Pond

A pond is an area filled wit h wat er, eit her nat ural or art ificial, t hat is smaller t han a lake.[1] Ponds
are small bodies of freshwat er wit h shallow and st ill wat er, marsh, and aquat ic plant s.[2]: 460 
Ponds can be creat ed by a wide variet y of nat ural processes (e.g. on floodplains as cut off river
channels, by glacial processes, by peat land format ion, in coast al dune syst ems, by beavers), or
t hey can simply be isolat ed depressions (such as a ket t le hole, vernal pool, prairie pot hole, or
simply nat ural undulat ions in undrained land) filled by runoff, groundwat er, or precipit at ion, or all
t hree of t hese.[3] They can be furt her divided int o four zones: veget at ion zone, open wat er,
bot t om mud and surface film.[2]: 160–163  The size and dept h of ponds oft en varies great ly wit h
t he t ime of year; many ponds are produced by spring flooding from rivers. Ponds may be
freshwat er or brackish in nat ure. 'Ponds' wit h salt wat er, wit h a direct connect ion t o t he sea t hat
maint ains full salinit y, would normally be regarded as part of t he marine environment because
t hey would not support fresh or brackish wat er organisms, so not really wit hin t he realm of
freshwat er science.

Pond at Cornjum, Netherlands

A man made pond at sunset in Montgomery County, Ohio.

Stereoscopic image of a pond in Central City Park, Macon, GA, circa 1877.

Ponds are usually by definit ion quit e shallow wat erbodies wit h varying abundances of aquat ic
plant s and animals. Dept h, seasonal wat er level variat ions, nut rient s fluxes, amount of light
reaching t he ponds, t he shape, t he presence of visit ing large mammals, t he composit ion of any
fish communit ies and salinit y can all affect t he t ypes of plant and animal communit ies present .[4]
Food webs are based bot h on free-float ing algae and upon aquat ic plant s. There is usually a
diverse array of aquat ic life, wit h a few examples including algae, snails, fish, beet les, wat er bugs,
frogs, t urt les, ot t ers and muskrat s. Top predat ors may include large fish, herons, or alligat ors.
Since fish are a major predat or upon amphibian larvae, ponds t hat dry up each year, t hereby killing
resident fish, provide import ant refugia for amphibian breeding.[4] Ponds t hat dry up complet ely
each year are oft en known as vernal pools. Some ponds are produced by animal act ivit y, including
alligat or holes and beaver ponds, and t hese add import ant diversit y t o landscapes.[4]

Ponds are frequent ly manmade or expanded beyond t heir original dept hs and bounds by
ant hropogenic causes. Apart from t heir role as highly biodiverse, fundament ally nat ural,
freshwat er ecosyst ems ponds have had, and st ill have, many uses, including providing wat er for
agricult ure, livest ock and communit ies, aiding in habit at rest orat ion, serving as breeding grounds
for local and migrat ing species, decorat ive component s of landscape archit ect ure, flood cont rol
basins, general urbanizat ion, int ercept ion basins for pollut ant s and sources and sinks of
greenhouse gases.

Classification

The t echnical dist inct ion bet ween a pond and a lake has not been universally st andardized.
Limnologist s and freshwat er biologist s have proposed formal definit ions for pond, in part t o
include 'bodies of wat er where light penet rat es t o t he bot t om of t he wat erbody,' 'bodies of
wat er shallow enough for root ed wat er plant s t o grow t hroughout ,' and 'bodies of wat er which
lack wave act ion on t he shoreline.' Each of t hese definit ions are difficult t o measure or verify in
pract ice and are of limit ed pract ical use, and are most ly not now used. Accordingly, some
organizat ions and researchers have set t led on t echnical definit ions of pond and lake t hat rely on
size alone.[5]

Vegetated pond within the sand dunes of the Lençóis Maranhenses National Park, Brazil

Some regions of t he Unit ed St at es define a pond as a body of wat er wit h a surface area of less
t han 10 acres (4.0 ha). Minnesot a, known as t he "land of 10,000 lakes", is commonly said t o
dist inguish lakes from ponds, bogs and ot her wat er feat ures by t his definit ion,[6] but also says
t hat a lake is dist inguished primarily by wave act ion reaching t he shore.[7] Even among
organizat ions and researchers who dist inguish lakes from ponds by size alone, t here is no
universally recognized st andard for t he maximum size of a pond. The int ernat ional Ramsar
wet land convent ion set s t he upper limit for pond size as 8 hect ares (80,000 m2; 20 acres).[8]
Researchers for t he Brit ish charit y Pond Conservat ion (now called Freshwat er Habit at s Trust )
have defined a pond t o be 'a man-made or nat ural wat erbody t hat is bet ween 1 m2(0.00010
hect ares; 0.00025 acres) and 20,000 m2 (2.0 hect ares; 4.9 acres) in area, which holds wat er for
four mont hs of t he year or more.' Ot her European biologist s have set t he upper size limit at 5
hect ares (50,000 m2; 12 acres).[9]

In Nort h America, even larger bodies of wat er have been called ponds; for example, Cryst al Lake
at 33 acres (130,000 m2; 13 ha), Walden Pond in Concord, Massachuset t s at 61 acres (250,000
m2; 25 ha), and nearby Spot Pond at 340 acres (140 ha). There are numerous examples in ot her
st at es, where bodies of wat er less t han 10 acres (40,000 m2; 4.0 ha) are being called lakes. As
t he case of Cryst al Lake shows, market ing purposes can somet imes be t he driving fact or behind
t he cat egorizat ion.[10]

The Pond in Central Park in Manhattan, New York City

In pract ice, a body of wat er is called a pond or a lake on an individual basis, as convent ions
change from place t o place and over t ime. In origin, a pond is a variant form of t he word pound,
meaning a confining enclosure.[11] In earlier t imes, ponds were art ificial and ut ilit arian, as st ew
ponds, mill ponds and so on. The significance of t his feat ure seems, in some cases, t o have been
lost when t he word was carried abroad wit h emigrant s. However, some part s of New England
cont ain "ponds" t hat are act ually t he size of a small lake when compared t o ot her count ries. In
t he Unit ed St at es, nat ural pools are oft en called ponds. Ponds for a specific purpose keep t he
adject ive, such as "st ock pond", used for wat ering livest ock. The t erm is also used for t emporary
accumulat ion of wat er from surface runoff (ponded wat er).

There are various regional names for nat urally occurring ponds. In Scot land, one of t he t erms is
lochan, which may also apply t o a large body of wat er such as a lake. In t he Sout h West ern part s
of Nort h American, lakes or ponds t hat are t emporary and oft en dried up for most part s of t he
year are called playas.[12]  These playas are simply shallow depressions in dry areas t hat may only
fill wit h wat er on cert ain occasion like excess local drainage, groundwat er seeping, or rain.

Formation

Pond formation through seeping groundwater in South Tufa, California

Any depression in t he ground which collect s and ret ains a sufficient amount of wat er can be
considered a pond, and such, can be formed by a variet y of geological, ecological, and human
t erraforming event s.
Ornamental pond with waterfall in Niagara Falls Rock Garden

Nat ural ponds are t hose caused by environment al occurrences. These can vary from glacial,
volcanic, fluvial, or even t ect onic event s. Since t he Pleist ocene epoch, glacial processes have
creat ed most of t he Nort hern hemispheric ponds; an example is t he Prairie Pot hole Region of
Nort h America.[13][14] When glaciers ret reat , t hey may leave behind uneven ground due t o bedrock
elast ic rebound and sediment out wash plains.[15] These areas may develop depressions t hat can
fill up wit h excess precipit at ion or seeping ground wat er, forming a small pond. Ket t le lakes and
ponds are formed when ice breaks off from a larger glacier, is event ually buried by t he
surrounding glacial t ill, and over t ime melt s.[16] Orogenies and ot her t ect onic uplift ing event s have
creat ed some of t he oldest lakes and ponds on t he globe. These indent ions have t he t endency
t o quickly fill wit h groundwat er if t hey occur below t he local wat er t able. Ot her t ect onic rift s or
depressions can fill wit h precipit at ion, local mount ain runoff, or be fed by mount ain st reams.[17]
Volcanic act ivit y can also lead t o lake and pond format ion t hrough collapsed lava t ubes or
volcanic cones. Nat ural floodplains along rivers, as well as landscapes t hat cont ain many
depressions, may experience spring/rainy season flooding and snow melt . Temporary or vernal
ponds are creat ed t his way and are import ant for breeding fish, insect s, and amphibians,
part icularly in large river syst ems like t he Amazon.[18] Some ponds are solely creat ed by animals
species such as beavers, bison, alligat ors and ot her crocodilians t hrough damning and nest
excavat ion respect ively.[19][20] In landscapes wit h organic soils, local fires can creat e depressions
during periods of drought . These have t he t endency t o fill up wit h small amount s of precipit at ion
unt il normal wat er levels ret urn, t urning t hese isolat ed ponds int o open wat er.[21]

Manmade ponds are t hose creat ed by human int ervent ion for t he sake of t he local environment ,
indust rial set t ings, or for recreat ional/ornament al use.

Uses

Many ecosyst ems are linked by wat er and ponds have been found t o hold a great er biodiversit y
of species t han larger freshwat er lakes or river syst ems.[22] As such, ponds are habit at s for many
variet ies of organisms including plant s, amphibians, fish, rept iles, wat erfowl, insect s and even
some mammals. Ponds are used for breeding grounds for t hese species but also as shelt er and
even drinking/feeding locat ions for ot her wildlife.[23][24] Aquacult ure pract ices lean heavily on
art ificial ponds in order t o grow and care for many different t ype of fish eit her for human
consumpt ion, research, species conservat ion or recreat ional sport .

A small agricultural retention pond in Swarzynice, Poland

In agricult ure pract ices, t reat ment ponds can be creat ed t o reduce nut rient runoff from reaching
local st reams or groundwat er st orages. Pollut ant s t hat ent er ponds can oft en be mit igat ed by
nat ural sediment at ion and ot her biological and chemical act ivit ies wit hin t he wat er. As such,
wast e st abilizat ion ponds are becoming popular low-cost met hods for general wast ewat er
t reat ment . They may also provide irrigat ion reservoirs for st ruggling farms during t imes of
drought .

As urbanizat ion cont inues t o spread, ret ent ion ponds are becoming more common in new housing
development s. These ponds reduce t he risk of flooding and erosion damage from excess st orm
wat er runoff in local communit ies.[25]

Experiment al ponds are used t o t est hypot heses in t he fields of environment al science,
chemist ry, aquat ic biology, and limnology.[26]

Some ponds are t he life blood of many small villages in arid count ries such as t hose in sub-
Saharan Africa where bat hing, sanit at ion, fishing, socializat ion, and rit uals are held.[27] In t he Indian
subcont inent , Hindu t emple monks care for sacred ponds used for religious pract ices and bat hing
pilgrims alike.[28] In Europe during medieval t imes, it was t ypical for many monast ery and cast les
(small, part ly self-sufficient communit ies) t o have fish ponds. These are st ill common in Europe
and in East Asia (not ably Japan), where koi may be kept or raised.

Pond Biodiversity
Azalea flowers around a still pond in London's Richmond Park

A defining feat ure of a pond is t he presence of st anding wat er which provides habit at for a
biological communit y commonly referred t o as pond life. Because of t his, many ponds and lakes
cont ain large numbers of endemic species t hat have gone t hrough adapt ive radiat ion t o become
specialized t o t heir preferred habit at .[17] Familiar examples might include wat er lilies and ot her
aquat ic plant s, frogs, t urt les, and fish.

Common freshwater fish species include the Large Mouth and Small Mouth Bass, Catfish, Bluegill, and Sunfish such as
the Pumpkinseed Sunfish shown above

Oft en, t he ent ire margin of t he pond is fringed by wet land, and t hese wet lands support t he
aquat ic food web, provide shelt er for wildlife, and st abilize t he shore of t he pond. This margin is
also known as t he lit t oral zone and cont ains much of t he phot osynt het ic algae and plant s of t his
ecosyst em called macrophyt es. Ot her phot osynt het ic organisms such as phyt oplankt on
(suspended algae) and periphyt ons (organisms including cyanobact eria, det rit us, and ot her
microbes) t hrive here and st and as t he primary producers of pond food webs.[17] Some grazing
animals like geese and muskrat s consume t he wet land plant s direct ly as a source of food. In
many ot her cases, pond plant s will decay in t he wat er. Many invert ebrat es and herbivorous
zooplankt on t hen feed on t he decaying plant s, and t hese lower t rophic level organisms provide
food for wet land species including fish, dragonflies, and herons bot h in t he lit t oral zone and t he
limnet ic zone.[17] The open wat er limnet ic zone may allow algae t o grow as sunlight st ill
penet rat es here. These algae may support yet anot her food web t hat includes aquat ic insect s
and ot her small fish species. A pond, t herefore, may have combinat ions of t hree different food
webs, one based on larger plant s, one based upon decayed plant s, and one based upon algae and
t heir specific upper t rophic level consumers and predat ors.[17] Hence, ponds oft en have many
different animal species using t he wide array of food sources t hough biot ic int eract ion. They,
t herefore, provide an import ant source of biological diversit y in landscapes.

Opposit e t o long st anding ponds are vernal ponds. These ponds dry up for part of t he year and
are so called because t hey are t ypically at t heir peak dept h in t he spring (t he meaning of "vernal"
comes form t he Lat in word for spring). Nat urally occurring vernal ponds do not usually have fish, a
major higher t ropic level consumer, as t hese ponds frequent ly dry up. The absence of fish is a
very import ant charact erist ic of t hese ponds since it prevent s long chained biot ic int eract ions
from est ablishing. Ponds wit hout t hese compet it ive predat ion pressures provides breeding
locat ions and safe havens for endangered or migrat ing species. Hence, int roducing fish t o a pond
can have seriously det riment al consequences. In some part s of t he world, such as California, t he
vernal ponds have rare and endangered plant species. On t he coast al plain, t hey provide habit at
for endangered frogs such as t he Mississippi Gopher Frog.[19]

Oft en groups of ponds in a given landscape - so called 'pondscapes' - offer especially high
biodiversit y benefit s compared t o single ponds. A group of ponds provides a higher degree of
habit at complexit y and habit at connect ivit y.[29][30]

Stratification

Lakes are stratified into three separate sections: I The Epilimnion II The Metalimnion III The Hypolimnion The scales are
Lakes are stratified into three separate sections: I. The Epilimnion II. The Metalimnion III. The Hypolimnion. The scales are
used to associate each section of the stratification to their corresponding depths and temperatures. The arrow is used to
show the movement of wind over the surface of the water which initiates the turnover in the epilimnion and the
hypolimnion.

Many ponds undergo a regular yearly process in t he same mat t er as larger lakes if t hey are deep
enough and/or prot ect ed from t he wind. Abiot ic fact ors such as UV radiat ion, general
t emperat ure, wind speed, wat er densit y, and even size, all have import ant roles t o play when it
comes t o t he seasonal effect s on lakes and ponds.[31] Spring overt urn, summer st rat ificat ion,
aut umn t urnover, and an inverse wint er st rat ificat ion, ponds adjust t heir st rat ificat ion or t heir
vert ical zonat ion of t emperat ure due t o t hese influences. These environment al fact ors affect
pond circulat ion and t emperat ure gradient s wit hin t he wat er it self producing dist ant layers; t he
epilimnion, met alimnion, and hypolimnion.[17]

Each zone has varied t rait s t hat sust ain or harm specific organisms and biot ic int eract ions below
t he surface depending on t he season. Wint er surface ice begins t o melt in t he Spring. This allows
t he wat er column t o begin mixing t hanks t o solar convect ion and wind velocit y. As t he pond
mixes, an overall const ant t emperat ure is reached. As t emperat ures increase t hrough t he
summer, t hermal st rat ificat ion t akes place. Summer st rat ificat ion allows for t he epilimnion t o be
mixed by winds, keeping a consist ent warm t emperat ure t hroughout t his zone. Here,
phot osynt hesis and primary product ion flourishes. However, t hose species t hat need cooler
wat er wit h higher dissolved oxygen concent rat ions will favor t he lower met alimnion or
hypolimnion. Air t emperat ure drops as fall approaches and a deep mixing layer occurs. Aut umn
t urnover result s in isot hermal lakes wit h high levels of dissolved oxygen as t he wat er reaches an
average colder t emperat ure. Finally, wint er st rat ificat ion occurs inversely t o summer
st rat ificat ion as surface ice begins t o form yet again. This ice cover remains unt il solar radiat ion
and convect ion ret urn in t he spring.

Due t o t his const ant change in vert ical zonat ion, seasonal st rat ificat ion causes habit at s t o grow
and shrink accordingly. Cert ain species are bound t o t hese dist inct layers of t he wat er column
where t hey can t hrive and survive wit h t he best efficiency possible.

For more informat ion regarding seasonal t hermal st rat ificat ion of ponds and lakes, please look at
"Lake St rat ificat ion".

Conservation and Management

A pond in winter experiencing inverse stratification

Ponds provide not only environment al values, but pract ical benefit s t o societ y. One increasingly
crucial benefit t hat ponds provide is t heir abilit y t o act as greenhouse gas sinks. Most nat ural
lakes and ponds are greenhouse gas sources and aid in t he flux of t hese dissolved compounds.
However, manmade farm ponds are becoming significant sinks for gas mit igat ion and t he fight
against climat e change.[32] These agricult ure runoff ponds receive high pH level wat er from
surrounding soils. Highly acidic drainage ponds act as cat alysis for excess CO2 (Carbon Dioxide)
t o be convert ed int o forms of carbon t hat can easily be st ored in sediment s.[33] When t hese new
drainage ponds are const ruct ed, concent rat ions of bact eria t hat normally break down dead
organic mat t er, such as algae, are low. As a result , breakdown and release of Nit rogen gasses
from t hese organic mat erials such as N2O does not occur and t hus, not added t o our
at mosphere.[34] This process is also used wit h regular denit rificat ion in anoxic layer of ponds.
However, not all ponds have t he abilit y t o become sinks for greenhouse gasses. Most ponds
experience eut rophicat ion where faced wit h excessive nut rient input from fert ilizers and runoff.
This over-nit rifies t he pond wat er and result s in mass algae blooms and local fish kills.

Some farm ponds are not used for runoff cont rol but rat her for livest ock like cat t le or buffalo as
wat ering and bat hing holes. As ment ioned in t he use sect ion, ponds are import ant hot spot s for
biodiversit y. Somet imes t his becomes an issue wit h invasive or int roduced species t hat disrupt
pond ecosyst em dynamics such as food-web st ruct ure, niche part it ioning, and guild
assignment s.[35] This varies from int roduced fish species such as t he Common Carp t hat eat
nat ive wat er plant s or Nort hern Snakeheads t hat at t ack breeding amphibians, aquat ic snails t hat
carry infect ious parasit es t hat kill ot her species, and even rapid spreading aquat ic plant s like
Hydrilla and Duckweed t hat can rest rict wat er flow and cause overbank flooding.[35]
During the last thirty years of his life, the main focus of Claude Monet's artistic production was a series of about 250 oil
paintings depicting the lily pond in his flower garden.

Ponds, depending on t heir orient at ion and size, can spread t heir wet land habit at s int o t he local
riparian zones or wat ershed boundaries. Gent le slopes of land int o ponds provides an expanse of
habit at for wet land plant s and wet meadows t o expand beyond t he limit at ion of t he pond.[36]
However, t he const ruct ion of ret aining walls, lawns, and ot her urbanized development s can
severely degrade t he range of pond habit at s and t he longevit y of t he pond it self. Roads and
highways act in t he same manor, but t hey also int erfere wit h amphibians and t urt les t hat migrat e
t o and from ponds as part of t heir annual breeding cycle and should be kept as far away from
est ablished ponds as possible.[37] Because of t hese fact ors, gent ly sloping shorelines wit h broad
expanses of wet land plant s not only provide t he best condit ions for wildlife, but t hey help
prot ect wat er qualit y from sources in t he surrounding landscapes. It is also beneficial t o allow
wat er levels t o fall each year during drier periods in order t o re-est ablish t hese gent ile
shorelines.[37]
An artificial pond in front of the Haus der Kulturen der Welt, Berlin, Germany

In landscapes where ponds are art ificially const ruct ed, t hey are done so t o provide wildlife
viewing and conservat ion opport unit ies, t o t reat wast ewat er, for sequest rat ion and pollut ion
cont ainment , or for simply aest het ic purposes. For nat ural pond conservat ion and development ,
one way t o st imulat e t his is wit h general st ream and river rest orat ion. Many small rivers and
st reams feed int o or from local ponds wit hin t he same wat ershed. When t hese rivers and
st reams flood and begin t o meander, large numbers of nat ural ponds, including vernal pools and
wet lands, develop.[38]

Examples

Some not able ponds are:

Big Pond, Nova Scot ia

Walden Pond, Massachuset t s, Unit ed St at es — associat ed wit h Henry David Thoreau

Christ ian Pond, Wyoming, Unit ed St at es

Hampst ead Ponds, London

Rožmberk Pond, Czech Republic

See also

Cypress dome – Swamp dominat ed by pond or bald cypress

Treat ment pond

Wat er garden

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Further reading

Hughes, F.M.R. (ed.). (2003). The Flooded Forest: Guidance for policy makers and river managers
in Europe on the restoration of floodplain forests. FLOBAR2, Depart ment of Geography,
Universit y of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK. 96 p.[1]
 Environment Canada. (2004). How Much Habitat is Enough? A Framework for Guiding Habitat
Rehabilitation in Great Lakes Areas of Concern. 2nd ed. 81 p.[2]

Herda DJ (2008) Zen & the Art of Pond Building St erling Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1-
4027-4274-3.

W.H. MacKenzie and J.R. Moran (2004). Wetlands of British Columbia: A Guide to Identification.
Minist ry of Forest s, Land Management Handbook 52.

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