Contents

1 Standard Form 2

2 Approximation and Estimation 3

3 Solving Equations with GDC 5

4 Exponents and Logarithms 7

5 Sequences and Series 10

6 Financial Applications 12

1
1 Standard Form

Standard form is a way of writing numbers using powers of 10.

Writing in Standard Form

To write a number in standard form, we need to identify the power of 10 that makes the number
between 1 and 10.
Example: Write 3400 in standard form.
Solution: We can write 3400 as 3.4 × 103 .

Converting to Standard Form

To convert a number to standard form, we move the decimal point to make the number between 1
and 10. We then count the number of places we moved the decimal point and use that as the power
of 10.
Example: Convert 0.000005 to standard form.
Solution: We can move the decimal point 6 places to the right to get 5. Therefore, 0.000005 can
be written as 5 × 10−6 .

Arithmetic Operations
We can perform arithmetic operations on numbers in standard form by first converting them to the
same power of 10.
Example: Perform the following calculations and write the answers in standard form.

1. (2 × 105 ) × (5 × 102 )
8 × 104
2.
4 × 103
Solution:
1. (2 × 105 ) × (5 × 102 ) = 10 × 107 = 1 × 108
8 × 104
2. = 2 × 101
4 × 103

Graphic Display Calculator TI-84 Plus

To write a number in standard form on the TI-84 Plus, use the EE key. To convert a number to
standard form, use the SCI mode.
Example: Write 50000 in standard form on the TI-84 Plus.
Solution: Enter 5 EE 4 and press ENTER. The calculator will display 5 × 104 .
: 5E4
−> 50000

2
2 Approximation and Estimation

Approximation is a way of representing a value or quantity that is close to the true value, but not
necessarily exact.
Estimation is the process of finding an approximate value or quantity using known information
and assumptions.

Rounding
Rounding is the process of approximating a number to a certain degree of accuracy.
To round a number, follow these steps:

• Identify the digit you want to round to.

• Look at the digit to the right of the one you want to round to.
• If that digit is 5 or greater, round up the previous digit by adding 1 to it. If it is less than 5,
leave the previous digit as it is.

• Replace all digits to the right of the one you rounded to with zeros.

Significant Figures
Significant figures are the digits in a number that are considered to be accurate or reliable.
To determine the number of significant figures in a number, follow these rules:

• All non-zero digits are significant.

• Zeros between non-zero digits are significant.

• Leading zeros (zeros to the left of the first non-zero digit) are not significant.
• Trailing zeros (zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit) are significant if there is a decimal
point present.

Upper and Lower Bounds

Upper and lower bounds are used to indicate the range of possible values that a measurement
or calculation could be.

• The lower bound is the smallest possible value that a measurement or calculation could be.
• The upper bound is the largest possible value that a measurement or calculation could be.

• The actual value is somewhere between the upper and lower bounds.

3
Calculator Use
A graphic display calculator such as the TI-84 Plus can be used to perform calculations and
obtain approximations.
For example, to calculate the square root of a number on a TI-84 Plus:
1. Enter the number.
√
2. Press the button.
3. The calculator will display the approximate value of the square root.
Similarly, to round a number to a certain number of significant figures:
1. Enter the number.
2. Press the 2nd and then the FORMAT button.
3. Select the number of significant figures you want to round to.
4. The calculator will display the rounded value.

Percentage Error

Introduction: Percentage error is a measure of the accuracy of an experimental or calculated value

compared to the actual value. It is a useful tool for scientists, engineers, and mathematicians who
need to know how reliable their results are.
Formula: Percentage Error (% Error) is given by:
Experimental value − Actual value
% Error = × 100%
Actual value
Note: If the experimental value is greater than the actual value, the percentage error will be positive.
If the experimental value is less than the actual value, the percentage error will be negative.
Example: A student measured the length of a metal rod to be 20.3 cm. The actual length of the
rod is 20 cm. Calculate the percentage error.
Solution: The experimental value is 20.3 cm, and the actual value is 20 cm. Therefore, the
percentage error is:

Experimental value − Actual value 20.3 − 20

% Error = × 100% = × 100% = 1.5%
Actual value 20

So, the percentage error is 1.5%.

TI-84 Plus Code: To calculate percentage error on a TI-84 Plus calculator, use the following steps:
1. Press the STAT button.
2. Select TESTS and then % ERR.
3. Enter the experimental value and the actual value.
4. Press ENTER.
The calculator will display the percentage error.

4
3 Solving Equations with GDC

Solving Equations by using GDC TI-84 Plus

When solving equations, we can use the Graphic Display Calculator TI-84 Plus (GDC) to find
the solutions. To do this, we can follow these steps:

1. Enter the equation into the Y= menu of the GDC, using the ”X” variable for any unknowns.

2. Press the ”Zoom” button and select ”ZoomFit” to graph the equation.
3. Use the ”Trace” button to move along the graph until you find the intersection with the x-axis,
which corresponds to the solution of the equation.
4. Use the ”2nd” button and ”Trace” button to access the ”Calculate” menu and select ”Zero”
to find the exact solution of the equation.

Example: Solve the equation x2 + 3x − 4 = 0 using the GDC TI-84 Plus.

1. Enter the equation as ”Y 1 = X 2 + 3X − 4” into the Y= menu.

2. Press ”Zoom” and select ”ZoomFit” to graph the equation.

3. Use ”Trace” to find the intersection with the x-axis, which is approximately -4 and 1.
4. Use ”2nd” and ”Trace” to access the ”Calculate” menu, select ”Zero”, and enter the left and
right bounds of the solution as -5 and 0, respectively, to find the exact solutions of the equation
as x = −4 and x = 1.

It is important to check the solutions obtained from the GDC by substituting them back into
the original equation to ensure they satisfy the equation.

Solving System of Linear Equations using GDC TI-84 Plus

Overview

• The GDC TI-84 Plus can be used to solve systems of linear equations.
• The calculator uses matrix operations to solve the system.
Steps

1. Enter the coefficients of the equations into a matrix.

2. Enter the constants into a column matrix.
3. Use the calculator’s matrix operations to find the solution matrix.
4. Interpret the solution matrix to find the values of the variables.

5
 Example

(
2x + 3y = 7
Solve:
4x − y = 2
 
2 3
Step 1: Enter the coefficients of the equations into a matrix.
  4 −1
7
Step 2: Enter the constants into a column matrix.
2
Step 3: Use the calculator’s matrix operations to find the solution matrix.

matrix([2,3;4,-1])^-1 * matrix([7;2]).
 
1.5
This will give you .
1.66667
Step 4: Interpret the solution matrix to find the values of the variables.

x = 1.5 y = 1.66667

Thus, the solution to the system of linear equations is x = 1.5 and y = 1.66667.

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4 Exponents and Logarithms

Exponents
Definition: An exponent indicates the number of times a base is multiplied by itself.
Notation: The expression an represents the base a raised to the exponent n.
Rules of Exponents:

• am · an = am+n (Product Rule)

am
• = am−n (Quotient Rule)
an
• (am )n = amn (Power Rule)
• a0 = 1 (Zero Exponent Rule)
1
• a−n = (Negative Exponent Rule)
an

Examples:
45
1. Simplify:
42
45
= 45−2
42
= 43
= 64

4
2. Simplify: 23

4
23 = 23·4
= 212
= 4096

3. Simplify: 50

50 = 1

4. Simplify: 10−2
1
10−2 =
102
1
=
100
= 0.01

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Logarithms
Definition: A logarithm is the power to which a number (called base) must be raised to obtain
another number.
Notation: If ax = b, then loga b = x.
Properties:

• loga 1 = 0
• loga a = 1
• loga (x · y) = loga x + loga y
 
• loga xy = loga x − loga y

• loga xp = p loga x, where p is a constant

• loga b = 1
logb a (change of base formula)

Example: If 2x = 8, then log2 8 = x.

GDC TI-84 Plus: To evaluate logarithms using GDC TI-84 Plus, use the log button followed
by the base, then the argument in parentheses. For example, to evaluate log2 8, enter log(2, 8) and
press ENTER.
Note: When the base is not specified, the logarithm is assumed to be base 10.

Example 1: Solve for x:

log2 (x − 1) + log2 (x + 1) = 3
Solution: Using the logarithmic rule loga (m) + loga (n) = loga (mn), we can simplify the left
side of the equation:
log2 [(x − 1)(x + 1)] = log2 (x2 − 1)
So now we have:
log2 (x2 − 1) = 3
Using the exponential form of logarithms, we can write:

2 3 = x2 − 1

Solving for x, we get: √

x=± 9
However, we need to discard the negative solution since log2 (x − 1) and log2 (x + 1) are only
defined for positive values of x. Therefore, x = 3 .

Example 2: Solve for x:

ln(2x + 1) = 3 + ln(5x − 1)
Solution: Using the logarithmic rule ln(m) + ln(n) = ln(mn), we can simplify the right side of
the equation:
ln[(5x − 1)e3 ] = ln(5x − 1) + 3 ln(e) = ln(5x − 1) + 3

8
So now we have:
ln(2x + 1) = ln(5x − 1) + 3
Using the logarithmic rule ln(m) − ln(n) = ln( m
n ), we can further simplify the equation:
 
2x + 1
ln =3
5x − 1

Using the exponential form of logarithms, we can write:

2x + 1
e3 =
5x − 1
Solving for x, we get:
4
x=
3
4
Therefore, x = .
3

9
5 Sequences and Series

Sequences
A sequence is a list of numbers in a specific order. The numbers in a sequence are called terms.

Arithmetic Sequence
An arithmetic sequence is a sequence where each term differs by a constant value called the common
difference (d).
The formula for the nth term of an arithmetic sequence is:

an = a1 + (n − 1)d
where a1 is the first term.
Example: Find the 10th term of the arithmetic sequence 5, 8, 11, 14, . . . where a1 = 5 and d = 3.
Solution: Using the formula, we get:

a10 = 5 + (10 − 1)3 = 32

Therefore, the 10th term is 32.

Geometric Sequence
A geometric sequence is a sequence where each term is obtained by multiplying the previous term
by a constant value called the common ratio (r).
The formula for the nth term of a geometric sequence is:

an = a1 rn−1
where a1 is the first term.
Example: Find the 8th term of the geometric sequence 2, 6, 18, 54, . . . where a1 = 2 and r = 3.
Solution: Using the formula, we get:

a8 = 2(3)8−1 = 4374
Therefore, the 8th term is 4374.

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Series
P∞
A series is the sum of the terms of a sequence. It is denoted by n=1 an and can be written in
sigma notation.
Arithmetic Series
An arithmetic series is a series in which the difference between consecutive terms is constant.
The formula for the sum of the first n terms is:
n
Sn = (a1 + an )
2
where a1 is the first term, an is the nth term, and n is the number of terms.
Geometric Series
A geometric series is a series in which each term is multiplied by a common ratio r. The formula
for the sum of the first n terms is:

a1 (1 − rn )
Sn =
1−r
where a1 is the first term, r is the common ratio, and n is the number of terms.
The formula for the sum of an infinite geometric sequence with the first term a1 and the common
ratio r, where −1 < r < 1, is given by:
a1
S∞ =
1−r
This formula only works when the absolute value of the common ratio is less than 1, as otherwise
the sequence diverges to either positive or negative infinity.
Convergence
A series converges if its sum approaches a finite value as the number of terms approaches infinity.
A series diverges if its sum approaches infinity or negative infinity, or if it oscillates.

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6 Financial Applications

Compound Interest
Compound interest refers to the process where the interest earned on a principal amount is added
back to the principal, and the new amount then earns interest. The formula for compound interest
is:

nt
A = P 1 + nr

Where:

• A is the total amount of money after t years.

• P is the principal amount.

• r is the annual interest rate (as a decimal).

• n is the number of times the interest is compounded per year.
• t is the time in years.

Example
Suppose we invest 1000 at an annual interest rate of 6% compounded monthly for 5 years. Using
the compound interest formula, we can find the total amount of money after 5 years:

 (12)(5)
 r nt 0.06
A=P 1+ = 1000 1 + ≈ 1349.86
n 12

Depreciation
Depreciation refers to the decrease in value of an asset over time. The formula for depreciation is:

V = V0 (1 − r)t

Where:

• V is the current value of the asset.

• V0 is the original value of the asset.
• r is the rate of depreciation (as a decimal).

• t is the time elapsed.

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Example
Suppose a car is purchased for 20, 000 and depreciates at a rate of 15% per year. Using the depre-
ciation formula, we can find the value of the car after 3 years:

V = V0 (1 − r)t = 20000(1 − 0.15)3 ≈ 9261.25

Graphic Display Calculator TI-84 Plus Codes

The TVM (Time-Value-of-Money) Solver in TI-84 Plus is a useful tool for calculating compound
interest problems. Here’s an example of how to use it:
Suppose you have invested 5000$ in a savings account with an annual interest rate of 5%, com-
pounded monthly. You want to know the value of your investment after 10 years.
Step 1: Press the APPS button on the calculator, then select TVM Solver.
Step 2: Enter the following values into the TVM Solver:
N = 120 (since there are 12 months in a year and the investment is for 10 years). I/Y = 5/12
(since the interest rate is 5% per year, compounded monthly). PV = -5000 (since this is the initial
investment, it is entered as a negative value). PMT = 0 (since there are no additional payments
made). FV = ? (since we want to find the future value of the investment). Note: The negative sign
for PV indicates that this is a cash outflow (initial investment).
Step 3: Move the cursor to the FV field and press the ALPHA button, then the SOLVE but-
ton. The calculator will compute the future value of the investment, which is $8,235.05. Therefore,
the value of the investment after 10 years is $8,235.05.
Code:
Step 1: APPS -> TVM Solver
Step 2: Enter values
N = 120
I/Y = 5/12
PV = -5000
PMT = 0
FV = ?
Step 3: Move cursor to FV, press ALPHA then SOLVE
Result: FV = $8,235.05

Amortisation and Annuities

Amortisation
• Definition: Amortisation is the process of gradually paying off a debt with regular payments,
where each payment is divided between the principal amount and the interest.
• The formula for the monthly payment P for an amortised loan of principal A, with interest
rate r and term n is:
rA
P =
1 − (1 + r)−n

13
 • The total amount paid over the term of the loan is nP , and the total interest paid is nP − A.

Annuities
• Definition: An annuity is a series of equal periodic payments made at the end of each period.
• The formula for the present value P V of an ordinary annuity with periodic payment P , interest
rate r, and term n is:  
P 1
PV = 1−
r (1 + r)n

• The future value F V of an ordinary annuity with periodic payment P , interest rate r, and
term n is:
(1 + r)n − 1
FV = P ·
r

Examples
1. Amortisation: A loan of $10,000 is taken out for 5 years at an annual interest rate of 6%.
Find the monthly payment required to pay off the loan.

• Solution: A = 10, 000, r = 0.06/12, n = 5 × 12 = 60

rA (0.06/12) × 10, 000

P = = ≈ $193.33
1 − (1 + r)−n 1 − (1 + 0.06/12)−60

• The monthly payment required to pay off the loan is $193.33, and the total amount paid
over the term of the loan is $11,599.80.
2. Annuities: A deposit of $500 is made at the end of each month into an account earning 4%
interest per year. Find the balance in the account after 5 years.
• Solution: P = 500, r = 0.04/12, n = 5 × 12 = 60

(1 + r)n − 1 (1 + 0.04/12)60 − 1
FV = P · = 500 · ≈ $33, 163.62
r 0.04/12

• The balance in the account after 5 years is approximately $33,163.62.

Note: TI-84 Plus calculator can be used to solve for the payment, present value, or future value
of an annuity using the TVM Solver function.

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