Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Land-Based Transport
Governance in the Philippines:
Focus on Metro Manila
1
Table of Contents
List of Acronyms ................................................................................... 3
I. An Overview of the Philippine Land-based Transportation System ............ 6
II. The Philippine Land-based Public Transportation Policies and Planning
Development ....................................................................................... 8
III. The Philippine Land-Based.............................................................. 13
Public Transport Administration and Management ................................... 14
A. DOTC and the Related Transport Agencies ......................................... 14
B. Budgetary Provisions for Public Transport .......................................... 18
C. Public Transport Route Planning and Fare Adjustments ........................ 19
D. Franchising in Road-based Public Transport Vehicles: Buses and PUJs .... 20
E. Driver’s License Issuance and Motor Vehicle Registration ...................... 22
F. Traffic Management and Safe Driving Regulations................................ 23
G. Vehicle Parking Management Regulations .......................................... 24
H. Collection of Motor Vehicle User’s Fees .............................................. 26
I. Dealing with Complaints and Feedback from the Public ......................... 26
J. Air Pollution Control ........................................................................ 27
K. Social Protection for the Poor and Marginalized ................................... 29
IV. Public-Private Partnership in the Transport Sector ............................. 30
V. Issues in the Public Transport Sector ................................................. 36
VI. Some Potential Responses to the Challenges in Public Transport .......... 37
VII. References .................................................................................. 40
2
List of Acronyms
3
GOCC Government-owned and Controlled Corporations
GSIS Government Service Insurance System
HUC Highly-urbanized cities
IAQIF Integrated Air Quality Improvement Framework
ID Identification
IMBOA Integrated Metropolitan Bus Operators Association
IRA Internal Revenue Allotment
ITS Integrated Transport System
JEXIM Japan Export-Import Bank
JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency
KBP Kapisanan ng mga Brodkaster ng Pilipinas
LGU Local Government Units
LRT Light Rail Transit
LRTA Light Rail Transit Authority
LTC Land Transportation Commission
LTFRB Land Transportation and Franchising and Regulatory
Board
LTO Land Transportation Office
MMC Metro Manila Council
MMDA Metro Manila Development Authority
MMTC Metro Manila Transit Corporation
MMUTIS Metro Manila Urban Transportation Integrated Study
MNTC Manila North Tollways Corporation
MOTC Ministry of Transportation and Communications
MPTC Metro Pacific Tollways Corporation
MPTDC Metro Pacific Tollways Development Corporation
MRR Manila Railroad Company
MRT Metro Rail Transit
MRTC Metro Rail Transit Corporation
MTPDP Medium-Term Development Plan of the Philippines
MTOP Motorized Tricycle Operators Permit
MVIS Motor Vehicle Inspection System
NBI National Bureau of Investigation
NCR National Capital Region
NEDA National Economic and Development Authority
NGO Non-government Organization
NGVPPT National Gas Vehicle Program for Public Transport
(NGVPPT)
NIP National Implementation Plan
NLEX North Luzon Expressway
NMT Non-motorized Transport
NO2 Nitrogen dioxide
NSO National Statistics Office
OTC Office of Transport Cooperatives
OTS Office of Transport Security
OSCA Office of Senior Citizen Affairs
4
PasangMasda Pangkalahatang Sanggunian Manila and Suburbs
Drivers Association Nationwide, Inc.
PhilGEPS Philippine General Electronic Procurement System
PM Particulate matters
PMA Philippine Medical Association
PNCC Philippine National Construction Corporation
PNP Philippine National Police
PNR Philippine National Railway
PPP Public-Private Partnership
PUB Public utility buses
PUJ Public utility jeepney
PUV Public utility vehicle
PWD Person with disabilities
RA Republic Act
RDC Regional Development Council
RMC Route Measurement Capacity
ROI Return of Investment
ROW Right of Way
RORO Roll-on/roll-off
SCTEX Subic-Clark-Tarlac Expressway
SLEX South Luzon Expressway
SO2 Sulphur dioxide
SSS Social Security System
TC Transurb Consult
TEI Tractionnel Engineering International
TFB Tricycle Franchising Board
TIN Tax Identification Number
TODA Tricycle Operators and Drivers Association
ToR Terms of Reference
TRB Tollways Regulatory Board
TRO Temporary Restraining Order
TVR Towing vehicle receipt
UN United Nations
UVVRP Unified Vehicular Volume Reduction Program
VOC Volatil organic compounds
5
This paper aims to provide a situationer on transport
governance in the Philippines, as they apply to Metro Manila.
Metro Manila provides the arena for describing and
analyzing the complexity and dynamics of transport
governance in the country. This is occasioned by the
number of local government units located in the metropolis
(17 cities and municipality) as well as various national
government agencies with transport-related mandates
operating in the region. Metro Manila is also one of the
biggest (13 million) and fastest growing metropolises in the
world.
The case of Metro Manila’s suboptimal transport governance regime is a product of political,
economic, and cultural forces over decades of dealing with problems of a developing
country. Foremost among these is the tension between a decentralization policy enshrined in
the 1987 Constitution that serves development in a country of 7,100 islands but is at cross-
purposes with the requirements of an integrated metropolitanization regime for Metro
Manila.
This paper deals with national to local transport-related policy and their application to Metro
Manila. An effort is made to describe the operation of these policies on the ground, and how
conflicts are generated and attempted to be resolved.
The paper also gives a glimpse of how Philippine democracy operates in the policy arena,
and how increasingly civil society and private sector engagement and consultation are
creating an increasingly positive environment for policy reform in transport.
1
Department of Transportation and Communication data.
6
Figure 1. Number of registered vehicles by type. Philippines 1990-
2010. Source: Land Transportation Office in DOTC, 2013
While roads in Metro Manila are paved and well maintained, there are
sections that are poor. The road network is constantly outstripped by the
increase in the demand for road space, primarily due to the rapid
increase in the number of vehicles. Level of service deteriorates fast
during the rainy season, when incomplete and poorly maintained
drainage systems cause flash floods in various sections of the network
making roads impassable except for buses and trucks. An inordinate
amount of time is spent by local governments in Metro Manila and the
national government in improving road conditions, every now and then
undertaking experiments and promulgating new transport policies and
guidelines that are often poorly considered and evaluated as to impact.
The Philippines has various urban public transport modes. Buses and urban
railways (Philippine National Railways or PNR), Light Rail Transit (LRT 1 and LRT
2) and Metro Rail Transit (MRT) cover the longest distances across the
metropolis and the surrounding areas. The public utility jeepney (PUJ) is the
most frequently used mode in Metro Manila and in most urban areas in the
Philippines because of its ubiquity, flexibility, reasonable cost, and traditional
and habitual acceptability. Other public utility vehicles include taxis, FX 2, vans,
An “FX” uses the type known as Asian Utility Vehicle (AUV) which usually has a basic capacity of ten or fewer passengers, is
2
arranged more like an automobile, but with short row seats at a hatched compartment.
7
multicabs3, motorcycle-driven and pedal-powered (“trisikad”) tricycles. So far,
only Metro Manila has a rail-based transit network. Figure 2 shows the
train network in Metro Manila.
3 A “multicab” has a jeepney-like arrangement but seats only twelve passengers. Its fare usually follows the jeepney fare system.
8
life is still governed from the political and government center, Metro
Manila.
The first law on land transportation in the Philippines, Legislative Act No.
2159, was enacted in February 1912. The law provided for the regulation
and licensing of operators. An Automobile Section under the
Administrative Division of the Bureau of Public Works was also created as
the main implementing agency of the law. In 1932, Act No. 3045
consolidated all laws governing motor vehicles. It also upgraded the
Automobile Section into the Automobile Division. The latter became a
separate agency in 1947, the Motor Vehicles Office. In 1964, Congress
enacted Republic Act 4136, otherwise known as Land Transportation and
Traffic Code, which codified land transportation laws and created the
Land Transportation Commission (LTC) to replace the Motor Vehicles
Office. The LTC established various regional offices throughout the
country in order to effectively carry out its functions. In 1979, the LTC
was renamed the Bureau of Land Transportation (BLT) subsumed under
the Ministry of Transportation and Communication. In 1985, the Bureau
was reverted into a separate Land Transportation Commission. (Guillen
and Ishida, 2003)
Rail transit in the Philippines started during the Spanish colonial period
(1571-1898) when the Ferrocarril de Manila-Dagupan started operation
in November 1892. From the Manila to Dagupan stretch with total length
of 195.4 kilometers, the line eventually grew to cover 479 km from San
Fernando, La Union in the north of Luzon to Legazpi, Albay, Bicol in the
south. The railway system later became the Manila Railroad Company
(MRR) during the American colonial period. The MRR became the PNR in
1960. In June 20, 1964, by virtue of Republic Act No. 4156, the PNR
became an attached agency under the DOTC. Increasing neglect and
competition from road-based transport ended the northern line of the
PNR in the early 1970s. In turn, Typhoons Milenyo and Reming cause
severe damage to the network and this led to the suspension of its
Manila-Bicol services in 2006. In the 1990s, continuous problems with
informal settlers that buil settlements along the railroad tracks further
contributed to the railway’s decline. In 2007, the Philippine government
started a rehabilitation project aiming to remove informal settlers from
the PNR right-of-way, improve commuter services in Metro Manila,
restore the southern (Manila-Bicol).. In 2009, a new corporate entity with
new rolling stock was inaugurated. As of 2010, PNR has been operating
two commuter rail services in Metro Manila and Bicol (PNR, 2014).
9
introducing an elevated version because of the many intersections. This
raised the cost from P1.5 billion to P2 billion.
The assistance to build the LRT project came from the Belgian
government which granted a PhP 300 million “soft” and interest-free loan
with a repayment schedule of 30 years. After 20 years, the project was
expected to pay for itself within a period of 20 years out of revenue
alone. A Belgian consortium composed of Ateliers de Constructions
Electriques de Charleroil, B (ACEC), Constructions Ferroviaires et
Metalliques, formerly Brugeoise et Nivelles), TEI (Tractionnel Engineering
International) and TC (Transurb Consult) provided an additional loan of
P700 million. The consortium provided the cars, signalling, power control,
telecommunications, training and technical assistance. The entire system
was expected to be financially "in the red" well into 1993. Against an
expected gross revenue of P365 million for the first operating year,
government losses were thought likely to reach P216 million. The system
was designed as a public utility rather than as a profit centre.
Construction of the line began in October 1981, and was the
responsibility of CDCP (Construction and Development Corporation of the
Philippines), with help from the Swiss firm of Losinger and the American
company Dravo, the latter, through its Philippine subsidiary. The
government appointed Electrowatt Engineering Services (EES) of Zurich
(Switzerland) to manage and supervise the project. EES set up offices in
Manila and became responsible for extension studies of the system (LRT,
2014).
10
Board (LTFRB). (Guillen and Ishida, 2003).
11
Law Description
diesel.
Source: Philippine Transport Sector Review: Urban Transport Study,
World Bank, July 2005
The design, construction of the EDSA rail transit system became MRTC’s
responsibility. This included the supply of the light rail vehicles, track,
signalling, communications, power distribution, and the furnishing of
other necessary equipment, facilities, and spare parts. MRTC was also
responsible for constructing the necessary civil works for the system
including fixed guide-ways, passenger stations, power substations, LRV
storage depots and maintenance facilities, and other facilities required to
make the light rail transit system operational.
After completion, Metro Rail was obligated to lease the system to DOTC,
which would operate the system, with Metro Rail providing the
maintenance. DOTC was required to pay rental fees to Metro Rail, to
include fees for repaying the loans taken out to finance the Project
(“Debt Rental Fees”).
In 1999, the Philippine Clean Air Act was enacted. While this national
policy has significant impact in reducing vehicle pollution, there was
12
spotty implementation with regard to highly pollutive two-stroke
motorcycle engines used by tricycles now under local government
regulation.
Such policies include national acts which regulate and make sure the
quality and proper regulation in land transportation such as the Public
Service Act passed in 1936 wherein “entry to the public transport service
has been administered through a quasi-judicial process that requires
proof of ownership, public necessity and financial capacity” (KBR 2010:
4). There is also Republic Act (RA) No. 4136 or the Land Transportation
and Traffic Code. There are also laws which specifically address safety
concerns in the road such as RA No. 8750 or the Seat Belt Law. There
are those which regulate the motor vehicles’ user charge as indicated in
RA No. 8794. The creation of specific government agencies to plan and
coordinate the development of the capital of the country Metro Manila
has also been made possible through national legislation. This is the case
for the MMDA which has been created through RA No. 7924.
pursuance of his duties as administrative head shall be promulgated in administrative orders.” ,Administrative Code
of 1987, Book III, Chapter 2, Section 3” .
13
who walk and cycle. This ordinance also made the Bike to Work Loan
Program, possible which gives residents who live within a range of 2 km
from the City Hall to avail of loans for bicycles at zero interest rate
(Magtoto, 2012). Furthermore, there is the Bike-to- Earn Loan Program
to help the “poorest of the poor” collect recyclable materials from houses
through the Green Heart “padyak” (pedicab) program under the Pasig
City Environment and Natural Resources Office (CENRO).
The most extensive local project that promotes NMT is the Marikina City
Bikeways Project which received a US$ 1.3 million funding from the
World Bank through the Global Environmental The most extensive local
project that promotes NMT is the Marikina City Bikeways Project which
received a US$ 1.3 million funding from the World Bank through the
Global Environmental Facility (WPRO, 2014). The Project led to the
creation of the Marikina Bikeways Office. Marikina City has a total of 52
km of bikeways available in both major and minor routes, making
Marikina a bicycle-friendly city from 2002 to date. The Marikina City local
government also launched a bike loan program for its employees through
Ordinance No. 92, Series of 2004. The 2006 Traffic Management Code,
Ordinance No. 133, Series of 2006 of Marikina provided for safe cycling,
the use of bikeways, and defined penalties for non-compliance.
14
Table 2. The Philippine Land-based Transport Organizations and
Responsibilities
Regulation Operatio
Polic n/ Other
Entity Econom Technic Remarks
y Function
ic al
s
Land
Transport
- Infrastructur
e
DPWH In charge of
roads and public
works
TRB Regulate toll
roads
PNCC Original
franchisee of
North Luzon
Expressways and
South Luzon
Expressways
LGUs Operation
Management of
city roads
MMDA Reviews
proposed
investments in
its role under a
RDC
Private Consulting &
construction
Transport
firms
Service
DOTC
LTFRB
LTO Also enforces
transportation &
traffic laws
OTC For transport
cooperatives only
Private Common carriers
IMBOA, Transport
FEJODAP, industry
FTODAP, etc associations
Traffic
15
Management
MMDA Also serves as
land use &
transportation
coordinating
body in Metro
Manila
LGUs
Rail Transport
Transport
Infrastructure
and service)
DOTC Operates LRT 3
PNR O&M for
suburban rail
LRTA O&M for LRT 1
and 2
MRTC Project company
for LRT 3
Private Consulting &
construction
firms
Source: Philippine Transport Sector Review: Urban Transport Study,
World Bank, July 2005
Even though LGUs in Metro Manila have their local traffic management
units, traffic enforcement and management is the primary responsibility
of the MMDA in particular, the roads considered national such as EDSA.
This is a special administrative body under the Office of the President,
which is responsible for coordinating national and local programs and
projects, including transport, of metro-wide concerns. The MMDA was re-
organized under RA 7924 in 1994, succeeding the Metro Manila Authority
of 1990 (under EO 392) and the earlier Metro Manila Commission of
1976. The governing and policy making body of the MMDA is the Metro
Manila Council (MMC), which is composed of the 17 LGUs, the president
of the Metro Manila Vice-Mayors League and the president of the Metro
Manila Councilors League. Heads of related national agencies such as
DPWH and DOTC are non-voting members of the council. The MMC is
headed by a chairman who is appointed by the Office of the President.
16
It could be noted that governance in urban transport management
involves the following: (1) infrastructure planning and implementation;
(2) provision and maintenance of roads; (3) public transport services,
traffic enforcement and management; and (4) land use planning and
control. From the road infrastructure, the focus is on improving the
vehicle traffic flow. Summarizing the management of urban transport, it
could be deducted that there is supposedly coordination and clear
delineation of functions and responsibilities. However, in reality, this is
not usually the case, especially in Metro Manila.
The PNP, which is under the Department of the Interior and Local
Government (DILG), is also involved in maintaining peace and order in
the road. There are usually police desks available in certain train and bus
terminals, especially during holiday seasons. Moreover, there are
interagency committees wherein different government agencies are
represented usually formed for easy coordination.
Each city has a planning office, City Planning and Development Office.
This office is mandated by law to spearhead the creation of local
government plans such as the Community Development Plan,
Comprehensive Land Use Plan, Annual and Long Term Development
Plans. These are presented to the Sanggunian and subjected for
enactment.
17
reflected in the country’s annual budget as indicated in the General
Appropriations Act (GAA). The Department of Budget and Management
(DBM), which is under the Office of the President, has the mandate of
undertaking “the formulation of the annual national budget in a way that
ensures the appropriate prioritization and allocation of funds to support
the annual program of government”. The making of a national budget has
a step by step procedure of budget preparation, budget legislation;
budget execution and budget accountability (DBM, 2012). Such a process
follows the check and balance feature of democratic governance. It also
involves the introduction of the consultation of stakeholders from the
poor and marginalized through “bottom up budgeting” and civil society
organizations for a more transparency and opening government
operations to greater participation from its citizens.
The annual budget has financial regulations for mass transport such as
the train system like the Metro Rail Transit (MRT) and the Light Railway
Transit (LRT) as well as agencies which has transport mandates such as
the MMDA. Furthermore, it includes budgetary provisions for subsidies for
vulnerable sectors of society such as senior citizens and people with
disabilities (PWDs) as well as for students. There are also provisions of
infrastructures such as designated seats and sometimes ramps for senior
citizens, females and/or pregnant women, children and PWDs in buses
and trains.
The national government agencies through the DOTC and the DPWH
provide transport infrastructure and facilities distinct from those funded
18
by local governments. These infrastructure and facilities include the
construction and maintenance of national roads and regional connections
like the Subic-Clark-Tarlac Expressway (SCTEX) - connecting Manila to
the northern provinces of Luzon and the South Luzon Tollway or Alabang-
Calamba-Sto.Tomas Expressway (ACTEX) - connecting Manila to the
southern provinces of Luzon). Each of these planning bodies has its own
decision-making process. Where inter-agency coordination and
integration is involved, for which there is hardly any set processes, the
heads of offices come up with ad hoc arrangements .
LTFRB also has the function “to determine, prescribe and approve and
periodically review and adjust, reasonable fares, rates and other related
charges, relative to the operation of public land transportation services
provided by motorized vehicles” (LTFRB, 2014). The LTFRB also has yet
to improve its capacity in policy determination of fare adjustments
through a Fare Determination Study to equip “with a firm knowledge
affecting fares, impact of fares in the public and the economy, and a
more realistic formula that balances the conflicting interest of operators
and the public”. So far, transport groups usually propose increases in
fares due to rising costs of fuel and vehicle spare parts. These groups
include organizations such as the Alliance of Concerned Transport
Operators (ACTO), Pangkalahatang Sanggunian Manila and Suburbs
Drivers Association Nationwide, Inc. (PasangMasda) and Federation of
Jeepney Operators and Drivers Association of the Philippines (FEJODAP)
and bus operators such as the Integrated MetroManila Bus Operators
Association (IMBOA). Stakeholder consultations and public hearings with
such groups are done before the fare matrix is determined.
19
In cases that adjustments in fares are approved, they are usually
announced through the mass media and the new fare matrix should be
posted in the public utility vehicle (PUV) operators’ offices, terminals and
waiting stations and the interior of each motor vehicles (LTFRB 2011:3).
The LTO has provisions for penalties to drivers and operators when there
is overcharging and undercharging of fares. The operator and conductor
of buses could also be fined for non-issuance of fare tickets (LTO, 2012).
D. Franchising in Road-based Public Transport Vehicles: Buses
and PUJs
LTFRB has the mandate through Executive Order No. 202 to “issue,
amend, revise, suspend or cancel Certificates of Public Convenience or
permits authorizing the operation of public land transportation services
by motorized vehicles” (Republic of the Philippines 1987). Public
transport buses are part of the public transport system but they are
privately-owned. Private operators compete for a limited number of
franchises. Meanwhile, franchises for tricycles and pedicabs are regulated
by the LGUs through cooperatives/operators or the tricycle operators and
drivers’ associations. The government assesses the need for bus services
through the LTFRB that conducts a Route Measurement Capacity (RMC)
study. The results of this study form the basis for the system of
franchises for buses. Bus franchises are then applied for by transport
enterprises and approved by the LTFRB.
In the past, the Metro Manila Authority directly provided public bus
transport services through the Metro Manila Transit Corporation (MMTC)
which operated the Metro Bus and Love Bus alongside private bus
companies, the late 1970s. The Metro Bus and Love Bus were meant to
augment bus services as well as to enhance the quality of bus transport
available to the public. These services were heavily subsidized; for a time
double-decker buses and articulated buses (Love Bus) were imported by
the government.
20
franchise issued by the LTFRB. The Manila Trial Court did not issue a
TRO, however, since it found the Manila Resolution not in conflict with
LTFRB’s franchising regulation (Santos 2013).
21
representatives are routinely heard in public hearing and consultations.
LTFRB sanctions operators and drivers who collect fares beyond what is
approved. However, the LTFRB has poor enforcement capacity, as
indicated by the huge number of public utility vehicles (colorum)
operating in Metro Manila without franchises or outside approved routes.
22
persons to attest to the applicant’s identity and age. A certificate of non-
registry from the National Statistics Office (NSO) or local civil registry
must also be submitted. An applicant may also submit other government
documents to prove his/her age –passport, Government Service
Insurance System (GSIS) ID, Social Security System (SSS) ID or any
government-issued ID (LTO, 2012).
LTO is also in charge of the registration of motor vehicles and the conduct
of emission tests. Owners of vehicles for hire or for public transportation
must submit valid Certificate of Public Convenience duly confirmed by the
LTFRB. (For tricycles, a valid MTOP must be submitted.) Vehicles must
also pass the Smoke Emission Test to be qualified for registration.
Owners of vehicles must register their vehicles every year (LTO, 2012).
The MMDA employs traffic enforcers and metro aides (street cleaners and
23
landscapers). MMDA coordinates with Land Transportation Office (LTO)
and the LGUs in Metro Manila on traffic and transport matters. The single
ticketing system is the primary system of enforcing traffic rules and
regulations. Traffic offenses are recorded and erring drivers can only
renew their licenses if they have no outstanding fines and in case of
repeated violations, have attended mandatory traffic orientation
seminars.
Over the past few years, closed-circuit cameras have increased in major
thoroughfares (e.g., EDSA and Commonwealth Avenue). The system is
useful in traffic management (traffic signal coordination), recording of
traffic rule violations, and emergency road response.
LTFRB is also mandated to ensure that PUV operators and their drivers
“attend trainings/seminars on transport management, road safety and
good driving habits to be conducted or accredited by the Board” (LTFRB,
2011).
24
public consultations, and the proposed ordinance is deliberated upon and
passed by the sanggunian.
In 1996, the Metro Manila Council approved the towing of illegally parked
vehicles (MMDA Regulation 96-003, see MMDA, 1996). It prescribes the
process for MMDA accreditation of public and private entities for towing
services.
Towing services must operate safe impounding areas which are subject to
inspection by the MMDA. Upon arrival at the impounding area, the towing
official or accredited private towing service must issue a TVR for a towed
25
vehicle. The towing service, private or public, is liable for any damage to
the vehicle being towed and for items therein that might be lost.
The law specifies that all fees collected shall be used exclusively for
purposes of “(1) road maintenance and the improvement of the road
drainage, (2) for the installation of adequate and efficient traffic lights
and road safety device, and (3) for the air pollution control” (Republic of
the Philippines 2000).
All funds collected must be deposited into four trust accounts of the
National Treasury namely: (1) Special Road Support Fund which should
get 80% of the all the monies; (2) Special Local Road Fund which should
get 5% ; (3) Special Road Safety Fund; and (4) Special Vehicle Pollution
Fund which should get 7.5%.
The Special Road Support Fund and Special Local Road Fund shall be
administered by the DPWH and the Special Vehicle Pollution Control Fund
by the DOTC. Seventy percent (70%) of the Special Road Support Fund
must be allocated to the maintenance of and improvement of drainage of
national primary roads and 30% must be allocated to the maintenance
and improvement of secondary roads. The Special Road Safety Fund
supports the installation of traffic lights and other road safety devices
(Republic of the Philippines, 2000).
The LTFRB has quasi-judicial powers with which to deal with complaints
against public utility vehicle service providers. LTFRB 2011 Revised Rules
of Practice and Procedure Before the Land Transportation Franchising and
Regulatory Board (LTFRB 2011a) contains specifies the process for filing
and resolution of complaints. Complaints can be filed with the LTFRB
Central or Regional Offices. The LTFRB then will study the merits of the
complaint and decide en banc. Complainants can follow up their case
through the website of the Land Transportation Franchising and
Regulatory Board (LTFRB) which contains the schedules of the hearings
26
(LTFRB, 2014).
Any person can file a complaint with LTFRB. The LTFRB then will study
the merits of the complaint and if warranted schedule hearings.
The LTFRB has also launched a campaign called “Oplan Isnabero” against
taxi drivers who provide their services selectively and refuse to convey
passengers with heavy loads or going into heavy traffic areas. LTFRB,
MMDA and LTO traffic enforcement personnel are posted in shopping
malls and PUV/PUB terminals for this purpose (Carcamo, 2012).
The LRTs and MRT have customer complaint booths at each station. They
also use social media like Twitter for receiving and responding to
commuter feedback.
DOTC reports that of all types of vehicles (land, water, air) motor vehicles
have shown the fastest increase at an average 6.0% annual growth in
the in the last decade. These vehicles emit particulate matters (PM),
sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO) and
carbon dioxide (CO2). DOTC has also reported that from 1990 to 2007
there has been a 150% increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
from 10.0 Mt CO2 to 26.55 Mt CO2. Jeepneys which have old diesel
engines constitute 50% of all emissions of particulate matters (PM) in
Metro Manila while motorcycles and tricycles are responsible for 45% of
all volatile organic compounds (VOC) emissions (DOTC, 2014).
The Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999 (RA 8749) passed by the Philippine
Congress and signed into law by the President states that Filipinos have a
27
right to breathe clean air.7 It regulates the release of various hazardous
chemicals in the environment primarily through the Department of
Environment and Natural Resources (DENR). It regulates emissions of
motor vehicles through the DOTC, Department of Trade and Industry
(DTI) and LGUs consistent with this law’s provision on having an
Integrated Air Quality Improvement Framework (IAQIF)8 (Republic of the
Philippines 1999). IAQIF has an Action Plan that was adopted by the
DENR in 2000 through Department Administrative Order (DAO) No.
2000-82 which serves as the “blueprint with which all government
agencies must comply with to attain and maintain clean and healthy air”
(DENR, 2000 and Republic of the Philippines, 1999).
7
With regards to noise pollution, the DOTC reports that there is so far no
“no periodical measurement” of noise in Manila (DOTC, 2014).
8IAQIF has an Action Plan that was adopted by the DENR in 2000 through Department Administrative Order (DAO)
No. 2000-82 which serves as the “blueprint with which all government agencies must comply with to attain and
maintain clean and healthy air” (DENR 2000).
28
5) Non-motorized transport-- development of bikeways and
conversion of roads to pedestrian havens such as in the case of
Marikina City and the University of the Philippines (UP) in Quezon
City
6) Better freight and logistics management
7) Promotion of cleaner fuel – passing of bills in Congress for tax
subsidy for electric vehicle and components, manufacture and
importation; utilization of compressed natural gas (CNG) through
the National Gas Vehicle program for Public Transport (NGVPPT);
diversifying the country’s fuel sources ensuring solutions against
air pollution caused by vehicular emissions
8) Use of biofuel--implementation of the Philippine Biodiesel Program
under the Department of Energy (DOE), Philippine Coconut
Authority and the National Biofuel Board through the mandatory
requirement of 2% biodiesel blend and 10% ethanol blend
9) Behavioral Change-- encouraging a car-free day, carpooling and
anti-idling campaigns; promotion of ecosafe driving awareness
program with Honda Philippines, UP and DOTC and use of bike
lanes
10) Environmental monitoring--identifying potential hotspots and
prioritizing establishment of stations; identifying potential staff for
highly urbanized cities (HUCs) to train, training with the DENR,
updating of baseline roadside noise level data in 2010 and setting
up an Inter-Agency Technical Working Group.
The DENR works with MMDA, LTO, Philippine Medical Association (PMA)
and the Kapisanan ng mga Brodkaster ng Pilipinas (KBP) to implement
the anti-smoke belching campaign in Metro Manila (DENR, 2014).
Smoking in public places like airports, ship terminals, and train and bus
stations is banned by RA 9211 or the Tobacco Regulation Act of 2003
(Republic of the Philippines, 2003).
9
Senior citizens are those who are 60 years above.
10
PWDs or “disabled persons” are referred to by RA No. 7277 as those “those suffering from restriction of
different abilities, as a result of a mental, physical or sensory impairment, to perform an activity in the manner or
within the range considered normal for a human being” (Republic of the Philippines 1991).
29
The DOTC is tasked to assist senior citizens to fully gain access to public
transport facilities. Each local government has also its own Office of
Senior Citizens Affairs (OSCA) which issues senior citizen identification
cards. Such a card is used to avail of discounts in public transportation.
Alongside senior citizens, pregnant women and women who are
accompanied by very young children, and PWDs are accorded seats in
PUVs as well as in mass transit systems.
Such special treatment is more visibly enforced in the MRT and LRT
compared to PUBs. The first coach of the MRT and LRT, for example, are
reserved for the vulnerable groups. As a matter of policy though not in
practice, at least five seats should be reserved for PWDs in regular PUBs,
four seats in air-conditioned buses near the entrance doors, and two
seats in PUJs (LTFRB, 2011). It is also mandatory that bus terminals and
stations should have wide doors or access for the entry of wheelchairs as
well as the provision of ramps and waiting lounges and benches.
Pursuant to Republic Act No. 7192 (An Act Promoting the Integration of
Women as Full and Equal Partners of Men in Development and Nation
Building and for Other Purposes) and Executive Order No. 348 (Approval
and Adoption of the Philippine Development Plan for Women for 1989 to
1992), DOTC has taken initiatives to institutionalize Gender and
Development (GAD) in the plans, programs and budget in the DOTC-
Central Office, Attached Agencies and Corporations on 03 July 1995
(DOTC 2014). It coordinates these activities with the Philippine
Commission on Women. There is also another office under DOTC, the
Office of Transport Security (OTS) which has sought to reorient its staff
and clientele towards greater gender-sensitivity through the OTS GAD
Focal Point System (OTS, 2013). DOTC also has a Gender and
Development Desk in its website wherein commuters can report cases of
sexual harassment, specifying in which terminal, railway station, airport
and/or seaport. (DOTC, 2013).
30
Awarding of projects to private contractors is done through a bidding
process following government guidelines in the Procurement of
Infrastructures Projects (Government of the Philippines, 2010). The
government agency in charge of a project releases an “Invitation to Bid”
advertised in newspaper of nationwide circulation, the Philippine General
Electronic Procure System (PhilGEPS) website, and in the premises of the
Procuring Entity. Only eligible bidders as defined by the above
government document are eligible to participate. Such bidders must have
demonstrated in the past that they have undertaken a project similar to
what the government transport agency is looking for. The bidder also has
the responsibility to inspect the project site and all the contents of the
Bidding Documents released by the government agency concerned. Bids
undergo a rigorous process of evaluation.
The huge demand for rail transit (MRT, LRT1, LRT2, and to a lesser extent
PNR) clearly shows the way for government and the business sector to
dramatically increase investment in efficient public transport (Romero,
Guillen, Cordova, 2013). The MRT, in particular, is a cornerstone project
of the DOTC to address the chronic traffic congestion in Manila through a
contract to MRTC. The MRTC built, leased and transferred the MRT
System under the Philippine Build, Operate and Transfer (BOT) law (MRT,
2012).
The MRTC obtained support in 1997 from both local and foreign private
sector institutions such as the international financial consultant JP
Morgan, loans from the Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi and Japan Export-
Import Bank (JEXIM) amounting to US$ 465 million (PhP 12.32 billion),
the Postal Bank of the Czech Republic and Czech Export Credit Agency as
well as from a group of local banks (Ibid).
Plans to build this connector road were set as early as the 1970s.
31
However, due to some complications and unfavorable policies related to
the franchise of the project, implementation has been stalled (Dumlao,
2013). To add to the complication, Skyway 3 and the NLEX-SLEX
Connector share a common alignment, set to be built above a segment of
the PNR, which interferes with the latter’s Right of Way (ROW) (Cruz,
2012). Proposed resolutions of the conflict, such as the imposition of a
“right-to-use” fee, will effectively increase the cost of the project by P7
Billion (Reyes, 2011).
The strategy of building more roads, however, has been criticized as too
car-centric and not being inclusive. Building more roads simply
encourages Metro Manilans to acquire private vehicles rather than take
public transportation.
32
Apart from the residents themselves, industries surrounding Manila,
especially those that heavily depend on the transport of supplies and end
products that pass through Manila are adversely affected by congestion.
In the case of the NLEX-SLEX link, its interference with the ROW of the
PNR has been an issue. As part of this Public-Private-Partnership, the
government is shouldering P4.6 Billion Pesos for the rights to use the
PNR’s ROW. This is in response to an earlier proposal to charge MPTDC
for the PNR ROW, increasing the total project cost by PhP7Billion (Reyes,
2011).
Unlike other infrastructure projects, this project does not interfere with
any private property as the entire NLEX-SLEX connector road is built
parallel and on top of already existing roads (and rail, as discussed
above). This eliminates the need to compensate individuals and groups
whose property would have to give way to its construction. Other
projects that could involve the clearing of informal settlements would
require processes of consultation, compensation, and relocation of
affected residents.
These two competing proposals both aim to connect the North and South
Expressways and decongest Metro Manila, and both were eventually
given the go signal to push through with their respective constructions
(Balea, 2012).
33
latter will also have links to Manila Bay’s harbor, making easing the flow
of goods from Manila’s industrial peripheries.
The NEDA makes the final decision on big infrastructure projects such as
this. All projects costing P300 Million and above are subjected to NEDA
Board’s deliberation and approval. This project is a joint venture
agreement between the Metro Pacific Tollways Development Corporation
(MPTDC) and the Philippine National Construction Company (PNCC)
(Diola, 2014).
34
case of compensating for PNR’s ROW, imposing a fee on MPTDC was
considered.
Article 6.5 and 6.6 of the revised guidelines for Joint Venture PPPs, and
Section 3 of Republic Act 9184 (Government Procurement Reform Act of
2003), both provide for the public monitoring of procurement processes
and project implementation.
There are two stages of evaluation prior to the awarding of projects. The
criteria for evaluation are as follows: technical soundness, operational
feasibility, environmental standards, and project financing.
The previous illustration on the case of the NLEX-SLEX link also gives
light to the process of smaller infrastructure projects like flyovers. Most
of these smaller projects cover localized problems, such as inter-city or
inter-barangay mobility. While these projects address problems of
congestion, they are also part of development plans either at the city,
municipality or regional level. In these projects, consultations are also
done, with all possible stakeholders, as represented by CSOs and NGOs.
The DPWH regional offices conduct budget consultations to enter into a
11
Public Utility Projects could be classifies as solicited projects or unsolicited proposals. Solicited projects are
projects which are identified by a government agency or a local government unit as part of their list of
priority projects in line with National Development Plans. These projects are opened for bidding.
35
Budget Partnership Agreement (BPA) with their respective stakeholders.
Among the infrastructure projects usually entered into these
consultations are road widening projects, and construction of urban
facilities such as loading and unloading bays (Nepomuceno, 2012).
The Amended Philippine BOT Law (Republic Act 7718) governs the PPP
Process for these smaller projects. Projects are opened for bidding to the
general public and are judged on the same four criteria mentioned
previously (technical soundness, operational feasibility, environmental
standards and project financing). However, local governments are given
more autonomy in the approval and awarding of projects, depending on
the project cost. Generally, all projects costing below P200 Million, are
approved by either the municipal, provincial, city, or regional
development council.
A joint venture project of this nature, under the PPP program of the
government does not transfer the ownership of infrastructure to the
private sector. The government retains ownership of the project, even
beyond its completion (Austria, 2013).
V. Issues in the Public Transport Sector
Traffic congestion is usually the first issue that comes into mind in
discussions of challenges to mobility in Metro Manila. Heavy traffic is
deemed “normal”, a situation characterized by “too many vehicles, with
too few rides” (Verzola, 1997: 1 in Gozun 2001). However, according to
the UN Habitat (2013: 8), traffic congestion is a “major indication of the
disjuncture between land use planning and transport services.” Such a
situation has caused Metro Manila to lose the equivalent of 5% of its GDP
annually. These losses due to traffic account for an annual P15 billion loss
due to “lost man-hours, repairs and maintenance and lost fuel” (MRT
2012). Added to these are unquantifiable discomforts to commuters and
vehicle owners undergo when they travel through major streets.
With the incomes of people in urban areas also increasing, there is also a
higher propensity for people to dream of buying their own cars as
reinforced by both cultural and commercial systems which facilitate the
36
showcasing of their status in society as well as the aspiration for a more
personal freedom (UN Habitat 2013: 4). This further promotes the
encroachment of roads and sidewalks by street vendors and use of roads
as terminals by both formal (ex. jeepneys and tricycles) and informal
(ex. pedicabs) transport systems.
37
transport in the Philippines are very difficult to achieve given the huge
bureaucracy and the politics involved in policy initiation. This is a huge
challenge particularly to city and municipality government levels to
improve the mobility of people, goods and services. There is an alarming
issue, especially with the construction of huge infrastructure projects
involving road-widening, building new flyovers and connecting major
roads. Such processes usually are not participatory, breeding a lot of
conflicts with affected communities as well as the utility of the projects in
having long-term development impacts. Building more roads which is the
continuous trend in the country, especially in Metro Manila, to
accommodate and solve traffic congestion will eventually lead to more
problems since this will only encourage the acquisition of more privately
owned vehicles in the future.
Apart from the transport governance process being subject to too much
agency discretion and lack of inter-agency habits of cooperation, there
are a myriad issues that have remained unresolved over decades,
including informal settlements, right of way acquisition, slow judicial
process in determining transport cases, and lack of sufficient legislation
on traffic and transport issues.
38
passengers, public transport operators and government agencies” (KBR
2010: 4).
The bright lining is that most transport agencies and officials recognize
the institutional weaknesses of the transport governance and are open to
realistic solutions. Many of them have used concepts such as sustainable
transport and inclusive mobility to frame their own initiatives. The policy
environment is increasingly becoming more hospitable to real reform,
especially in the wake of the success of the current government to
demonstrate political will in dramatically enhancing overall quality of
governance in the Philippines.
39
VII. References
Agcaoili, L. (2014). ‘MPIC, PNCC set to ink joint venture’, Philippine Star,
January 21.Retrieved from
http://www.philstar.com/business/2014/01/21/1281058/mpic-pncc-set-
ink-joint-venture on 02 March 2014.
Cruz, N. H. (2012). Row over NLEX SLEX connector road, Philippine Daily
Inquirer, August 2.Retrieved from http://opinion.inquirer.net/33941/row-
over-nlex-slex-connector-road on 02 March 2014.
40
http://www.dotc.gov.ph/DOTCGAD_desk.html on 24 February 2014.
Kellogg Brown & Root Pty Ltd (KBR) (2010). Final Report: PEGR-funded
Reform Agenda on RA 008-02: Formulating a National Transport Plan.
41
AusAid and Philippines-Australia Partnership for Economic Governance
Reforms (PEGR).
42
No. 02-33.Retrieved from
http://www.aaphilippines.org/userfiles/file/MMDA_Res_02-33.pdf on 24
February 2014.
43
law/transportation-laws/2218-certificate-of-public-convenience-cpc.html
on 05 March 2014.
44
02 March 2014.
Interviews:
Personal Interview with Engr. Arnel Manresa (2014), Chief Road Planning,
Department of Transportation and Communication, February 28.
45