Dr. Aser B.

Javier
aserjavier@yahoo.com
 Chapter 2
Review of Related
Literature
 Chapter 2. Review of Literature
• Terms that are used within the study particularly from
the title, problem statement, objectives and
conceptual framework should be defined
operationally.
• How is the term used in your study?
 Chapter 2. Review of Literature
The purpose of a literature review is three-fold:
1. to survey the current state of knowledge in the AREA of inquiry
2. to identify key authors, articles, theories, and findings in that
area, and
3. to identify gaps in knowledge in that research area.

A well-conducted literature review should indicate whether

 the initial research questions have already been addressed in the literature
 there are newer or more interesting research questions available
the original research questions should be modified or changed

It can also provide some intuitions or potential answers to the questions of interest and/or
help identify theories that have previously been used to address similar questions.
 WORKSHOP 4
Writing the Literature Review
I. Review of policies related to the problem to be solved.
(What has been the interventions made and actions pursued
by the institution and other offices such as national/local
government, non-government, and international agencies
that require attention?)
II. Review of why previous policies did not work
III. Review of other literature and reference related to the
problem to be solved. (What were the findings in the related
literature? What are the missing or lacking information?)
 Research
Framework
Theoretical Framework
Conceptual Framework
 Research Framework
Independent Variable
- Predictor and explains the variation in the
variable. These are the causes

Dependent Variable
- Those you try to predict. Variations are the
ones you are explaining in the study. They are
the outcomes.
Crafting the Research Framework
 Sample Framework of the Study
Theory of the
LED Concept
1. Stakeholders' LED definition study
2. LED Vision
Predictors
3. Local economic situation LED Enabling Environment
(Independent 1. Tradition
Variable) 2. Hard infrastructure
3. Soft infrastructure
4. Research and development
LED Information Structure 5. Livability
1. Institutional interaction Outcomes
2. Personal network
3. Use of ICT
(Dependent
4. Print media Variable)
Conceptual Framework
Identified RSA
Program / Policy
Alternative /
RSA Best RSA Approaches across Approaches
Practices Countries

Enabling Environment
- Compliance Factors
RSA in the Students
- Demand and Supply
Philippines Motivation for
Factors
Compliance
- Financial
Considerations
- Students willingness
RSA Identified
Institutional
Implications Government
Environment
(Legal, Capacities (Legal,
- Organizational /
Developmental, Financial and
Technical Capacities of
Labor Market) Developmental) to
Public School/Health
Facilities for RSA Implement RSA
- Private Sector / LGU /
NGA Engagement
Potential
RSA Resources Interventions of
Needed Institutional
Stakeholders
(NGA, LGU,
Private Sector).
 WORKSHOP 4
Structuring the Research Framework
• What are the key variables (factors) of your study?
• What are the specific sub-variables of your study?
• What are the independent and dependent variables?
 Chapter 3
Methodology
 Chapter 3 Methodology
3.1 Research Design
• Short description and justification of the kind or type of
research to be undertaken
• Design should enable to answer the research problem
• Mode of research, whether qualitative or quantitative
or both should be stated
 Chapter 3 Methodology
3.2 Locale of the Study
• Specific place where the research will be conducted
should be specified and the criteria or process for the
selection of the site or location of the study
• Background information of the site relevant to the
objectives should be stated.
 Chapter 3 Methodology
3.3 Unit of the Study
• Describe the population of the study and the various
subgroups within the population
• Specific place where the research will be conducted
should be specified and the criteria or process for the
selection of the site or location of the study
• Background information of the site relevant to the
objectives should be stated.
Considerations for Research Methods
Consideration Social Science Natural Science
Research Ethics, Similar considerations Similar
budget, time considerations
Design Variety of choices quantitative
Methods Observation, Experimental, meta-
ethnography, case analysis
studies, descriptive
Types of Methods According to nature According to nature
and purpose of study and purpose of study
 Types of Research Design
Quantitative Qualitative
To measure variables and verify To understand meanings, look
existing theories or hypotheses or at, describe and understand
question them, to generate new experience, ideas, beliefs and
hypotheses based on the results of values, intangibles such as
data collected about different these
variables through the use of
measurement (by assigning
numbers or values to the attributes
of people, objects, events,
perceptions, or concepts)
 Qualitative Quantitative
Focus Quality Quantity
Purpose To observe, interpret and To measure, test, and generalize
understand in depth
Types of Data Words, images, objects Numbers and statistics
Data Approach Unstructured, free-form Structured response, categories
provided
Forms of Data Open-ended responses, field notes, Precise measurements using
Collected reflections, observations structured and validated data
collection instruments
Instruments Researcher, interview, observation, Test, observation, questionnaire,
documents, interview schedule survey
Sample Small, non-random Large, random
Design Flexible Predetermined
Findings Comprehensive, richly descriptive Precise, numerical
 Who are the
Sample Problem Statement possible
respondents

What is the local economic development

What are the
(LED) enabling environment and its
variables of
the study
information structure in Nagoya City,
Ichinomiya City, and Kota Town in the Aichi
How do we
Prefecture, Chubu Region, Japan?intend to get
data
 WORKSHOP 5
Pre-selection of Respondents
• Who are the possible respondents of the study?
• What are the possible sources of information (data)? Primary
and secondary
• What are the information needed based on the variables?
• How do we intend to get the information needed?
Selection of
Respondents
 Sampling
• Selecting sample from the target population
Carefully select the target population
Identify selection criteria
 While selecting a sample, reasonable care should be
taken to avoid a biased sample (e.g., sample based on
convenience) that may generate biased observations

• Sample is a subset of a population

(group of individuals of interest to the
researcher)
 Sample Calculator
http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html
 3 Probability Sampling Techniques
Random Systematic Sampling Stratified Sampling
Sampling
When Large population Population is homogenous Population divided by
characteristics
How Independent from System by which sample Recreate sample on a
the others size, population and smaller scale- gender
selection is made social class etc
Pros Equal chances of Even sampling Reduce bias
being selected
Cons There is bias Compromised complex
because of large randomness
population
 Probability Sampling
• Each eligible member of the population has a specific
and known chance of being included in the sample.
• It is important to have a complete list of the
members of the populations.
• The samples will be representatives of the
population.
• Permits generalization to the population where the
samples were drawn.
 Probability Sampling
1. Simple Random
• Each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected for the
sample (lottery, toss coin, assigning random numbers, and generating random
numbers in Microsoft Excel)
• Require a way of naming or numbering the target population and then using some
type of raffle method to choose those to make up the sample.
• The advantages are that your sample should represent the target population and
eliminate sampling bias.
• The disadvantage is that it is very difficult to achieve
(i.e. time, effort and money).
How to Create a Random Sample in Excel Video
 Probability Sampling
2. Stratified
• Divides the entire population into different
subgroups or strata that share same characteristics,
then randomly selects the final subjects
proportionally from the different strata, ensures the
presence of the key subgroup within the sample
• Gathering such a sample would be extremely time
consuming and difficult to do (disadvantage).
• The advantage is that the sample should be highly
representative of the target population and
therefore we can generalize from the results
obtained.
 Probability Sampling
3. Systematic
- Create a list of every member of the population. From the
list, we randomly select the first sample element from the
first k elements on the population list. Thereafter, select
every kth element on the list.
4. Cluster sampling
- Every member of the population is assigned to one, and only
one, group. Each group is called a cluster. A sample of
clusters is chosen, using a probability method (often simple
random sampling). Only individuals within sampled clusters
are surveyed.
Probability Sampling Techniques Video
 Non-Probability Sampling
- Members of the sample are drawn based on judgment of the
researcher.
- While selection is non-random, it is worthwhile attempting to
increase representativeness so as to improve validity.

1. Quota - numbers within levels are determined by the researcher.

Selection may or may not be random within each quota.
2. Purposive (including snowball) - a select group is targeted with
sample obtained in non-random way.
3. Convenience - sample of available participants, an accidental
sample.
4. Voluntary Response – people who chose themselves to be part of
sample
 Non-Probability Sampling - Purposive Sampling
Chubu Bureau of Economy, Trade and Industry (Chubu METI)
Aichi Prefectural Government
Nagoya City Ichinomiya City Kota Town
Nagoya City Local Ichinomiya City Local Kota Town Local
Government Government Government
ASEAN-Nagoya Club Chamber of Commerce Chamber of Commerce
Nagoya University Aichi University of
Technology
Nagoya Municipal Monozukuri Research
Industrial Research Institute
Institute
President One Company Mugisyusei Co., Ltd. Suzuki Chemical Industry,
Co.
 Research Instruments
• Tools for data collection
• Validity and reliability of research depends to a
large extent on the appropriateness of the research
instruments
Qualitative Quantitative
Instruments Researcher, interview, Test, observation, questionnaire,
observation, documents, survey, experiments
interview schedule, FGD
questionnaires, Delphi responses
Data Collection
Methods
 Survey Methods
Observation Interrogative
Characteristics Inspection of activities, Questioning of the subject and
people, situation, events collects responses by personal or
without eliciting responses impersonal means
Measurement Condition, behaviors, events, Through interviews, inquiry,
processes, people focus group discussion
Techniques Incognito, informed visits, Probing- assertion of
field visits understanding, repeat the
question, repeat the reply,
question clarification
Problems Costs, removal of bias of Skills of researcher, Costs
researcher
 Types of Survey Methods
Types Description Pros and cons
Self-administered- Use of technology to reach greater Low turnout rate, cultural
mail, telephone geographic coverage bias, moderate costs
Key Informant Face to face interview of key Setting up of
Interviews respondents appointments
FGD Small, diverse group whose opinion Cost effective, researcher
to key questions are studied do not need to move
around much
Delphi Identification of experts of a Difficulty in handling
subject and continuous experts, time consuming,
communication until a particular limited sample
response has been distilled and
Data Collection
Instrument
Tips in Preparing Interview/Survey Questions
 Identify your target interviewee/sample.
 Draw up a set of questions that seem appropriate to what you need to
find out.
 Do start with some basic closed questions (name etc.).
 Don't ask leading questions.
 Try them out with a colleague.
 Pre-test them, then refine the questions so that they are genuinely
engaged with your research object.
 Contact your interviewees and ask permission, explain the interview and
its use.
 Carry out interviews and keep notes/tape.
 Transcribe.
 Thematically analyze results and relate these findings to others from
your other research methods.
Identification of LED Concept
• What is your definition of local economic development (LED)?
• How do you conceptualize and implement LED policies?
• How do you prioritize LED-related policies?
• Why do you adopt or implement LED policies?
• How do you think businesses can contribute particularly in the communities?

Identification of LED Enabling Environment

• What are the competencies do the community need to engage into LED activities? How do you develop and enhance their
competencies in business?
• What are your support mechanisms for new and existing businesses in the community?
• How do you gather feedback from the community and businesses regarding existing LED policies and programs?
• How do you link local production of businesses using local resources of the community with the needs and demands of the
consumers?

Identification of LED Information Infrastructure

• How do you inform the stakeholders (local government, community and businesses) about the LED-related information? What
media or strategies do you use (for example, postings on Internet website, advertisements on television, radio or local newspaper,
conduct of meetings, etc.)?
• How do you manage the information, like the presentation of data and content?
• How do you think is LED information captured by the people/business? How do you think this LED information can be transformed
into business opportunities by the businesses/people?
• Why do you think not all can capture LED information that can be useful for their business?
• What are the challenges for businesses to access and avail of any information that will help them?
Four Levels of Measurement
 Levels of Measurement
• Describes the relationship among the values that are assigned to the
attributes for a variable
• Helps in deciding how to interpret the data from that variable
• Helps identify what statistical analysis is appropriate on the values that were
assigned
 Nominal Scale
• When measuring using a nominal scale, one simply names
or categorizes responses - Names/Labels/Categories
• No arithmetic properties
• No order is implied
• Measurement: Frequency counts (Mode)
Please tick the LED enabling environment in Nagoya City, Ichinomiya City, and
Kota Town.
__ 1 - Hard infrastructure
__ 2 - Soft infrastructure
__ 3 - Tradition
__ 4 - Research and development
__ 5 - Livability
 Ordinal Scale
• Order
• Ranking of attributes along the continuum of the
characteristic being scaled
• No info about the interval between any two brands
Rank the importance of the following communication channels to get business-
related information? (5 being the most preferred and 1 being the least preferred)
___ National/Local newspaper
___ ICT (website, etc.)
___ Brochures
___ Business associations
___ Meetings with national/local government
 Interval Scale
• Interprets not only the order of scale but also the
distance between them
• No absolute value of zero

5 4 3 2 1
Extremely Very Moderately Slightly Not at
satisfied satisfied satisfied satisfied all
satisfied
How satisfied are the
businesses in the services
offered to them by the LGU?
 Ratio Scale
• Highest level of measurement
• Order
• Value between units
• With absolute zero

How many small businesses avail of various loan

assistance provided by the LGU for the past five years?
 Level of Properties Examples Descriptive Statistics Graphs
Measurement
Nominal / Categorical/Labels of attributes Dichotomous Frequencies Bar
Categorical Discrete •Yes / No Percentage Pie
Arbitrary •Gender Mode
No order Types / Categories
•colour
•Jersey numbers in
basketball
Ordinal / Rank Ordered categories Ranking of favourites Frequencies Bar
Ranks Academic grades Mode Pie
Distances between attributes Median Stem & leaf
do not have any meaning
Interval Equal distances between values Thoughts, behaviours, Frequencies Bar
feelings, etc. on a Likert Mode Pie
scale Median Stem & Leaf
Degrees Celsius or Mean Boxplot
Fahrenheit Likert Scale Histogram

Ratio Continuous / Metric / Age Mean Bar

Meaningful 0 allows ratio Weight Standard deviation Pie
statements VO2 max Skewness Histogram
(e.g., A is twice as large as B) Deg. Kelvin Kurtosis Boxplot
Absolute zero Stem&Leaf
James Neill, 2009
 Summary of Descriptive Statistics & Graphical
Summaries for the Four Levels of Measurement
 Considerations in Data Collection: VARCT
1. Validity
• The most basic approach to determining the
validity of the questions asked is to refer to
objectives.
• Ensuring measuring the right measures: “Are
you measuring what you intend to measure?”
 Considerations in Data Collection: VARCT
2. Accuracy
• The data collection technique that will
provide the most accurate results is desired
when selecting a data collection method.
• However, accuracy will have to balance with
the cost of data collection. Usually the higher
the accuracy, the higher the costs.
 Considerations in Data Collection: VARCT
3. Reliability
• Concerned whether the responses are
consistent
• The most basic test of reliability is
repeatability or the ability to obtain the same
data from several measurements of the same
group collected in the same way
 Considerations in Data Collection: VARCT
4. Cost
• All expenditures for data collection—including time
to develop and test the questionnaire, time for the
completion of data collection instruments, and the
printing costs—are costs to the program.
5. Time
• Consider time required to complete the instrument,
data collection, analysis, and write up.
 Pre-Testing of Instruments
Source: Broucke, 2017

• Ensure understandability, readability, good

lay-out, attractiveness, interest, and check
out offensiveness
 Research Methodology
What are the Who are the
Qualitative
sources of analysis was employed in the study to observe and understand
respondents
the enabling environment in local economic development from the local officials of
information?
Nagoya City, Ichinomiya City, and Kota Town in Aichi Prefecture, Japan. The
researcher performed document analysis, key informant interviews, direct
participation and observation, and introspection. In line with this, the primary data
of the study are key informant interviews (KIIs) and site visits, which included data
logging of interview write-ups as well as taking field notes or a combination of
“looking, listening and asking” (Lofland & Lofland, 1984 as cited by Scott & Silbey,
What are the
undated). For the secondary data, a desk review of relevant literature about LED
data
and Japan’s LED as well as the documents provided by the said local governments
instruments?
and local institutions served as part of data logging. This was done in order to get
further inputs and clarify some concepts shared during the KIIs.
Conducting prior research a list of guide questions were pretested and
translated to Japanese language and context to to be essential in gaining access to
the organizations studied (Lofland and Lofland, 1984 as cited by Scott & Silbey,
undated).
 WORKSHOP 5
Methodology
• What is your research methodology to analyze your study?
• What research instruments will you employ to meet the
objectives of your study?
• Who are the sample of the study?
• What factors or aspect will you measure/analyze? Prepare
your interview/survey questions using Nominal, Ordinal,
Interval, Ratio scales of measure
Data Analysis
 Data Analysis
• Method in which data is collected and
organized so that one can derive helpful
information from it.
• The purpose of data analysis is to look at
what the data is trying to tell us. What does
the data show or do? What does the data not
show or do?
 Data Analysis
• The analysis, regardless of whether the data is
qualitative or quantitative, may:
• describe and summarize the data.
• identify relationships between variables.
• compare variables.
• identify the difference between variables.
• forecast outcomes.
In Japan, we remove daily language barriers, we improve
internet connectivity, we make airports capable of receiving
business jets, we make it easy for foreign businesses to
consult local governments and we enrich education
environment for children overseas
 We provide information about industrial
systems, structures and product sales, we
provide access to experts and incentives of
national and local governments for foreign
business
 Coding and Basic Theme Analysis
Remove daily language barriers
Livability of the
Enrich education environment for area
children

Access to industry information and Availability of

internet connectivity Information LED Enabling
infrastructure Environment
Regional airport infrastructures for
foreign business jets
Access to
Access to experts and governments business
consultation for foreign businesses
support
Availability of incentives for foreign programs
business
Results and
Discussion
 Research Findings
Mean
- it includes every value in your data set as part of the
calculation
- The average value of numbers in a set
- Add up all the numbers and divide by the total number
of values

In 2016, there is an average of 50 business associations comprised of small

businesses that regularly attend the monthly business meetings organized
by the LGU.
 Research Findings
Median
- The middle value (number or categories)
- Put all the values in order (lowest to highest), and then look for
the middle value
- Used to separate the higher half from the lower half
The monthly business meetings organized by the LGU in 2016 had a median of 56
participants that represent their respective business associations.
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
# of 56 52 56 34 44 36 122 56 51 52 62 63
participants
Median: 34 36 44 51 52 52 56 56 56 62 63 122
Lowest to
highest
 Research Findings
Mode
- The value that occurs most often

There was a total of 56 participants that frequently represented their respective business
associations in the regular monthly business meetings organized by the LGU.
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
# of 56 52 56 34 44 36 122 56 51 52 62 63
participan
ts
Median: 34 36 44 51 52 52 56 56 56 62 63 122
Lowest to
highest
 Research Findings
Correlation and linear regression analysis are the most commonly used techniques
for investigating the relationship between two quantitative variables. Their main
uses are:
1. One is to test hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships. In this case,
the experimenter determines the values of the X-variable and sees whether
variation in X causes variation in Y. For example, giving people different
amounts of a drug and measuring their blood pressure.
2. The second main use for correlation and regression is to see whether two
variables are associated, without necessarily inferring a cause-and-effect
relationship. In this case, neither variable is determined by the experimenter;
both are naturally variable. If an association is found, the inference is that
variation in X may cause variation in Y, or variation in Y may cause variation in
X, or variation in some other factor may affect both X and Y.
3. The third common use of linear regression is estimating the value of one
variable corresponding to a particular value of the other variable.
 Research Findings
Correlation Analysis
• The goal of a correlation analysis is to see whether two
measurement variables co-vary and to quantify the
strength of the relationship between the variables
 Research Findings
Regression analysis
• expresses the relationship in the form of an equation.
• the problem of interest is the nature of the relationship
itself between the dependent variable (response) and the
(explanatory) independent variable.
• With a view to exploit the relationship between the
variables to help estimate the expected response for a
given value of the independent variable
 Tips in Writing in the
Results and Discussion
1. Present your findings- describe your
findings.
2. Use examples to reinforce or contradict
your findings- provide anecdotes, stories
3. Analyze the findings- compare and
contrast, use past findings, use other tables
in the study (cross referencing).
 Conclusions and
Recommendations
Conclusions and Recommendations
• There should be a conclusion for every objective you
have set
• You can get the conclusions from the analysis of your
findings
• The recommendations should be answering your
objectives
Writing Abstract
 Writing the Abstract
1. First paragraph- one sentence of rationale; one sentence of
scope; one sentence of objectives
2. Second paragraph- one sentence of overall methodology
description; one sentence of data gathering instruments;
one sentence of number and selection of respondents
3. Third to fourth paragraph- high lights of Key findings
divided into a maximum of eight sentences
4. Fifth paragraph- one sentence about conclusion and three
to four sentence of recommendations
 COHERENCE
Conceptual
Problem Statement Framework

Objectives
Conclusions and
Results and
Discussion Recommendations
 Using Microsoft Word
for Citations and Bibliographies
https://support.office.com/en-us/article/Add-a-citation-and-create-a-
bibliography-17686589-4824-4940-9c69-342c289fa2a5
 Adding Citations Using Microsoft Word
https://support.office.com/en-us/article/Add-a-citation-and-create-a-bibliography-17686589-4824-4940-9c69-342c289fa2a5
1. Go to the References tab.
2. In the Citations & Bibliography group, then click Style to
choose format for citations and sources (e.g. MLA or APA).
 Adding Citations
3. In the Citations & Bibliography group, click Insert Citation.
4. To add the source information, click Add New Source.
 Adding Citations
5. Identify the Type of source and fill in the source information.
6. To add more information about a source, click the Show All
Bibliography Fields check box.
 Inserting Citations
1. Citations can be easily
accessed and can be
reused throughout your
document.
2. Place the cursor where
you want to insert
citation in your
document.
Click References, then
click Insert Citation.
3. Find the citation by
the Author or Tag
name, and select the
citation.
 Finding and Editing Sources
•On the References tab, in the Citations & Bibliography
group, click Manage Resources.
 Creating Bibliography
1. At the end of your document, insert the bibliography.
2. On the References tab, in the Citations & Bibliography
group, click Bibliography.
Important Components of Research
• Problem statement, research questions, purposes, benefits
• Theory, assumptions, background literature
• Framework, variables and hypotheses
• Operational definitions and measurement
• Research design and methodology
• Instrumentation, sampling
• Data analysis
• Conclusions and recommendations