Associations between

polymorphisms in the AHR and

CYP1A1- CYP1A2 gene regions
and habitual caffeine
consumption

Andrea R Josse, Laura A Da Costa,

Hannia Campos and Ahmed El-
Sohemy
What is CAFFEINE?
• Most widely consumed psychoactive
substance in the world. (90% adults)
• Coffee, tea, cola, chocolate & energy drinks

• Adverse- anxiety, restlessness, increased HR,

What are the physiologic effects tremors, agitation, nervousness, insomnia
of caffeine? • Pleasurable- alertness, elevated mood, increased
energy

Influences of habitual caffeine consumption?

1. Lifestyle
2. Genetic
3. Sociodemographic
4. Environmental
5. OCP use
Have there been studies done on this before?
GWAS ( genome wide association study) for 4 candidate SNP (AHR & CYP1A1-CYP1A2) associated with
habitual caffeine consumption

>40,000 14 different cohort studies of population of European decent.

>400mg/d ( heavy consumers ) likely to have C,T, or T allele for both AHR & CYP1A1-CYP1A2.

What is the purpose of this study?

1. The same 4 SNPs ( AHR: rs696885, rs4410790: CYP1A1-CYP1A2: rs2472297, rs2470893) association
with habitual caffeine consumption in COSTA RICAN POPULATION.

2. Another 6 additional tag SNPs in the AHR gene association with habitual caffeine consumption.

3. The effects of age, sex and smoking status as effect modifiers was also studied.
Which genes were studied and why?
AHR Codes for AHR central role in metabolism of xenobiotics.
Induces gene transcription for both CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 by binding to promoter region
between them.

CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 Close proximity to each other.

Both code for enzymes that are part of cytochrome P450 enzyme family that
metabolizes common medications, carcinogens, toxins.

CYP1A2 Main enzyme to metabolize caffeine to dimethylxanthine metabolites ( theobromine,

paraxanthine, theophylline)
95% hepatic caffeine clearance.
Varies widely between individuals. Also regulates consumption behavior.

CYP1A1 Metabolizes other assoc. molecules ( polycyclic aromatic HC in coffee)

Methodology
§ Subjects were chosen from a previously done case control study of gene diet interactions & MI.
§ Subjects were from 36 Costa Rican counties (from Central Valley) from a range of socioeconomic
backgrounds. Hispanic Americans.

Excluded : 1. History of HTN ( Caffeine to physician's advice) n=1692

2. Missing information on smoking status n=4

3. Missing info. on caffeine intake n=4

4. Couldn’t be genotyped for a particular SNP n=389,311 (AHR gene)

n=342,238 (CYP1A1-A2)

After these exclusions, no: of subjects included in final analysis of each SNP:
§ 2 SNP near AHR ; rs6968865 (n=2523) & rs4410790 (n=2601)
§ 2 SNP in CYP1A1-CYP1A2 region ; rs2472297 (n=2570) & rs2470893 (n=2674)
 Methodology
C A F F E I N E I N TA K E D E T E R M I N TA I O N
Semiquantitative FFQ with 135 items to assess dietary
intake
Responses to questions on caffeinated coffee, tea, cola
and chocolate intake were assessed
Total caffeine intake was calculated
4 categories: <100, 100-200, >200-400, >400
mg/d
G E N OT Y P I N G
DNA from blood samples
iPLEX Gold assay mass spectrometry-based
detection
2 SNP near AHR ; rs6968865 & rs4410790
2 SNP in CYP1A1-CYP1A2 region ; rs2472297
& rs2470893
Add. 6 SNP near AHR gene using Haploview
software and the HapMap catalog were
genotyped in the muliplex reaction
How was data analysis done?
§ SAS software
§ Chi square test (1 df )
2 sided, & P<0.05
To assess if genotype distribution deviated
from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium in control
subjects.

1. Participants stratified by smoking status subject characteristics compared between groups (univariate ANOVA for continuous variables)
(Pearson’s chi-square test for categorical
variables)

2. Analysis of 2 AHR SNPs & 2 CYP1A1-CYP1A2 grouping of minor allele ( to see if hcc was assoc. with having the minor allele)

( <100mg/d Lowest category as reference)

3. 6 tag SNPs also analyzed in same manner

4. Analysis Stratifications: • Smoking status ( Never+Past or Current)

• Median age ( <57 or >57 )
• Sex ( or )

§ Covariates that differed between smoking and non-smoking (N+P) were analyzed

§ Comparing of mean caffeine intake between genotypes ( BOTH BEFORE & AFTER stratification by smoking status & age)

§ Caffeine x Smoking & Caffeine x Age

§ Genotype x Smoking x Age

Results - Subject characteristics stratified by smoking status
Nonsmokers (n = Current smokers
Characteristics P
1639) (n = 884)
Age (y) 58.4 ± 11.22 54.4 ± 11.2 <0.001
Sex (M) [n (%)] 1238 (76) 790 (89) <0.001
BMI (kg/m2) 26.0 ± 3.8 24.6 ± 3.9 <0.001
Waist-to-hip ratio
Men 0.98 ± 0.06 0.98 ± 0.06 0.11
Women 0.88 ± 0.07 0.89 ± 0.06 0.43
Urban/suburban
1177 (72) 672 (76) 0.024
residence [n (%)]
Current alcohol
613 (37) 466 (53) <0.001
Age & BMI Smokers < Non- Smokers
consumer [n (%)]
Income ($/mo) 571 ± 423 491 ± 364 <0.001
Secondary education
656 (40) 355 (40) 0.95
or higher [n (%)]
Physical activity
1.6 ± 0.7 1.7 ± 0.9 0.056
(METs)3
No history of , Urban residence, R-OH, No Hx. of DM, Non- Smokers < Smokers
1412 (86) 793 (90) 0.01
diabetes [n (%)]
Caffeine intake
Caffeine intake, Total Energy, Sucrose intake
316 ± 180 444 ± 222 <0.001
(mg/d)
Energy (kcal/d) 2535 ± 801 2740 ± 964 <0.001
Sucrose (g/d) 77.8 ± 43 84.8 ± 55 0.015
Percentage of total
energy from fat (per 32 ± 6 32 ± 6 0.59
day)
• TABLE 1
• Subject characteristics by smoking status
• P values were derived by using the chi-square test with 1 df for categorical variables and
ANOVA for continuous variables. Continuous variables were log transformed before analysis if not
normally distributed.
• Mean ± SD (all such values).
• METs, metabolic equivalent tasks.
Results - Effect of caffeine intake on genotypes of 4 candidate SNP
In CYP1A1-CYP1A2 region:
Caffeine intake

SNPs and genotypes <100 mg/d 100–200 mg/d >200–400 mg/d >400 mg/d

rs4410790 T>C

TT [n (%)] 111 (46) 175 (47) 619 (43) 212 (37) 1 SNP rs2470893
TC+CC [n (%)] 129 (54) 200 (53) 807 (57) 348 (62) No association with habitual caffeine consumption
OR (95% CI) 1.00 0.98 (0.71, 1.36) 1.12 (0.85, 1.48) 1.41 (1.04, 1.92)

rs6968865 A>T
1 SNP rs2472297
AA [n (%)] 105 (46) 165 (46) 611 (44) 204 (38)
>400mg/d caffeine consumption more likely T allele
AT+TT [n (%)] 121 (54) 196 (54) 789 (56) 332 (62)

OR (95% CI) 1.00 1.03 (0.74, 1.44) 1.12 (0.85, 1.49) 1.41 (1.03, 1.93)

rs2472297 C>T

CC [n (%)] 203 (86) 305 (82) 1162 (82) 433 (80)

In AHR :
CT+TT [n (%)] 33 (14) 67 (18) 258 (18) 109 (20)

OR (95% CI) 1.00 1.35 (0.86, 2.13) 1.37 (0.92, 2.02) 1.55 (1.01, 2.36)

rs2470893 A>G

GG [n (%)] 197 (80) 302 (79) 1160 (79) 439 (77) 2 SNPs rs6968865 & rs4410790
GA+AA [n (%)] 48 (20) 82 (21) 313 (21) 7133 (23) >400mg/d caffeine consumption more likely C or T allele
OR (95% CI) 1.00 1.11 (0.75, 1.66) 1.11 (0.79, 1.56) 1.24 (0.86, 1.80) <100mg/d caffeine consumption less likely C or T allele
• TABLE 2
• Unadjusted ORs (95% CIs) of the effect of caffeine intake on genotype
in 2 AHR SNPs (rs4410790 and rs6968865) and 2 CYP1A1-CYP1A2 SNPs For 6 tag SNPs in AHR
(rs2472297 and rs2470893) from GWASs
NO significant differences were detected in genotype frequencies across
• Results were determined by using logistic regression. GWAS, genome-
wide association study; SNP, single nucleotide polymorphism. caffeine consumption categories
Results – Association between caffeine intake & T allele in rs6968865 SNP of AHR in whole
population; stratified by smoking status, age, sex.
rs6968865 A>T
Caffeine intake AA AT+TT Model 1 Model 2
n (%) n (%) OR (95% CI) OR (95% CI)
All subjects
<100 mg/d 105 (46) 121 (54) 1.00 1.00
100–200 mg/d 165 (46) 196 (54) 1.03 (0.74, 1.44) 1.00 (0.72, 1.41)
>200–400 mg/d 611 (44) 789 (56) 1.12 (0.85, 1.49) 1.10 (0.83, 1.47)
>400 mg/d
Nonsmokers2
204 (38) 332 (62) 1.41 (1.03, 1.93) 1.44 (1.03, 2.00)
Stratification by smoking status & median age (57 yrs.)
<100 mg/d 88 (47) 98 (53) 1.00 1.00
100–200 mg/d 135 (47) 152 (53) 1.01 (0.70, 1.46) 1.00 (0.69, 1.45)
>200–400 mg/d 414 (44) 532 (56) 1.15 (0.84, 1.58) 1.15 (0.84, 1.59)
>400 mg/d
Current smokers
76 (35) 144 (65) 1.70 (1.14, 2.54) 1.75 (1.16, 2.65)
§ Presence of T allele in subjects who consumed >400mg/d
<100 mg/d
100–200 mg/d
17 (43)
30 (41)
23 (57)
44 (59)
1.00
1.08 (0.50, 2.37)
1.00
1.18 (0.52, 2.64) of caffeine were significant in non-smokers and older
adults. (When compared to those who consumed
>200–400 mg/d 197 (43) 257 (57) 0.96 (0.50, 1.85) 1.00 (0.51, 1.97)
>400 mg/d 128 (41) 188 (59) 1.09 (0.56, 2.11) 1.15 (0.58, 2.30)
Age ≤57 y
<100 mg/d
100–200 mg/d
55 (43)
93 (51)
72 (57)
90 (49)
1.00
0.74 (0.47, 1.17)
1.00
0.73 (0.46, 1.17)
<100mg/d)
>200–400 mg/d 300 (46) 352 (54) 0.90 (0.61, 1.32) 0.91 (0.62, 1.35)
>400 mg/d 139 (44) 179 (56) 0.98 (0.65, 1.49) 1.00 (0.65, 1.56)
Age >57 y2
<100 mg/d 50 (51) 49 (49) 1.00 1.00 § No significant associations were observed after
stratification by sex.
100–200 mg/d 72 (40) 106 (60) 1.50 (0.92, 2.46) 1.51 (0.91, 2.50)
>200–400 mg/d 311 (42) 437 (58) 1.43 (0.94, 2.18) 1.44 (0.94, 2.21)
>400 mg/d 65 (30) 153 (70) 2.40 (1.47, 3.92) 2.42 (1.45, 4.04)
Sex (M)
<100 mg/d 81 (46) 94 (54) 1.00 1.00
100–200 mg/d 120 (46) 139 (54) 1.00 (0.70, 1.47) 0.98 (0.66, 1.45)
>200–400 mg/d 482 (43) 633 (57) 1.13 (0.82, 1.56) 1.12 (0.81, 1.55)
>400 mg/d 183 (38) 296 (62) 1.39 (0.98, 1.98) 1.43 (0.99, 2.07)
Sex (F)
<100 mg/d 24 (47) 27 (53) 1.00 1.00
100–200 mg/d 45 (44) 57 (56) 1.13 (0.57, 2.21) 1.01 (0.50, 2.04)
>200–400 mg/d 129 (45) 156 (55) 1.08 (0.59, 1.95) 1.00 (0.54, 1.87)
>400 mg/d 21 (37) 36 (63) 1.52 (0.71, 3.29) 1.42 (0.63, 3.20)
TABLE 4
Unadjusted and adjusted ORs and 95% CIs for the association between caffeine intake and the T allele in the rs6968865 SNP of AHR in
the whole population and stratified by smoking status, age, and sex1
Results were determined by using logistic regression. Model 1 was unadjusted, and model 2 was adjusted for age, sex, smoking,
history of diabetes, education, area of residence, BMI, physical activity (metabolic equivalent tasks), alcohol, energy, sucrose, and
percentage of energy from fat. SNP, single nucleotide polymorphism.
P = 0.04 for caffeine × smoking interaction and P = 0.007 for caffeine × age interaction determined by using the −2log-ratio test.
Similarities between this study and previous GWAS

§ Even though this study was carried out on an ethnoculturally different population, 2 SNP
near AHR and 1 in the CYP1A1-CYP1A2 showed association with habitual caffeine
consumption.

§ Heavy consumers of caffeine >400mg/d were more likely to have the C,T or T allele (than
ancestral homozygous genotype), when compared to 100mg/d for both SNPs in AHR and
only one SNP in genotype rs22472297 of CYP1A1-CYP1A2 region.

§ Same findings in accordance with one GWAS: where no association was observed between
genotype and caffeine intake in current smokers.

§ Mean difference in caffeine intake for rs4410790 (AHR region) in genotypes between (TT &
CC+CT) for one GWAS meta-study = 24.4. In this study = 23 mg/d. Therefore, in both
studies, the TT group was more likely to consume less caffeine than was the CC+CT group.
For this particular SNP.
Differences between this study and previous GWAS

§ Only one out of the 4 SNPs: No association in this cohort between genotype & caffeine intake for
rs2470893 A>G polymorphism in CYP1A1-CYP1A2.

§ Significant association observed only in non-smokers and older adults (>57 yrs.) for SNP near AHR.

§ After stratification by smoking status & median age; presence of T allele was significant in those with
>400mg/d caffeine intake vs. <100mg/d caffeine intake.

§ 6 other tag SNP in AHR which were examined NO association with habitual caffeine
consumption in Costa Rican population.
 More findings in this study…

§ Smoking and young age may have masked the effect of genotype on caffeine consumption for AHR SNPs.

BECAUSE Chemicals in cigarette smoke directly affect the AHR CYP1A2 activity Caffeine clearance

§ Other factors such as Sociodemographic, economic, environmental stresses and pressure on younger adults may
cause them to consume more caffeine BUT these factors maybe stronger drivers of behavior than genotype.

§ Individuals who smoke tend to consume greater amounts of caffeine. Not assoc. with genotype.
Unhealthy Behavior driven.

§ Without the stimulus of smoking and other environmental factors (stress & pressures) associated with younger
age, subpopulations of non-smokers and older adults have AHR gene variants that have a significant effect on
caffeine consumption.
FINAL CONCLUSION

§ In Costa Rican population, caffeine consumption behavior is associated with 3

SNPs from the gene regions AHR, CYP1A1-CYP1A2 that have an effect on caffeine
metabolism.

§ These associations suggest that a possible variation in the rate of caffeine

metabolism may influence consumption behavior.

§ After stratification, significant association in AHR SNPS were observed in non-

smokers and subjects who were older than the median age of 57 yrs.