourable or harmful for the species involved:
◦ Favourable
◦ Mutualism
◦ Symbiosis
◦ Commensalism
◦ Protocooperaion
◦ Harmful
◦ Parasitism
◦ Predation
◦ Competition
 Mutualism

Both organisms benefit, but do not have a

permanent relationship as it is not essential
for the survival of the species involved.
It can be considered as a biological exchange
between species.
Mutualism
Mutualism
 Symbiosis

Type of mutualism in which an intimate and

permanent relationship is established.
Strong dependence between both individuals,
called symbionts.
Endosymbiosis
Endosymbiosis
Ectosymbiosis
 Commensalism

One of the organisms benefits and the other is

neither favoured nor harmed.
Scavengers (vultures, hyenas…)
 Inquilinism

An organism uses the other one as a host.

Inquilinism
 Protocooperation

Similar to mutualism, it benefits both

participants. The relationship is not essential
for the survival and one species does not
favour the development of the other.
Protocooperation
 Parasitism

A parasite benefits from a host, harmed by the

relationship, without killing it in the short term.
Ectoparasite: fleas, ticks, lice.
Endoparasites: Plasmodium (intracellular),
tapeworms (extracellular).
 Parasitism

A parasite benefits from a host, harmed by the

relationship, without killing it in the short term.
Ectoparasite: fleas, ticks, lice.
Endoparasites: Plasmodium (intracellular),
tapeworms (extracellular).
 Social
parasitism
 Social
parasitism
 Predation

A predator feeds on a prey, killing it, so both

individuals fight for their survival.
 Competition
Two species compete for the same resource (territory,
food or sunlight). Between species with similar needs,
affecting their evolution by natural selection.
Competition
What is an ecosystem?

The combined group of:

· living things,
· the physical factors of the
environment where they live,
· the biotic and abiotic relationships
between them
 What is an ecosystem?
Biotope: the physical Biocoenosis: the
environment in which populations that form
all living things live. the ecosystem.

Habitat: the place in an Ecological niche: the role

ecosystem where a that a species plays in an
species lives. ecosystem.
Ex. 29 to 33

Ecotones
Ecotones are the transitional areas between two communities in a
particular ecosystem, where two communities meet and integrate.
They are ecological borders, so they are not precise borders.
◦ Sometimes we can see a clear border that separates the communities and
sometimes there is a transition area between both communities.
◦ Ecotones are considered to be biologically rich areas.