5.

1 The Nature of Energy

& Heat
 Useful Resources
Flipped Lesson:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_zXPQYRTrYw&list=PLVK
TjV4NoC8-L_kSvIQcYL_E9LuEu4Wol
 Thermochemistry
When wood burns, a combustion reaction
happens, matter is transformed and energy is
released
When ice melts, water changes from the solid to
the liquid phase and energy is absorbed
 Thermochemistry
Chemistry: The study of matter & its
transformations
Thermochemistry: The study of energy changes
involved in chemical reactions and physical
changes
Changes in matter can be physical, chemical or
nuclear
These changes involve changes in the energy
(enthalpy) of chemical substances
 Types of Changes
Physical Change: A change in the form of a
substance (no chemical bonds are broken)

Chemical Change: A change in the chemical bonds

between atoms; resulting in the rearrangement of
atoms to form new substances
Nuclear Change: A change in the protons or
neutrons in an atom resulting in the formation of
new atoms
Types of Changes
Heat & Energy Changes
Many reactions absorb or evolve (give off)
energy in the form of heat
Some also produce light or mechanical energy
Thermochemistry is the study of the amount of
energy associated with these changes
 Types of Energy
All forms of energy can be categorized as kinetic or
potential energy
Kinetic energy: The energy of motion; anything
moving has kinetic energy
Potential energy: The stored energy an object has

The SI unit for energy is the

Joule (J); 1 J is about the
amount of energy needed to
lift a kiwi 1 meter
Heat & Energy Changes
Thermal Energy: A form of kinetic energy that
results from motion of particles of matter
Heat (q): the transfer of thermal energy between
objects with different temperatures (an object
possesses thermal energy, but cannot possess
heat!)
Metals melt when the vibration of metal atoms
causes them to break out of their ordered solid
pattern
 Systems
Chemical System: Any reaction or set of
reactants and products that are being studied

Surrounding: (everything else! Universe =

system + surroundings) All matter around the
system that is capable of absorbing or
releasing thermal energy (the air, metal parts,
tools, equipment etc)
 Systems

Chemical Systems can be further classified:

Open System: energy and matter can be exchanged

with surroundings

Closed System: energy but not matter can be

exchanged

Isolated System: neither energy nor matter can be

exchanged with surroundings
 Systems
Why are these open, closed and isolated systems?

It is very difficult to have a truly isolated system, in

fact, some scientists say impossible!
 System/Surroundings
In an isolated system, if the system (reaction) is
gaining energy, it must gain it from the
surroundings

• if it loses energy, it
must lose it to the
surroundings
 Systems
Open System
Bomb
Calorimeter
is an
isolated
system
 Calculated Variables of a System

Thermal Energy: The sum of all kinetic energies of all

particles of a system (it cannot be measured!)

Temperature: A measure of the average kinetic

energy of all the particles of a system (it can be
measured!)

Since temperature is directly related to kinetic

energy, measuring the temperature before and after
a change provides an idea of the amount of heat
that entered or left the system
Calculating Heat Energy
We can calculate the heat energy of a system
using the following formula
Temperature

Temperature: A measure of the average kinetic

energy of the system
Directly related to heat transfer
Large change in temperature indicates a large
energy change
Measured as Change in Temperature (∆T)
∆T = Tf - Ti
Temperature
The Greek letter Delta Δ means change

If T is positive (the final temp is higher than the

initial temp), the system heated up and Q is
positive (heat entered the system)

If T is negative (the final temp is lower than the

initial temp), the system cooled down and Q is
negative (heat left the system)
 Mass of Substance

Mass directly related to heat transfer

Measured as mass (g)
Small mass vs. Large mass
 Specific Heat Capacity (c)

Will have an effect on amount of heat transferred

Specific Heat Capacity(c): The quantity of heat required
to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by
1°C large specific heat capacity means the substance
can absorb and release more energy than a small
value
symbol c, units
for water,
 Specific Heat Capacity (c)

Specific Heat Capacity is different for all

materials & must be determined experimentally
 Example
10.0 g of ice was added to 60.0 g of water. The initial
o
temperature of water was 26.5 C. The final
o
temperature of the mixture was 9.7 C. How much
heat was lost by the water? (Ans: 4213.4 J)
Laws of Thermodynamics
First Law of Thermodynamics: Energy can be
converted from one form to another, but cannot
be created or destroyed (Esystem = -Esurroundings)

The total amount of energy in the universe is

constant; Euniverse = constant, ΔEuniverse = 0

Euniverse = Euniverse + Esurroundings

Esystem = -Esurroundings energy lost by a system is

gained by the surroundings and vice versa
 Enthalpy (H)
Enthalpy (H): The total energy of the system, plus
the pressure times the volume (H = E + PV)

Also known as the heat content of a system

Is not affected by the conditions under which a

chemical reaction happens, it is an inherent
property of the system

Enthalpy cannot be measure, but ΔH can be

measured
 Enthalpy Change(ΔH)
Enthalpy Change (ΔH): The difference in enthalpies
of reactants and products during a change
(ΔH = ΔE + Δ PV)
The enthalpy change of a system equals the
quantity of heat that flows from the system to the
surroundings (exothermic reaction) or, from the
surroundings to the system (endothermic reaction)
This is all true as long as there is no significant
production of gas…or ΔPV = 0
 Enthalpy Change(ΔH)
We assume pressure and volume does not change
since it makes it difficult to compare Hreactants and
Hproducts
If ΔPV = 0, then ΔH = ΔE = Q = mcΔT
ΔHsystem = ± │qsurroundings│
• Absolute enthalpies of reactants and products can
never be measured
• However, the CHANGE in enthalpy can be
measured in a reaction
•ΔH = Hproducts - Hreactants
 Enthalpy Change (ΔH)
Consider the following reaction:
Zn + 2 HCl --> ZnCl2 + H2 + Heat

Initially, chemical potential energy of the system is

converted to kinetic energy of products

Eventually as molecules collide, this energy

is transferred to particles in the surrounding
The enthalpy change of the system is
equal to the heat released to the
environment
Enthalpy Change (ΔH)
ΔH = Hproducts - Hreactants
Endo- & Exothermic Reactions
Endothermic Reaction: System Absorbs thermal
energy (heat) as heat flows into a system
System gains energy from surroundings (*Energy
required to form new products is more than energy
provided by breaking bonds of reactants)
System increases in enthalpy (∆H
is positive)
Temperature of Surroundings
goes down (reaction vessel may
feel cold!)
Endo- & Exothermic Reactions
Exothermic Reaction: System releases thermal
energy as heat flows out of the system
System loses energy to surroundings (Energy
provided by breaking bonds of reactants is more than
what is needed to form new bonds in products)
System decreases in enthalpy (∆H
is negative)

Reaction is spontaneous & will

happen on its own when
reactants are mixed (no heating)
 Measuring Enthalpy Change

Using an isolated system, if we measure the heat

change in the surroundings, and consider the masses
and types of substances in the surroundings, we
should be able to calculate the enthalpy change of
the system
Must be a controlled measurement: Energy changes
in a chemical system are measured at SATP before
and after a reaction (25°C, 100 kPa)
 Laws of Thermodynamics
Second Law of Thermodynamics: When two objects
are in contact, heat flows from the hot object to the
cool object until both are at the same temperature
(heat flows from hot to cold!)

We call this “reaching thermal equilibrium”

Comparing Enthalpy Changes

There are 3 fundamental types of processes for

which enthalpy changes are considered: physical
changes, chemical changes and nuclear changes
 Physical Changes

A change that does not change chemical properties

Normally we consider: (1) Enthalpy of solution & (2)
Enthalpy of phase changes

Enthalpy of solution
(ΔHsolution): the enthalpy
change associated with a
solute dissolving in a solvent
 Physical Changes

Dissolving is a 3 step process:

1) Solute bonds must be broken

2) Solvent bonds must be broken

3) Bonds must form between
solvent and solute particles
 Physical Changes

Dissolving can be either exothermic or endothermic

(depending on the solute-solvent system)

Generally, energy is required to break bonds

(endothermic) & energy is released when bonds
form (exothermic)
The relative size of enthalpy change of the breaking
and forming bonds determined whether the whole
process of dissolving is endo- or exothermic
 Physical Changes
The relative sizes of the enthalpy of mixing and the sum of
the enthalpies of separating the particles determines if the
process of dissolving is endo- or exothermic (ΔHsolution =
ΔHsolvent + ΔHsolution)
 Physical Changes
Enthalpy of Phase Changes: The change in enthalpy when a
substance changes from one phase (liquid) to another (gas)

A large amount of heat must be added or removed for a

phase change to occur

ΔH°: The degree sign nought means standard conditions

(STP)
 Physical Changes
Enthalpy of Melting ΔH°melt: The energy needed to change
a solid into a liquid

Enthalpy of Vaporization ΔH°vap: The energy needed to

change a liquid into a gas

Enthalpy of Condensation ΔH°cond: The energy needed to

change a gas into a liquid

Enthalpy of Freezing ΔH°fre: The energy needed to change a

liquid into a solid
Physical Changes
Physical Changes
 Physical Changes
A - B: Ice absorbs energy and heats up from -25°C to 0°C

B - C: No change in temperature; energy used to break intermolecular bonds of

water

C - D: Energy used to heat

water

D - E: No change in
temperature, Energy used
to break intermolecular
bonds of water

E - F: Energy used to heat

the steam
 Chemical Changes
Every chemical reaction has an enthalpy change associated
with it
Enthalpy of a Chemical reaction ΔH°r: The energy change
associated with a chemical reaction

Note that ΔHᵒr in this case is negative

meaning that energy is released
through this reaction (exothermic)
 Nuclear Changes
Atoms of some radioactive elements emit particles and
become other elements

Beta particles (β): identical to electrons

Alpha particles (α): identical to helium nuclei with 2

protons and 2 neutrons

The mass of the products of a nuclear change is smaller

than original nucleus, missing mass converted to energy
2
(E =mc )
 Alpha Decay

When a nucleus emits an α alpha particle, the resulting

nucleus has 2 less protons and 2 less neutrons

Mass number reduced by 4 and atomic number reduced by

2
 Beta Decay

When a nucleus emits a β beta particle (electron), a

neutron in the nucleus becomes a proton

The nucleus has 1 less neutron and 1 more proton (mass

number stays the same; atomic number increases by 1)
 Nuclear Fission
A heavier nucleus splits into smaller lighter nuclei with
release of energy
When uranium-235 is smashed with a neutron, it fragments
into 2 smaller radioactive and unstable nuclei and releases
2
energy (use E=mc to calculate how much energy released)
 Nuclear Fusion

Two small nuclei combine to form a larger nucleus

Reaction that occurs in the Sun, provides energy to Earth

More energy released by fusion compared to fission and

Helium-4 is stable and not radioactive
Comparing Enthalpy Changes