LARGE-SCALE CYCLE ARCHITECTURE IN CONTINENTAL STRATA, HORNELEN BASIN
(DEVONIAN), NORWAY
DONNA S. ANDERSON AND TIMOTHY A. CROSS
Department of Geology and Geological Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401, U.S.A.
ABSTRACT: Nine large-scale stratigraphic cycles, each about 100 m
thick, along the northern margin of the Hornelen basin, western Nor-
way, record systematic expansions and contractions of alluvial-fan,
braidplain, and lake facies tracts. The braidplain facies tract occupies
the basin center, from time to time expanding toward the margins, and
constitutes the deposits of axial or longitudinal drainage from an east-
ern source. The alluvial-fan facies tract, which comprises the deposits
of high-gradient transverse drainages, occupies a narrow belt close to
the fault-bounded basin margin. The lake facies tract is between the
alluvial-fan and braidplain facies tracts.
Physical correlation of strata shows that the large-scale cycles are
symmetric in all facies tracts. The symmetry of the large-scale cycles,
in which the base-level rise and fall hemicycles of each cycle are of
approximately the same thickness, indicates that sediment accumulated
in all environments during the entire base-level cycle. Absence of re-
gional unconformities (sequence boundaries) also indicates approxi-
mately continuous sediment accumulation in the basin during base-
level cycles. The base-level fall-to-rise turnaround is represented by an
interval of strata, rather than by a sequence boundary, at the maxi-
mum expansion of the alluvial-fan facies tract. Condensed sections are
also absent. They are represented mainly by intervals of lake strata at
base-level rise-to-fall turnarounds.
Strata in the base-level fall hemicycle (decreasing accommodation)
accumulated as the braidplain and alluvial-fan facies tracts expanded
from the basin center and the northern basin margin, respectively.
Expansions of these two facies tracts filled the basin, while the lake
facies tract contracted. Strata in the base-level rise hemicycle accu-
mulated as the alluvial-fan and braidplain facies tracts contracted
sourceward, respectively toward the northern and eastern basin mar-
gins, during times of increasing accommodation. This sourceward re-
treat of the alluvial-fan and braidplain facies tracts was coincident with
expansion of the lake facies tract. At the rise-to-fall turnarounds, al-
luvial-fan and braidplain sediments are stored near their respective
sources toward the basin margins, and the centers of mass of these
facies tracts are at basin-margin positions. During base-level fall time,
the centers of mass of the alluvial-fan and braidplain facies tracts mi-
grate basinward.
The alluvial-fan and braidplain facies tracts usually expand toward
each other simultaneously, and then move away from each other si-
multaneously. This in-phase relationship is replaced by a reciprocal
stacking pattern when the two facies tracts abut each other near base-
level fall-to-rise turnarounds. When the two facies tracts are in contact,
the higher-gradient alluvial-fan facies tract initially blocks expansion
of the braidplain. As the alluvial-fan facies tract retreats toward the
basin margin and fan-margin gradients are reduced, however, the
braidplain expands across former fan margins. In the reciprocal con-
figuration, the two facies tracts move in tandem in the same direction.
This reciprocal pattern plus changes in aggradation-to-progradation
ratio of the alluvial-fan facies tract suggest that alluvial-fan morphol-
ogy changes during base-level cycles.
Large-scale cycle stacking patterns show significant changes in ba-
sin-fill architecture through time, including syndepositional structural
changes accompanied by changes in stratal geometries, a change from
ephemeral to permanent lakes, permanent increase in alluvial-fan gra-
dients, and permanent reduction of alluvial-fan radii and volume at
JOURNAL OF SEDIMENTARY RESEARCH, VOL. 71, NO. 2, MARCH, 2001, P. 255–271
Copyright q 2001, SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology) 1073-130X/01/071-255/$03.00
the northern basin margin. Consideration of these changes and the
largely in-phase relationships between facies tracts sourced by two sep-
arate sediment supplies suggest that an interplay of climate, self-reg-
ulatory, and tectonic factors controlled sedimentary accumulation
within the Hornelen basin.
INTRODUCTION
Continental strata of the Hornelen basin, western Norway, are conspic-
uously cyclic because of modern ridge-and-valley topography produced by
differential erosion of the resistant alluvial-fan and braidplain facies tracts
and the less resistant lake facies tract. These large-scale (about 100 m thick)
cycles are continuous across the small basin through all three facies tracts.
Easy recognition and continuity provide a robust frame of reference for
correlation and stratigraphic analysis, and excellent outcrops allow detailed
mapping of facies and facies tracts within these time-bounded stratigraphic
units.
Detailed maps are the basis for learning how sedimentary and strati-
graphic attributes change through the three scales of cycles identified. The
maps show regular, repeated stacking patterns of facies tracts within large-
scale cycles, and similar basin-scale stacking patterns of the large-scale
cycles. The stacking patterns of facies tracts reflect both in-phase and re-
ciprocal expansions and contractions of alluvial-fan, braidplain, and lake
facies tracts. During the migration of these environments, differential sed-
iment volumes accumulate in the corresponding facies tracts and centers
of mass for each facies tract migrate accordingly.
We ascribe systematic stratigraphic changes to changing accommodation
and sediment supply during stratigraphic base-level cycles. Within this
frame of reference we examine the organized changes of a variety of other
sedimentological and stratigraphic attributes to understand the stratigraphic
responses to linear and nonlinear dynamic controls. The fortuitous occur-
rence of two different sediment sources and transport directions in different
facies tracts allows us to discriminate increases and decreases in sediment
supply (climatic causation?) from tectonically induced changes in accom-
modation. We also distinguish modifications in size, shape and position of
the alluvial-fan and braidplain facies tracts as a response to self-organized
critical behavior rather than as a direct response to a forcing function. We
suggest that simultaneously operating climatic, and tectonic factors in ad-
dition to self-organized critical behavior, control attributes of stratigraphic
cycles in the Hornelen and other continental basins.
BACKGROUND
The Hornelen basin, west-central Norway, is a small, rectangular basin
25 km wide by 60 km long. It contains a thick (25 km) sedimentary suc-
cession relative to its area, much like the Ridge basin of California (Crowell
1974; Steel 1976; Crowell 1982; Hossack 1984; May et al. 1993), the
Furnace Creek basin of Death Valley, California (Blair and Raynolds
1999), and the Miocene Horse Camp basin in east-central Nevada (Horton
and Schmitt 1996). Age control in the Hornelen basin is sparse. Strata in
the Hornelen basin are assigned to the Middle Devonian on the basis of
limited assemblages of Crossopterygian fish and psilophyte plants in the
youngest part of the basin fill (reported in Holtedahl 1960; Steel 1976;
Spjeldnaes 1985). Except for cooling ages on metamorphic clasts (Cuthbert
1991), no isotopic ages have been reported from Hornelen basin strata. If
256 D.S. ANDERSON AND T.A. CROSS
the sedimentary section in the Hornelen basin accumulated during the full
span of the Middle Devonian (duration 10 to 15 My), the sediment accu-
mulation rate is between 1.6 and 2.5 m/ky. This rate is comparable to rates
estimated for the vastly better age-constrained Ridge basin (1 to 3.3 m/ky;
Ensley and Verosub 1982; Nilsen and McLaughlin 1985).
Tectonic Setting
The Hornelen basin formed during a period of regional extension fol-
lowing the Caledonian orogeny (Silurian) induced by collision of the Eur-
asian and North American plates. Numerous Early to Late Devonian (Old
Red Sandstone) extensional basins in Scotland, the North Sea, eastern
Greenland, and western Norway formed during this extensional episode
(Bryhni and Sturt 1985; Steel et al. 1985; Serranne and Seguret 1987).
Hossack (1984) and McClay et al. (1986) compare the Devonian tectonic
style of post-Caledonide extension to that of post-Laramide Tertiary core-
complex extension of the western U.S. Although many aspects of basement
tectonics differ (e.g., Seranne and Seguret 1987; Andersen and Jamtveit
1990; Wilks and Cuthbert 1994), formation of rapidly subsiding extensional
to transtensional basins filled with thick accumulations of continental strata
are common to both post-Caledonian and post-Laramide basins. In west-
central Norway, the Hornelen basin is the largest and northernmost in a
series of structurally linked extensional basins that formed between 387
and 375 Ma (Steel 1976; Hossack 1984; Steel et al. 1985; Seranne and
Seguret 1987; Wilks and Cuthbert 1994). Each basin comprises a west
facing, scoop-shaped half graben separated by east-west trending lateral
ramps on a west-verging regional detachment fault.
Laterally connected faults bound the Hornelen basin on three sides (Fig.
1). The eastern bounding fault is a normal, dip-slip fault that dips 158 west
and coincides with a regional detachment system (Cuthbert 1991; Wilks
and Cuthbert 1994). It places younger (Middle Devonian) sedimentary
rocks on older (Silurian) mylonitic basement rocks. Oblique-slip faults on
the north and south sides of the basin dip steeply (508 to 608) toward the
basin center and sole into the eastern bounding fault at depth. Approxi-
mately 50 km of dextral slip on the northern bounding fault corresponds
to westward heave on the regional detachment system (Wilks and Cuthbert
1994). The two oblique-slip faults do not precisely coincide with the syn-
sedimentary basin-bounding detachment fault. They are considered post-
Middle Devonian from crosscutting relationships in basement rocks and
paleomagnetic data from Hornelen basin strata (Wilks and Cuthbert 1994;
Torsvik et al. 1988). Sedimentary strata folded about east-west axes during
the Late Devonian were subsequently refaulted and fractured during the
Mesozoic.
FIG. 1.—Location of the Hornelen Basin and
study area. Dominant sediment transport via
braided rivers in the basin was axial from east to
west. Fan-sediment transport on the northern
margin was from north to south, perpendicular to
the axial braidplain. The study area incorporates
a change from dominantly alluvial-fan and
braidplain strata to dominantly alluvial-fan and
lake strata adjacent to the northern basin margin.
Paleocurrent directions are from trough cross-
stratification and conglomerate imbrication.
Geology is from Kildal (1970), Steel and
Aasheim (1978), Fossen (1992), Andersen and
Jamtveit (1990), and Anderson (1997b).
Study Area and Methods
A 2 km by 4 km study area (Figs. 1, 2) occupies a glacially scoured
topographic bench in the north-central Hornelen basin. Outcrops extend
from the faulted northern basin margin southwest 4 km toward the basin
center. Outcrop exposure in the study area ranges from 25% to 100% and
averages 50%. The study area encompasses about 1000 m of stratigraphic
section, interpreted to include nine large-scale (each about 100 m thick)
stratigraphic cycles containing alluvial-fan, lake, and braidplain deposits
(Anderson 1997b). Strata in the study area are folded into a nearly upright
anticline that trends obliquely to the northern basin-bounding fault (Fig. 2;
Wilks and Cuthbert 1994; Anderson 1997b). The north limb of the anticline
strikes north–northeast and dips 608 to 708 east. The south limb strikes
west then west–southwest as it bends into a broad, east-plunging basin-
center syncline (Fig. 1). Strata on the south limb, which constitute most of
the rocks in the study area, dip 608 south. Aerial photographs and field
mapping show that strata in the study area are not disrupted by large-scale
fault offsets (Fig. 2).
Study methods included regional (1:25,000) and detailed (1:800) map-
ping of strata of the alluvial-fan, lake, and braidplain facies tracts. More
than 1500 m of stratigraphic sections were measured at scales ranging from
1:65 and 1:160 (section locations in Fig. 2; data in Anderson 1997b). In
an area informally called the Gun Club (Fig. 2), nearly 100%-exposed
outcrops display the laterally interfingering relationships of alluvial-fan,
braidplain, and lake strata. In this 700 m by 250 m area, the distributions
and contact relationships of 16 facies were mapped at 1:800. Gloppen and
Steel (1981) refer to the same area as the ‘‘Nibbevatnet fan delta.’’
Facies Tracts and Linkages
Strata in the Hornelen basin are composed of three facies tracts: alluvial
fan, lake, and braidplain. The alluvial-fan facies tract occupies a narrow
belt adjacent to the basin margins (Fig. 1). Conglomeratic alluvial-fan sed-
iment was transported perpendicularly away from the faulted basin margins
and toward the basin axis (Gloppen and Steel 1981; Larsen and Steel 1978;
Pollard et al. 1982; Nilsen and McLaughlin 1985). By contrast the braid-
plain facies tract occupies a broad area across the basin (Fig. 1). Previous
investigations showed that braided-stream sandstones were transported
from the east longitudinally down the axis of the basin (Bryhni 1964; Steel
and Aasheim 1978; Nilsen and McLaughlin 1985; Folkestad 1995). The
lake facies tract usually occupied a restricted zone along the northern mar-
gin of the Hornelen basin (Fig. 1). At times, however, a large lake probably
covered most of the basin, as discussed in this study.
 LARGE-SCALE CYCLE ARCHITECTURE IN CONTINENTAL STRATA, HORNELEN BASIN (DEVONIAN), NORWAY
Linkages of the depositional environments at a snapshot in time are
shown in Figure 3 for the northern half of the Hornelen basin. The config-
uration is much like that recognized by previous workers (Bryhni 1964;
Steel 1976; Steel et al. 1977; Steel and Gloppen 1980; Nilsen and Mc-
Laughlin 1985; Cuthbert 1991). Alluvial-fan facies interfingered with
sandy-braidplain and lake or floodbasin facies (Gloppen and Steel 1981).
Ephemeral lakes and floodbasins occupied a geographic position between
the alluvial fans and the axial part of the braidplain (Steel and Aasheim
1978; Larsen and Steel 1978; Pollard et al. 1982; Nilsen and McLaughlin
1985; Olsen 1987). Sometimes the alluvial fans prograded into these lakes
and floodbasins, forming fan deltas. The axial braidplain contributed sed-
iment to the same lakes from the south and east sides (Pollard et al. 1982;
Olsen 1987), forming braid deltas. Periodically lakes disappeared as the
axial braidplain expanded to the toes of subaerial alluvial fans (Bryhni
1978; Olsen 1984; Wilks and Cuthbert 1994).
A dramatic contrast in average grain size between the alluvial-fan and
braidplain facies tracts reflects the orthogonal transport directions and con-
trasting transport distances of the two facies tracts. The average grain size
of alluvial-fan facies tract is medium pebble with a range of medium sand
to coarse cobble, using the classification of Blair and McPherson (1999).
257
FIG. 2.—A and B) Aerial photograph and
geologic map of the study area are shown at the
same scale. Both figures are oriented with
youngest strata toward the top of page, as are
subsequent figures showing the mapped units.
For reference, a dashed black and white line
marks the boundary between large-scale cycles 6
and 7. A) Thin gray bands on the west (right)
edge of the photograph are ridges composed of
braidplain facies. Dark bands are valleys
composed of lake facies. White patches with
prominent fracture sets at north (bottom) edge of
the photograph are conglomerates of the alluvial-
fan facies tract. The northern basin-margin
bounding fault is within the dark shadows at the
bottom of the photograph. Photograph from
Fjellanger Widerøe, Oslo, Norway. B) Geologic
map of the study area is based on regional and
detailed mapping. Most strata in the study area
occupy the steeply dipping south limb of a
nearly upright anticline. Because of steep dips,
the map is a slightly exaggerated (1.25x) cross
section. The structural pin line is used for
palinspastic reconstructions shown in Figures 11
and 12.
The average grain size of the braidplain facies tract, however, is fine sand
with a range of very fine to coarse sand. The contrast is a consequence of
two geographically distinct but compositionally similar source areas. The
source area for the alluvial-fan facies tract consists of local highlands along
the tectonically active basin margin (Fig. 3). Coarse-grained alluvial-fan
sediments were transported transversely basinward across steep gradients
for short distances. By contrast braidplain sediment was derived from a
distant eastern source (Fig. 3) and transported across relatively low gradi-
ents over long distances.
Each facies tract consists of three to seven facies (Table 1). Facies of
the alluvial-fan facies tract include both subaerial and subaqueous alluvial-
fan deposits recognized in this study and by previous workers (Larsen and
Steel 1978; Gloppen and Steel 1981; Nemec et al. 1984). These facies
consist mostly of pebble and cobble conglomerates, which were largely
deposited by debris-flow processes. In some cases, the tops of debris-flow
deposits were reworked by subsequent clear-water traction flows across
subaerial alluvial-fan surfaces, creating crudely to well-stratified conglom-
erate facies (Table 1). Facies of the braidplain facies tract, also described
by previous workers (Steel and Aasheim 1977; Pollard et al. 1982; Nemec
et al. 1984; Olsen 1987; Folkestad 1995), consist of dominantly trough
258 D.S. ANDERSON AND T.A. CROSS
cross-stratified medium sandstone representing channel-fill and bar deposits
of braided rivers. Most lake facies recognized in this study and by previous
investigators (Pollard et al. 1982; Olsen 1987) consist of thin-bedded, fine
to very fine massive sandstone deposited from subaqueous, sandy sediment
gravity flows. Although mostly derived from the braidplain facies tract, as
shown by tracing facies changes through many beds of braidplain directly
into lake deposits (Anderson 1997a, 1997b), some lake beds are derived
from the alluvial-fan facies tract. Facies are not described more completely
herein because descriptions and maps of the facies tracts are sufficient for
the ensuing discussion.
Cycle Hierarchy and Symmetry
Three scales of stratigraphic cycles are recognized within the Hornelen
basin and mapped in the study area (Anderson 1997b). Criteria for rec-
ognition include facies successions within and among facies tracts, chang-
ing proportions of facies tracts in stratigraphic sections, and lateral changes
in positions of facies tracts in cross-section view. These criteria define local
and regional scales of change in stratigraphic base level (sensu Wheeler
1964; Cross and Homewood 1997). Large-scale cycles, 80 to 120 m thick,
are composed of intermediate-scale cycles 8 to 35 m thick. They are defined
by lateral shifts in facies tracts, changing widths of facies tracts, stacking
patterns of intermediate-scale cycles, and fortuitously by modern topo-
graphic expression (see below). Intermediate-scale cycles are composed of
small-scale cycles 4 to 10 m thick. Intermediate and small-scale cycles are
defined by detailed analysis of facies successions within and among facies
tracts (Anderson 1997b), whereas large-scale cycles are adequately defined
by analysis of facies tracts as a whole.
Stratigraphic cycles of any scale can be described with four mappable
components of stratigraphic base level: fall and rise hemicycles, and fall-
to-rise and rise-to-fall turnarounds. A simple triangle notation graphically
portrays these components (Fig. 4). A triangle pointing down represents a
fall hemicycle; a triangle pointing up represents a rise hemicycle. The
height or thickness of a rise or fall hemicycle is proportional to the thick-
FIG. 3.—The configuration of environments in
the north half of the Hornelen Basin at a
snapshot in time is dominated by an axial
braidplain and braid delta terminating eastward
into a lake. The study area, which is at a
relatively fixed position along the northern basin
margin, is shown at a position where fan deltas,
lakes, and braid deltas coexist. Depending on
geographic location, alluvial fans along the
northern basin margin abut the distal edges of
the subaerial braidplain, or they form fan deltas
where they terminate into the lake. Positions of
fan-toe slope-break inflections coincide with
abrupt facies changes.
ness of strata that accumulated during periods of base-level rise and fall,
respectively. When the fall and rise hemicycles are of subequal thickness,
the cycle is symmetric (Fig. 4). When the rise hemicycle is absent, the
cycle is termed fall-asymmetric. Conversely, when the fall hemicycle is
absent, the cycle is rise-asymmetric. The intersections of triangles, termed
turnarounds, represent the changeovers from base level rise-to-fall and from
fall-to-rise within cycles (Fig. 4). In purely asymmetric cycles, the two
turnaround positions coincide. Within the same cycles, turnarounds repre-
sent correlative stratigraphic positions across facies tracts.
Stratigraphic cycles and their symmetries can be recognized by vertical
facies successions, because vertical successions are one-dimensional sam-
ples of areal migrations and expansions and contractions of facies tracts
through time (Fig. 4). Geomorphic environments, and the preserved facies
tracts that represent them, occupy discrete or overlapping positions on de-
positional profiles. This is most easily understood (and commonly por-
trayed) for continental-to-marine transitions where continental environ-
ments are uphill from marine environments. Vertical facies successions of
marine and continental transitions may record a history of shallowing (pro-
gradation and regression) or deepening (aggradation and transgression). We
apply the same type of reasoning and method of analysis to continental
environments.
Continental facies tracts represent environments that occupied positions
on a depositional profile. Such positions describe uphill/downhill, up-gra-
dient/down-gradient, proximal/distal, or higher gradient/lower gradient re-
lations (Fig. 4). Stratigraphic base-level fall hemicycles are created by high-
er gradient (proximal, uphill, or up-gradient) facies tracts moving down
toward lower gradient (distal, downhill, or down-gradient) positions. This
down-gradient movement of environments is recorded stratigraphically by
a vertical succession of facies tracts representing lower-gradient (downhill
or distal) to higher-gradient (uphill or proximal) environments. The time
of base-level fall corresponds to decreasing conditions of accommodation
space relative to incoming sediment supply (A/S ratio). A general decrease
in facies diversity and proportion of preserved, original geomorphic ele-
 LARGE-SCALE CYCLE ARCHITECTURE IN CONTINENTAL STRATA, HORNELEN BASIN (DEVONIAN), NORWAY 259

TABLE 1.—Facies of the alluvial-fan, lake, and braidplain facies tracts.

Sedimentary Fabric Hydrodynamic Depositional

Facies Tract Facies Lithology Bed or Set Thickness and Structures Interpretation Environment
Alluvial Fan Stratified Conglomer- Moderately sorted, peb- 50 to 100 cm Imbricate, clast-supported, no Traction-reworked debris- Subaerial alluvial fan
ate ble to cobble cgl mud matrix; low-angle flow
stratification
Conglomerate Cou- Moderately and bimodal- 50 to 100 cm Imbricate, clast-supported, no Traction-reworked debris- Subaerial alluvial fan
plets ly sorted, pebble to mud matrix; alternating flow
cobble cgl beds of pebbles and cob-
bles
Disorganized Con- Poorly sorted pebble to 15 to 200 cm Non-imbricate, clast-support- Clast-rich debris flow Subaerial alluvial fan
glomerate cobble cgl ed, no mud matrix
Sandy Disorganized Poorly sorted pebble to 10 to 50 cm Non-imbricate, clast-support- Clast-rich debris flow Subaerial alluvial fan
Conglomerate cobble cgl with abun- ed, no mud-matrix
dant, discontinuous
fine to medium ss
lenses
Graded Conglomer- Poorly sorted, fine to 10 to 50 cm Normally graded, pebble to Sandy debris-flow Transitional alluvial fan–fan
ate-Sandstone coarse ss and pebble to cobble base overlain by delta
cobble cgl shear-laminated ss top
Graded Granule- Poorly sorted, fine to 10 to 100 cm Normally graded, granule Sandy debris-flow Subaqueous fan delta
Sandstone coarse ss and granules base overlain by shear-lam-
inated ss top
Dispersed Granule- Bimodally sorted gran- 5 to 50 cm Normal- and reverse-graded Sandy debris-flow Subaqueous fan delta
Sandstone ules and fine ss or ungraded granules sup-
ported by fine ss matrix
Lake Wavy-Bedded Rip- Very fine to fine ss 5 to 10 cm Thin beds of ungraded ss Sandy sediment gravity Lake
pled Sandstone capped by sculpted wave flow, reworked by os-
ripples cillatory flow
Swaley Laminated Very fine to fine ss 10 to 20 cm Low-angle, concave-up to flat Supercritical upper-flow- Lake
Sandstone laminae that concordantly regime combined flow
fill concave-up scour bases
Massive Sandstone Very fine to fine ss 10 to 100 cm Thick to thin beds of ungrad- Sandy sediment gravity Lake
ed ss capped by mm-thick flow
parallel lamination and/or
wave ripples
Braidplain Convolute, Small- Very fine to fine ss 5 to 15 cm Soft-sediment deformation af- Fluidized lower-flow-re- Distal braidplain-braid delta
Scale Trx Sand- fects .50% of thin trough gime traction flow
stone sets
Small-Scale Trx Very fine to fine ss 5 to 25 cm Soft-sediment deformation af- Lower-flow-regime trac- Distal braidplain, channel fill
Sandstone fects ,50% of thin trough tion flow
sets
Convolute, Large- Fine to coarse ss 25 to 100 cm Soft-sediment deformation af- Fluidized lower-flow-re- Distal braidplain, channel fill
Scale Trx Sand- fects .50% of thick gime traction flow
stone trough sets
Large-Scale Trx Fine to coarse ss 25 to 100 cm Soft-sediment deformation af- Lower-flow-regime trac- Distal braidplain, channel fill
Sandstone fects ,50% of thick tion flow
trough sets
Ptx Sandstone Fine to medium ss 10 to 25 cm Planar-tabular sets, no soft- Lower-flow-regime trac- Distal braidplain, channel fill
sediment deformation tion flow
Ppl Sandstone Fine to medium ss 10 to 25 cm Plane-parallel laminated sets, Upper-flow-regime trac- Distal braidplain, channel fill
no soft-sediment deforma- tion flow
tion
Trx 5 Trough Cross-Stratified; Ptx 5 Planar-Tabular Cross-Stratified; Ppl 5 Plane-Parallel Laminated; cgl 5 conglomerate; ss 5 sandstone. Compiled from Anderson (1997b).

ments accompanies decreasing accommodation in continental environ-
ments. Base-level-rise time corresponds to increasing conditions of accom-
modation space relative to incoming sediment supply. Turnarounds occupy
positions of changeover from a distal-proximal (fall-to-rise) succession to
a proximal-distal (rise-to-fall) succession, or vice versa. A rise-to-fall turn-
around represents maximum A/S conditions, whereas a fall-to-rise turn-
around represents minimum A/S conditions.
LARGE-SCALE CYCLE ARCHITECTURE
Large-scale stratigraphic cycles about 100 m thick were recognized in
early studies of the Hornelen basin (Kildal 1970; Steel 1976; Steel et al.
1977) because of their conspicuous modern weathering profile (e.g., Fig.
2A). Ridges consisting of resistant braidplain sandstone and alluvial-fan
conglomerate alternate with valleys eroded into less-resistant thin-bedded
sandstone of the lake facies tract (Fig. 2). A single cycle, as defined herein,
consists of a valley of less-resistant lake strata overlain by a ridge of re-
sistant braidplain or alluvial-fan strata, in turn overlain by another valley
of less-resistant lake strata. The valley-ridge-valley topographic expression
of a large-scale cycle is mappable across the basin through strata of all
facies tracts (cycle outcrop belt in Figure 1) and provides a frame of ref-
erence for correlation and stratigraphic study within chronostratigraphic
units. We recognize large-scale cycles of the same thickness and number
as previous workers, but we define different boundaries and symmetries by
applying criteria not used in previous studies.
Large-scale cycles are defined in this study by lateral shifts in facies
tracts, changing widths of facies tracts, and stacking patterns of interme-
diate-scale cycles. The modern topographic expression is a consequence of
differential erosion of facies tracts (braidplain and alluvial-fan tracts are
resistant whereas the lake facies tract is more easily eroded). The topog-
raphy reflects the regional geographic shifts and expansions and contrac-
tions of facies tracts during large-scale stratigraphic base-level cycles.
Continuous beds of lake facies that bound the large-scale cycles are
mappable from the northern basin margin across the basin, far beyond the
limits of the study area. These beds represent maximum lake expansion in
the basin and coincide with conditions of maximum accommodation space
relative to incoming sediment supply (maximum A/S ratio). They also co-
incide with base-level rise-to-fall turnaround positions because the beds
represent the changeover from lake expansion to lake contraction. If these
were marine strata, a condensed section or maximum flooding surface
might occupy these positions. In the study area, however, rise-to-fall turn-
260 D.S. ANDERSON AND T.A. CROSS
arounds exist in 0.5 to 3 m thick intervals of laterally extensive lake beds
(Fig. 5) that are commonly dominated by thin-bedded very fine sandstone
facies (Table 1). Modern topographic expression of large-scale rise-to-fall
turnarounds in the study area is excellent because the more easily eroded
fine and very fine lake sandstones form valleys where they bound thick
intervals of braidplain sandstones, (Fig. 2) and they form narrow clefts
where interbedded with alluvial-fan conglomerates (Fig. 6A).
Approximately halfway through a large-scale cycle and midway between
the bounding lake strata, beds of alluvial-fan and braidplain facies are in
contact, and commonly there are no intervening lake strata. The stratigraph-
ic change from maximum lake expansion to maximum lake contraction is
progressive over tens of meters, as is the corresponding change from max-
imum lake contraction back to maximum lake expansion. The changeover,
which is represented by the maximum expansion of the alluvial-fan and
braidplain facies tracts across the study area, is the base-level fall-to-rise
turnaround of a large-scale cycle. It coincides with conditions of minimum
accommodation space relative to incoming sediment supply (minimum A/
S ratio). If subsidence rates had been lower, these turnarounds might be
represented by subaerial unconformities. However, in the study area re-
gional incision is absent and unconformities are not present. Scour asso-
ciated with the bases of alluvial-fan beds is uncommon and restricted to
, 1 m of incision over , 50 m laterally (Anderson 1997b). Similarly,
scour at the bases of braidplain channel-fill deposits is of low relief.
Within the alluvial-fan facies tract, large-scale fall-to-rise turnarounds
coincide with strata dominated by stratified conglomerate facies (Table 1).
For example, the large-scale fall-to-rise turnaround in cycle 5 is dominated
by crudely to well-stratified conglomerate facies at 60 m in measured sec-
tion GCD (Figs. 5, 6A). This turnaround position is almost midway be-
tween the lake strata that form the rise-to-fall turnarounds bounding cycle
5 at 17 m and 107 m, respectively. It also coincides basinward with the
position where physically correlative braidplain strata extended farthest to-
ward the northern basin margin (Fig. 5). Braidplain strata that occupy the
large-scale fall-to-rise turnaround of cycle 5 (e.g., Fig. 5B, near the 40 m
position on measured section GCC) are typical of other such turnarounds
in the study area. They consist of stacked channel deposits dominated by
amalgamated large-scale trough cross-stratified sandstone facies (Table 1).
The progressive stratigraphic changes over tens of meters vertically that
reflect lake expansion-lake contraction-lake expansion across the study area
record the large-scale base-level fall and rise hemicycles, respectively.
FIG. 4.—Cycle components and cycle
symmetries at all scales, represented by a
triangle notation. Use of a generic facies
succession (facies A through D) shows how
cycles, their components, and resulting cycle
symmetries are identified from one-dimensional
measured sections. See text for discussion.
Within the study area, the large-scale base-level fall hemicycle represents
the time during which lakes contract, alluvial fans prograde basinward, and
the braidplain expands from the basin axis toward the basin margins. In
the Gun Club area, the large-scale fall hemicycle is dominated by progres-
sively basinward-stepping alluvial-fan strata (Fig. 5), which interfinger with
lake strata as fan deltas. In the late part of the fall hemicycle, below the
fall-to-rise turnaround, braidplain strata expanding toward the basin margin
come into contact and interfinger with alluvial-fan strata. Fan deltas and
lakes disappear or become less common toward the late fall hemicycle.
The large-scale base-level rise hemicycle represents the time during
which lakes expand while the coeval alluvial-fan and braidplain facies
tracts contract toward their respective sources. In the Gun Club area, the
early rise hemicycle immediately above the fall-to-rise turnaround is dom-
inated by interfingering braidplain, lake, and alluvial-fan strata (Fig. 5). By
contrast, the late rise hemicycle consists only of interfingering alluvial-fan
and lake strata. As during the early fall hemicycle, fan deltas prograding
into ephemeral lakes are reestablished during the late rise hemicycle.
Large-scale cycles are symmetric because they consist of rise and fall
hemicycles of approximately equal thickness. Symmetric large-scale cycles
in braidplain and lake strata physically correlate to symmetric cycles in
dominantly alluvial-fan strata. During the time of a complete large-scale
cycle, therefore, sediment accumulation within the alluvial-fan facies tract
along the northern basin margin was coeval with sediment accumulation
in more central parts of the basin. Total accumulation (thickness) in each
large-scale cycle was approximately the same across the basin except as
noted below. A lack of evidence for regional unconformities also supports
this interpretation.
Stacking Patterns of Facies Tracts within Large-Scale Cycles
Large-scale cycles are composed of intermediate-scale stratigraphic cy-
cles that are most easily recognized in cross-section view by translations
of laterally linked facies tracts and by expansions and contractions of fa-
cies-tract widths. In vertical sections these changes are represented by pro-
gressive changes in the proportions of the three facies tracts through a series
of intermediate-scale cycles. Study of facies-tract translations, changing
facies tract widths, and facies proportions among stratigraphic cycles is
termed stacking-pattern analysis.
Within the study area, stacking patterns of the three laterally linked facies
 LARGE-SCALE CYCLE ARCHITECTURE IN CONTINENTAL STRATA, HORNELEN BASIN (DEVONIAN), NORWAY
tracts conform to two basic geometric configurations. The first configura-
tion describes facies-tract movements relative to the entire basin. A facies
tract either moves progressively toward the basin axis from one cycle to
the next in a basinward-stepping pattern, or it moves progressively toward
the basin margin in a basin-margin-stepping pattern. The second configu-
ration describes facies-tract movements relative to each other. Facies tracts
move synchronously toward or away from each other in an in-phase pattern.
In a stacking pattern termed reciprocal, two facies tracts move in tandem
in the same direction, as if physically coupled.
Stacking patterns of alluvial-fan and braidplain strata within large-scale
cycles are mostly in phase, as reported in previous studies (Steel and Glop-
pen 1980; Olsen 1984; ‘‘in-phase relationship’’ of Wilks and Cuthbert
1994). As alluvial fans prograde from the basin margin toward the basin
axis, the axial braidplain progrades down the basin axis and toward the
basin margins (Fig. 7A, B). During the same time, the intermediary ephem-
eral lakes shrink. Where alluvial-fan strata reach the maximum basinward
limits of progradation, the braidplain facies tract usually is adjacent to the
alluvial-fan facies tract, and lake strata have disappeared (Fig. 7C). A con-
sequence of the in-phase expansion of the alluvial-fan and braidplain facies
tracts is the replacement of lowest-gradient lake facies by highest-gradient
alluvial-fan and intermediate-gradient braidplain facies.
A reciprocal stacking pattern replaces the in-phase stacking pattern after
the two high-gradient facies tracts (alluvial fan and braidplain) are in con-
tact (Fig. 7C, D). This reciprocal stacking pattern is accomplished in the
following way. At its basinward limit of progradation, the higher-gradient
alluvial-fan facies tract blocks the lateral expansion of the braidplain facies
tract (Fig. 7C). Subsequently, as the alluvial-fan facies tract contracts to-
ward its source area at the basin margin, the braidplain facies tract expands
across the older alluvial-fan margin (Fig. 7D). In the reciprocal stacking
pattern, the alluvial-fan and braidplain facies tracts move in tandem in the
same direction. High-gradient facies of the alluvial fan accumulate pro-
gressively closer toward the basin margin on progressively more proximal
positions of the alluvial fan. Braidplain facies accumulate aggradationally
on the former alluvial-fan margins, and the braidplain facies tract progres-
sively onlaps (progressive nonmarine overlap of Grabau 1906) the alluvial-
fan facies tract. As a consequence, the highest-gradient facies of the alluvial
fan are replaced by intermediate gradient facies of the braidplain. With a
reduction in gradient, lakes may again occupy intermediary positions be-
tween the alluvial fan and braidplain along the basin margin (Fig. 7E). At
this point, the stacking pattern reverts to the normal in-phase stacking pat-
tern.
Small-scale examples of in-phase followed by reciprocal stacking pat-
terns of alluvial-fan and braidplain facies tracts are shown in cycle 6 (Fig.
8). Above the areally most extensive alluvial-fan bed (Fig. 8, location 1),
three alluvial-fan beds interfinger with lake strata and display a basin-mar-
gin-stepping stacking pattern. They are overlain by an 8 m thick interval
of braidplain strata that is subsequently overlain by thin-bedded lake strata.
Because the basin-margin-stepping alluvial-fan and braidplain succession
is capped by thin lake beds, it is a transgressive relationship reflecting base-
level rise. A similar configuration exists immediately below the fall-to-rise
turnaround of cycle 6 (Fig. 8, locations 2 and 3). At location 2 a series of
alluvial-fan beds steps toward the basin center. These are overlain by a
thick interval of braidplain strata that steps toward the basin margin and
conformably overlap alluvial-fan strata. The farthest up-fan position where
braidplain strata overlap alluvial-fan strata (Fig. 8, location 3) marks the
limits of minimum alluvial-fan progradation and maximum braidplain ex-
pansion. It also marks the gradient inflection from high-gradient alluvial-
fan facies to lower-gradient braidplain facies. Two more small-scale ex-
amples exist near the top of cycle 6 (Fig. 8, to the left of locations 4 and
5) where alluvial-fan and braidplain strata interfinger in a basin-margin-
stepping stacking pattern. At both locations, the successions culminate in
lake strata overlying both alluvial-fan and braidplain strata. These examples
show that, where in direct contact, local retreat of the higher-gradient al-
261
luvial-fan facies tract toward the basin margin coincides with expansion of
the braidplain facies tract toward and onto former alluvial-fan margins.
Sediment-Volume Partitioning within Large-Scale Stratigraphic Cycles
The stacking patterns of facies tracts within large-scale cycles reflect the
regional migrations and expansions and contractions of environments
across the basin. Thickening and thinning patterns of coeval strata, expan-
sions and contractions of facies tract widths, and lateral shifts of facies
tracts reflect geographic shifts in centers of mass of sediment masses stored
within each facies tract. During times of base-level fall (Fig. 9A–D), centers
of mass of the alluvial-fan and braidplain facies tracts migrate toward each
other, whereas during base-level rise times they migrate away from each
other (Fig. 9D–G). At conditions of maximum ratio of accommodation to
sediment supply (A/S) at rise-to-fall turnarounds (Fig. 9A, G), the center
of mass of the gravelly alluvial-fan facies tract is closest to the basin mar-
gin, whereas that of the sandy braidplain facies tract is closest to the basin
axis and its eastern source area. Consequently very fine sandstone and distal
mudstone of the lake facies tract occupy large parts of the basin, and the
center of mass of the lake facies tract occupies a central position in the
basin. Conversely, at minimum A/S conditions at fall-to-rise turnarounds
(Fig. 9D), the centers of mass of the alluvial-fan and braidplain facies tracts
are farthest from their respective sources. Where the alluvial-fan and braid-
plain facies tracts meet, sediment mass from the highest-gradient facies
tract fills and decreases accommodation space for the lower-gradient facies
tract, leading to a reciprocal stacking pattern between alluvial-fan and
braidplain strata.
Sediment accumulated in all three facies tracts across the basin during
entire large-scale cycles, producing symmetrical stratigraphic cycles. Large
migration ranges of the centers of mass (Fig. 9) reflect how sediment vol-
ume is partitioned within facies tracts through large-scale cycles, as dis-
cussed above. In addition, large migration ranges for the lake and braidplain
facies tracts reflect the large, extrabasinal volume of sediment supply to
the two facies tracts. The restricted migration range of the alluvial-fan
facies tract reflects a volumetrically small, restricted source, and also likely
reflects greater subsidence along the basin-bounding fault (discussed be-
low).
Alluvial-Fan Morphology through Time
Several considerations lead us to suggest that alluvial-fan morphology,
gradient, and size change through time. As the center of mass of the al-
luvial-fan facies tract shifts basinward during decreasing A/S conditions,
alluvial-fan radii increase and fan-toe slope-break inflections migrate bas-
inward. During decreasing A/S conditions, the centers of mass shift source-
ward, alluvial-fan radii decrease, and slope-break inflections migrate sour-
ceward. The gradients of alluvial-fan surfaces (radial fan-slope values of
Blair and McPherson 1994a, 1994b) must also change as alluvial-fan radii
change, assuming constant elevations of fanhead positions. As alluvial-fan
margins migrate basinward, radial fan-slope values decrease and gradients
on alluvial-fan surfaces become flatter. Conversely, as alluvial-fan margins
retreat sourceward, gradients on alluvial-fan surfaces become steeper.
These changes correspond to well-known geomorphic differences and al-
luvial-fan evolution inferred from numerous Late Quaternary alluvial fans
(e.g., compiled in Blair and McPherson 1994a, 1994b). We propose that
they are integral components of stratigraphic cyclicity within alluvial-fan
systems.
In most environments original depositional gradients are of such low
angles that inclined depositional surfaces are difficult to detect in outcrops.
Or, as in the case of the study area, most original depositional surfaces are
structurally deformed (e.g., Fig. 2). However, the original topographic gra-
dients of the alluvial-fan and braidplain facies tracts are detectable at one
location in the Gun Club area, near the top of cycle 6. Above location 5
262 D.S. ANDERSON AND T.A. CROSS

FIG. 5.—A) Geologic map of the Gun Club area, showing: the distribution of the alluvial-fan, braidplain and lake facies tracts; locations of measured sections GCD,
GCB, GCA, GCX, and GCC; and mapped positions of fall-to-rise (solid, thick black lines) and rise-to-fall (dashed, thick black lines) turnarounds. The large numbers mark
the locations of large-scale cycles 5 and 6. White areas are covered by vegetation or water. Topography from Måloy 1:50,000 topographic sheet. B) Stratigraphic correlation
 LARGE-SCALE CYCLE ARCHITECTURE IN CONTINENTAL STRATA, HORNELEN BASIN (DEVONIAN), NORWAY 263

FIG. 6.—Intervals of strata at large-scale rise-

to-fall and fall-to-rise turnarounds in the study
area. A) A typical rise-to-fall turnaround within
the alluvial-fan facies tract is within a 1.5 m
thick zone of lake facies underlying disorganized
alluvial-fan conglomerate facies (Table 1) of
large-scale cycle 5. Such thin zones are
mappable through conglomerate deposits to the
basin-bounding fault at the northern basin
margin. Location of photograph is at the 17 to
18 m position on measured section GCD (Fig.
5B). View is to the northeast, toward the
northern basin margin. B) A typical large-scale
fall-to-rise turnaround within the alluvial-fan
facies tract consists of an interval of large
proportions of crudely stratified to well-stratified
cobble to pebble conglomerate facies (Table 1)
relative to disorganized cobble to pebble
conglomerate facies. Location of photograph is
near the 60 m position on measured section
GCD (Fig. 5B).

←
section of generalized measured sections in the Gun Club area, showing the distribution of the lake facies tract at rise-to-fall turnarounds and the correlation (thin solid
lines) of selected alluvial-fan and braidplain beds. Lake facies representing large-scale rise-to-fall turnarounds (RTF; thick dashed black lines) are present at only two
intervals in measured section GCD; these intervals are physically mappable with correlative lake facies in the study area. Fall-to-rise turnarounds (FTR; thick, solid black
lines) for cycles 5 and 6 are identified from facies successions in measured sections and mapping facies and contacts laterally between sections. The map area of Figure 8
is outlined by a black polygon.
264 D.S. ANDERSON AND T.A. CROSS
in Figure 8, lake strata continuously overlie a thick interval of interfingering
alluvial-fan and braidplain strata along a flooding surface. To the left of
measured section GCA, the flooding surface strikes due east (0908), where-
as to the right, it strikes 0948 (Fig. 8, near location 5). The change in strike
occurs across facies changes that represent fan-toe slope-break inflections.
It reflects a 48 change in original depositional slopes between the higher-
gradient alluvial-fan facies tract and the lower-gradient braidplain facies
tract at a fan-toe slope-break inflection. Subsequent folding in the study
area has inverted the original depositional configuration of a high-gradient
alluvial-fan profile intersecting a low-gradient braidplain profile.
The movement history of gradient inflections at alluvial-fan toes provides
a frame of reference for monitoring changes in alluvial-fan morphology
through time. Fan-toe slope-break inflections in the study area are recog-
nized within beds of alluvial-fan facies (Anderson 1997b) by the positions
where sandy disorganized conglomeratic debris-flow facies (Table 1)
change abruptly (over , 20 m lateral distance) down-fan to graded con-
glomerate-sandstone facies (Table 1; Fig. 8). This facies change reflects
FIG. 7.—Description and explanation of the in-
phase and reciprocal stacking patterns developed
in decreasing and increasing A/S conditions
during base-level fall and rise, respectively. A)
Initial conditions in which the alluvial-fan and
braidplain facies tract are separated by a lake
between. B) The alluvial-fan and braidplain
facies tracts expand in-phase toward each other
during lake regression. As they contact each
other, a reciprocal stacking pattern develops. C)
At the beginning of the reciprocal stacking
pattern, alluvial fans continue expanding
basinward, and steeply sloping alluvial-fan
surfaces block braidplain expansion. Braidplain
channelforms stack vertically. D) As alluvial
fans retreat sourceward, space is available at fan
toes. Braidplain strata expand toward the basin
margin and fill the space, completing the
reciprocal pattern. E) As lake transgression
continues, the in-phase stacking pattern is
reestablished. Fans continue retreating
sourceward, and the braidplain begins to retreat
sourceward.
the abrupt, down-gradient decrease in depositional energy on an alluvial-
fan profile where the steep profile above the fan toe intersects the lower-
gradient profile of the basin floor. In the study area, this position also
coincides with the up-fan onlap of braidplain strata onto underlying allu-
vial-fan strata, which provides another means of recognizing fan-toe slope-
break inflections.
Analysis of fan-toe slope-break inflections provides insights into chang-
ing ratios of aggradation to progradation (a:p) through time. Although all
beds are structurally folded, inflection points are undeformed with respect
to one another. The path described by a line that connects successive fan-
toe slope-break inflection points (Fig. 10) also describes the trajectory of
the fan toe through time. A path with a high vertical rise and short hori-
zontal translation records a high a:p ratio, whereas the converse path with
a long horizontal translation and a short vertical rise records a low ratio
(Fig. 10). Aggradation-to-progradation ratios in the Gun Club area are al-
ways positive and vary between 10.003 and 10.12, indicating no history
of erosion (Fig. 10). A common pattern consists of alternating steeper
 LARGE-SCALE CYCLE ARCHITECTURE IN CONTINENTAL STRATA, HORNELEN BASIN (DEVONIAN), NORWAY 265

FIG. 8.—A detailed map of the alluvial-fan, lake, and braidplain facies tracts in large-scale cycle 6 in the Gun Club area, showing measured section traverses and the
locations of facies changes representing inflections of fan-toe slope breaks (solid dots). The map area, shown in Figure 5B, constitutes a vertically exaggerated (5x)
stratigraphic cross section. Numbers 1 through 5 refer to locations discussed in the text. The white slot at the bottom-center of the map is a an area covered by a modern
pond.

(a:p . 0.06) and flatter (a:p , 0.06) fan-toe trajectories. Steep trajectories
occupy positions where fan toes move progressively basinward or source-
ward with a high component of aggradation. Flat trajectories coincide with
low aggradation and high progradation in which alluvial-fan toes move
incrementally basinward or sourceward over longer horizontal distances.
To accumulate alluvial-fan sediment without erosion, each successive
layer of sediment must build constructively on the underlying depositional
surface. Thus, nearly flat fan-toe trajectories represent accumulation on a
nearly flat, underlying depositional platform. Conversely, steep trajectories
represent deposition on a high-gradient geomorphic surface. Trajectory an-
gles (arctan of a:p) equal or exceed the slope angles of underlying alluvial-
fan surfaces. Thus, geometric conditions of variable a:p ratios require pro-
portionally varying fan-slope angles above the fan toe and, by extrapola-
tion, on the entire alluvial fan. Small-scale a:p trajectories among alluvial-
fan beds in the Gun Club area suggest that radial fan-slope angles become
steeper and then flatter as a:p ratios become steeper and then flatter.
LARGE-SCALE CYCLE STACKING PATTERNS
Large-scale cycles show a history of basin-scale movements of facies
tracts similar to the smaller excursions of facies tracts within single large-
266 D.S. ANDERSON AND T.A. CROSS

scale cycles. These migrations and expansions and contractions of facies

tracts over nine large-scale cycles were mapped in the study area by re-
connaissance mapping and aerial photographic interpretation. A geologic
map shows the distribution of alluvial-fan, lake, and braidplain strata within
nine large-scale cycles in the study area (Fig. 2B).
Structurally rotated strata in the study area must be restored to original
depositional configurations to show geometries and stacking patterns at a
basin scale. The palinspastic restoration of the geologic map is shown in
Figure 11. Because strata in the study area consist exclusively of grain-
supported sandstone and conglomerate, decompaction is not included in the
restoration process. A three-step restoration process begins with construct-
ing a down-plunge projection (Mackin 1950) of the nearly upright anticline,
which converts strata to true stratigraphic thickness. Second, the anticline
is unfolded by line balancing, which places strata into a retrodeformed,
normal stratigraphic cross section. Third, the cross section is redisplayed
from a new stratigraphic datum at the top of the youngest cycle (11). This
datum is a profile of the alluvial-fan to braidplain or lake-bottom surface
at an instant in time. Using modern fan profiles to reconstruct the cross
section, the datum slopes 28 basinward and becomes horizontal at the fan-
toe slope-break inflection.
The palinspastically restored cross section of the nine large-scale cycles
shows stacking patterns and changes in basin-fill architecture through time
(Fig. 11). At cycle 3, the alluvial-fan facies tract extends basinward about
3.5 km from the basin margin and abuts the braidplain facies tract at long-
term fall-to-rise turnarounds. From cycles 4 through 11, however, alluvial-
fan strata display progressively basin-margin-stepping patterns coinciding
with increasingly basinward-stepping patterns of correlative braidplain stra-
ta. The lake facies tract expands across the study area at long-term rise-to-
fall turnarounds and is nearly absent at long-term fall-to-rise turnarounds.
However, above cycle 7, the lake facies tract always separates the alluvial-
fan and braidplain facies tracts throughout large-scale cycles (Fig. 11).
The basin-scale stacking pattern from cycles 3 through 11 records step-
wise reduction of alluvial-fan radii coincident with decreasing alluvial-fan
volume and increasing alluvial-fan gradients, as also recognized by Larsen
and Steel (1978). From cycle 3 to 4 the alluvial-fan facies tract shows an
abrupt step of 1.75 km toward the basin margin, similar in magnitude to
another step toward the basin margin from cycles 7 to 8 (Fig. 11). In cycles
4 through 7, the alluvial-fan facies tract is vertically stacked, and maximum
basinward expansion of the alluvial-fan facies tract is 1.75 to 2 km from
the basin margin. Above cycle 7 the alluvial-fan facies tract steps abruptly
toward the basin margin. In cycles 8 through 11, the alluvial-fan facies
tract is also vertically stacked, but extends only 1.2 km basinward during
maximum basinward progradation at long-term fall-to-rise turnarounds.
Maximum basinward expansion of the alluvial-fan facies tract is unchanged
for all subsequent large-scale cycles along the northern basin margin (Lar-
sen and Steel 1978).
Synchronous movement and expansion of the braidplain facies tract
through cycles 3 to 11 illustrates a basin-scale alluvial-fan-braidplain re-
ciprocal stacking pattern. Through cycle 6, the basinward expansion of the
alluvial-fan facies tract at long-term fall-to-rise turnarounds blocks expan-
sion of the braidplain facies tract. At the abrupt basin-margin step of the

←
FIG. 9.—The migration of facies tracts and their centers of mass across the basin
and study area simply describes the architecture of large-scale cycles through time
and concurrently changing conditions of accommodation space relative to sediment
supply (A/S ratio). The study area occupies a relatively fixed position within this
reference framework. Black dots with the letters A, B, and L represent the postulated
centers of mass for the alluvial-fan, braidplain, and lake facies tracts, respectively.
The restricted migration range of the center of mass of the alluvial-fan facies tract
reflects a volumetrically small, restricted sediment supply, whereas the large ranges
of those of the lake and braidplain facies tracts reflect a volumetrically large, extra-
basinal sediment supply.
 LARGE-SCALE CYCLE ARCHITECTURE IN CONTINENTAL STRATA, HORNELEN BASIN (DEVONIAN), NORWAY 267

FIG. 10.—Inflection paths of fan-toe slope-breaks (black lines connecting dots) at the fall-to-rise turnaround of large-scale cycle 6 in the Gun Club area (same area as
the central part of Figure 8) provide a frame of reference for understanding the movement histories of alluvial-fan toes. Inflections of fan-toe slope-breaks are recognized
within alluvial-fan beds where alluvial-fan facies change abruptly down-fan from disorganized conglomerate debris flows to graded conglomerate-sandstone sandy debris
flows. Steep path trajectories have high components of aggradation, whereas flatter trajectories have high components of progradation. Because trajectory angles equal or
exceed the slope angles of underlying alluvial-fan depositional surfaces, the pattern of alternating flatter and steeper trajectories indicates changing alluvial-fan gradients
through time.

alluvial-fan facies tract between cycles 3 and 4, the braidplain facies tract
expands farther toward the basin margin than in cycle 3. In this basin-scale
stacking pattern, the two facies tracts move in tandem in the same direction
toward the basin margin. In cycles 4 through 6, the braidplain facies tract
is vertically stacked because the vertically stacked alluvial-fan facies tract
blocks it. Beginning with cycle 7, however, the braidplain facies tract dis-
plays stepwise retreat toward the basin center as the lake facies tract be-
comes permanent, and the basin-scale stacking pattern becomes in-phase.
Several changes in stratal geometries within cycles 6 through 8 accom-
pany changes in large-scale cycle stacking patterns. First, within cycle 6
the alluvial-fan facies tract extends slightly farther basinward than in un-
derlying cycle 5 and overlying cycle 7 (Fig. 11). Second, the braidplain
facies tract within cycle 7 splits into separate tongues (Fig. 11). The lowest
tongue extends farthest toward the basin margin and almost contacts the
alluvial-fan facies tract at the long-term fall-to-rise turnaround for cycle 7.
The two overlying tongues of the braidplain facies tract in cycle 7 step
successively toward the basin center (Fig. 11). The geometry of the lowest
tongue of the braidplain facies strata within cycle 7 also suggests onlap

FIG. 11.—Palinspastic reconstruction of the geologic map (Fig. 2B), showing basin-scale stacking patterns of nine large-scale cycles in the study area. The reconstruction
process is discussed in the text.
268 D.S. ANDERSON AND T.A. CROSS
onto an underlying flooding surface at the top of cycle 6. Finally, the
basinward-stepping stacking pattern of the braidplain facies tract beginning
in cycle 7 culminates in cycle 8. Two tongues of the braidplain facies tract
in cycle 8 step farther basinward than those of underlying cycle 7 (Fig.
11).
Tectonostratigraphic Reconstruction
A sequential reconstruction of cycles 3 through 11 (Fig. 12) shows syn-
depositional migration of structural hingelines near the northern basin mar-
gin. The hinge of each cycle divides the thicker and more rapidly subsiding
alluvial-fan facies tract from the thinner and less rapidly subsiding braid-
plain and lake facies tracts, which are closer to the basin axis. Hinges
migrating toward the basin margin trace the migration of the depositional
limits of the alluvial-fan facies tract.
In the reconstruction (Fig. 12), a hinge occupies a position within 2 km
basinward of the alluvial-fan facies tract, coinciding with the greatest thick-
ness change between correlative alluvial-fan and braidplain or lake strata
within large-scale cycles. An abrupt sourceward step of the alluvial-fan
facies tract from cycles 3 to 4 accompanies a migration of the hinge 1.75
km toward the basin margin (Fig. 12A, B). Throughout cycles 4 through
7, the hinges remain at the same positions (Fig. 12C–E). From cycles 7 to
8 an abrupt sourceward step of alluvial-fan strata accompanies another
migration of the structural hinge toward the northern basin margin (Fig.
12E, F). Hinges remain at positions about 2 km from the basin margin
from cycle 8 upward (Fig. 12F–H). Differential subsidence creates a struc-
tural flexure between the northern basin margin and the basin center.
Stratal Discordances and Stratigraphic Architecture
The pronounced shift of the alluvial-fan facies tract toward the basin
margin and the permanent expansion of the lake facies tract at the top of
cycle 7 are accompanied by a subtle stratigraphic discordance in an un-
derlying cycle. This discordance demonstrates a tectonic control on strati-
graphic geometries and facies-tract distributions. Because stratigraphic at-
tributes rarely are linked causally to a specific control (a notable exception
is Lawton et al. 1999), we review the observations that demonstrate the
relationship.
Angular discordances among Hornelen basin strata are rare. Only one
was recognized previously within interbedded alluvial-fan, braided-stream,
and floodbasin deposits at the southern basin margin (R.J. Steel, oral com-
munication 1993). Another occurs within otherwise conformable and con-
cordant strata at the northern basin margin (Fig. 13). A dip change from
608 to about 558 at the rise-to-fall turnaround between cycles 5 and 6
creates an angular discordance that does not extend into the Gun Club area.
The discordance requires a structural rotation of cycle 5 (and older) strata
during deposition of the lower part of cycle 6.
CONTROLS ON STRATIGRAPHIC CYCLES IN CONTINENTAL STRATA
What inferences can we draw from these data about controls on strati-
graphic cycles in tectonically active continental basins? We have demon-
strated that stratigraphic architecture and stacking patterns are produced by
changing lake levels, the expansion, contraction, and migration of environ-
ments, and the interactions of high-gradient and low-gradient facies tracts.
Can we also decipher the more basic controls on these second-order en-
vironmental changes? Specifically, can we separate stratigraphic responses
to tectonic and climatic controls, and can we identify stratigraphic respons-
es that appear to be products of self-organized critical behavior of the
stratigraphic process/response system?
The architecture of large-scale cycles consists of systematic expansions
and contractions of the alluvial-fan, braidplain, and lake facies tracts
through time. At maximum A/S conditions, the lake facies tract is expand-
ed, whereas at minimum A/S conditions it almost disappears. This indicates
a hydrographic control on stratigraphic architecture and stacking patterns
of facies tracts. It is most probable that the hydrographic control is related
to climate changes, although downstream tectonic damming cannot be ex-
cluded. In-phase expansion and contraction of the independently and per-
pendicularly sourced alluvial-fan and braidplain facies tracts suggest in-
phase waxing and waning of sediment supply, which further suggest similar
responses to the same extrabasinal control(s). Changes in sediment supply
rates from two sources likely is a response to climate changes; it is oth-
erwise hard to imagine synchronous changes at multiple temporal scales in
relief, elevation, and drainage-basin size in different parts of the drainage
basin beyond the Hornelen basin. The in-phase basinward and sourceward
migration patterns of centers-of-mass of the alluvial-fan and braidplain fa-
cies tracts also suggest some combination of sediment supply and hydro-
graphic controls. Very long-term basin-scale stacking patterns of multiple
large-scale cycles show a change from ephemeral to permanent lakes, and
a concomitant reduction of sediment volume in the alluvial-fan and braid-
plain facies tracts as the sediment volume in the lake facies tract increases.
This also suggests a climate-induced hydrographic control on environ-
ments.
The exception to the in-phase stacking pattern is the reciprocal stacking
pattern of alluvial-fan and braidplain strata at times when they abut each
other. The reciprocal pattern is controlled by competition for space by
environments with different topographic gradients. Where the alluvial-fan
and braidplain come into juxtaposition, the high-gradient alluvial fan blocks
expansion and encroachment of the lower gradient braidplain. As the al-
luvial fan retreats at the beginning of base-level rise, its margin becomes
flatter, allowing onlap of the braidplain. This reciprocal stacking pattern is
independent of scale, because it occurs multiple times within large-scale
cycles, and from one large-scale cycle to the next. Reciprocal stacking
patterns are a product of self-regulation of a nonlinear dynamic stratigraph-
ic process/response system.
Another self-regulated attribute of stratigraphic architecture is the mor-
phology of the alluvial fan, which controls the volume and time-space
distribution of different alluvial-fan facies. The balance between sediment
supply and tectonic accommodation limits fan growth, but alluvial-fan mor-
phology and facies distributions are controlled by the balance between po-
tential energy and kinetic energy. As alluvial fans grow and fan radii in-
crease, the gradients of the fan surfaces are gradually reduced to critical
values with respect to the viscosity of different types of sediment gravity
flows. Sediment gravity flows are the dominant mechanisms that transport
new sediment across and upon alluvial-fan surfaces. Reduced radial fan-
slope values cause sediment gravity flows to come to rest and accumulate
in progressively more proximal positions, because low gradients of the
alluvial-fan margins do not provide sufficient potential energy to sustain
the flows. As the high-gradient facies accumulate in progressively more
proximal positions, alluvial-fan margins are starved of new sediment and
reworking by water flows further reduces gradients. The lower gradients
are propagated up the alluvial fan, gradually allowing for lower-gradient
facies (braidplain or lake) to accumulate. With the retreat of the alluvial
fan and decrease of fan radii, gradually another critical point is reached at
which the potential energy of the high-gradient fan surface is sufficient to
sustain sediment gravity flows for progressively greater down-fan distances.
When this critical point is reached, the alluvial fans again prograde bas-
inward until the gradients decrease once again to a critical point and al-
luvial-fan retreat again begins.
Stacking patterns of large-scale cycles and associated changes in stratal
geometries suggest that structural or tectonic events controlled stratigraphic
architecture along the northern margin of the Hornelen basin. Differential
subsidence rates from the basin margin to the basin axis create a structural
hinge that limits the basinward expansion of the alluvial-fan facies tract
because sediment flux is finite. Permanent migration of the hinge toward
the northern basin margin coincides with permanent changes in alluvial-
fan radius, volume, and gradient. Progressive to abrupt changes in stratal
 LARGE-SCALE CYCLE ARCHITECTURE IN CONTINENTAL STRATA, HORNELEN BASIN (DEVONIAN), NORWAY 269

FIG. 12.—Sequential reconstruction of large-scale cycles, showing syndepositional structural relationships of strata along the northern margin of the Hornelen Basin.
Bold arrows show inferred migrating structural hingelines through each time step. The position of the photograph in Figure 13 is marked by a dot.

geometries of the alluvial-fan and braidplain facies tract accompany mi-
gration of the hinge through time. The most apparent is the angular stratal
discordance at the rise-to-fall turnaround between cycles 5 and 6.
Two lines of evidence demonstrated conclusively by prior studies also
show tectonic controls on sedimentary accumulation (e.g., Steel 1976; Steel
et al. 1977, 1979). First is the disproportionate thickness of the sedimentary
succession (25 km) relative to the small area of the Hornelen basin. Pro-
gressive dextral oblique-slip along the northern basin margin accompanying
west-directed dip-slip at the eastern basin margin continually formed ac-
commodation space for accumulation of sediment. All studies to date sup-
port higher sediment accumulation rates in the alluvial-fan facies tract, and
thus higher subsidence rates adjacent to the northern basin-margin bound-
ing fault. As also suggested by this study, a lack of regional erosion sur-
faces and symmetrical stratigraphic cycles across all facies tracts require
an almost continuous, basinwide production of accommodation space by
high tectonic subsidence.
270 D.S. ANDERSON AND T.A. CROSS
FIG. 13.—Photograph of a rare stratal discordance within alluvial-fan conglom-
erates northeast of the Gun Club area at the northern margin of the Hornelen Basin.
The photograph shows a 58 change in dip within conglomerate beds of the alluvial-
fan facies tract. The arrow points to the fall-to-rise turnaround between cycles 5 and
6 and marks the position of dip change from 608 on the left to about 558 on the
right. Numbers 5, 6, and 7 mark the approximate positions of the fall-to-rise turn-
arounds of the respective large-scale cycles. View is due north.
Second is the observation of progressively offlapping stacks of alluvial-
fan strata through successive alluvial-fan megacycles (Steel et al. 1979;
Steel 1988). Dextral and sinistral components of oblique slip along both
basin-margin bounding faults also translated alluvial-fan bodies progres-
sively westward. Strike-slip translation components in individual large-
scale cycles, however, are too small to explain alluvial-fan expansion and
contraction patterns as purely products of passively translating alluvial-fan
bodies away and toward point sources of alluvial-fan sediment, as also
noted by Steel (1988).
Stratigraphic architecture, stratigraphic cyclicity, and stacking patterns of
facies tracts in continental strata, as shown in the Hornelen basin, are not
products of one forcing function. Changes in hydrologic budget coincident
with systematic changes in sediment supply are produced by climate fluc-
tuation. Climatically induced lake-level fluctuations as well as tectonic sub-
sidence modify accommodation space and influence the distribution and
accumulation of sediment across the basin. Self-regulation operates at all
spatial and temporal scales, and is exhibited by reciprocal stacking patterns
and by systematic changes in alluvial-fan size and gradient and in nature
of sediment-gravity-flow facies. Stacking patterns of large-scale cycles, mi-
gration of differential subsidence hinges, and angular discordances are ap-
parent products of structural movement. Sediment-volume partitioning is
apparently a response to all three controls.
CONCLUSIONS
Physical correlation of strata in the study area shows that large-scale
cycles are symmetrical. Large-scale cycles in all facies tracts consist of
approximately equal thicknesses of strata accumulated during long-term
base-level fall and rise. Turnaround positions from long-term base-level
fall-to-rise and rise-to-fall are represented by intervals of rock, not surfaces
of stratigraphic discontinuity. Regional erosion surfaces or sequence bound-
aries at long-term fall-to-rise turnarounds are absent. Long-term rise-to-fall
turnarounds represent times of basinwide lake expansion, but condensed
surfaces are absent. Symmetrical cycles imply that sediment accumulation
was approximately continuous and distributed subequally throughout the
basin during large-scale cycles.
Large-scale cycles reflect the largely in-phase migration of the alluvial-
fan and braidplain facies tracts across the study area through time. Gen-
erally, during long-term base-level fall the alluvial-fan and braidplain facies
tracts migrate toward each other. During base-level rise they retreat toward
their respective source areas and migrate away from each other. A recip-
rocal stacking pattern develops when the two facies tracts come into direct
contact at stratigraphic positions near a long-term fall-to-rise turnaround.
A reciprocal stacking pattern is present when basinward progradation of
the higher-gradient alluvial-fan facies tract locally blocks expansion of the
braidplain facies tract. Reciprocal stacking patterns occur within and among
large-scale cycles.
Geographically changing centers of mass within and among facies tracts
describe the internal architecture of large-scale cycles. Translation and ex-
pansion or contraction of linked facies tracts across the basin during large-
scale cycles produce systematically changing loci of sediment volumes
through time. At long-term rise-to-fall turnarounds, alluvial-fan and braid-
plain sediment is stored near the respective sources toward the basin mar-
gin. At long-term fall-to-rise turnarounds alluvial fans prograde farthest
basinward, but are still restricted to the basin margin because of the rela-
tively small volume of sediment supply. By contrast, braidplain sediment
is stored in basin-axial positions as it spreads out across the basin. Migra-
tion of centers of mass of the alluvial-fan facies tract reflects expansion
and contraction of alluvial fans and concomitant changes in gradient of the
fan surfaces.
Large-scale cycle stacking patterns show significant changes in basin-fill
architecture through time, including syndepositional structural changes ac-
companied by changes in stratal geometries, a change from ephemeral to
permanent lakes, permanent increase in alluvial-fan gradients, and perma-
nent reduction of alluvial-fan radii and volume at the northern basin mar-
gin. Consideration of these changes and the largely in-phase relationships
between facies tracts sourced by two separate sediment supplies suggest
that an interplay of climate, self-regulatory, and tectonic factors controlled
sedimentary accumulation within the Hornelen basin.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This report is based on part of Anderson’s Ph.D. dissertation at the Colorado
School of Mines. Dissertation research was supported by the Harry C. Kent Petro-
leum Geology Scholarship to Anderson and by the Genetic Stratigraphy Research
Program administered by Cross. Larry Anderson, Atle Folkestad, and Bruce Mala-
mud provided invaluable field assistance to the first author. Discussions in the field
with Ron Steel and Peter Homewood were particularly helpful. Margaret Lessenger
and Katie Joe McDonough reviewed an early version of this manuscript. We also
thank reviewers Sandra Phillips, John Robinson, Kevin Schofield, and Rudy Slin-
gerland.
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Received 30 November 1999; accepted 4 August 2000.