Long questions

1.(a)Explain about sensitivity, selectivity and fidelity.

In the field of communication systems, sensitivity, selectivity, and fidelity
are important performance parameters that describe the ability of the
system to transmit and receive signals accurately and efficiently.
Sensitivity: Sensitivity is the measure of the ability of a communication
system to detect weak signals. It is defined as the minimum input signal
level required to achieve a specified output signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). In
other words, sensitivity is the ability of a system to amplify weak signals
and make them detectable. A high sensitivity system can detect very
weak signals and is therefore desirable in many applications, such as in
radio communication systems.
Selectivity: Selectivity is the measure of the ability of a communication
system to reject unwanted signals and receive only the desired signals. It
is defined as the ability of the system to distinguish between signals at
different frequencies. A high selectivity system can filter out unwanted
signals that are close in frequency to the desired signal, reducing
interference and noise. In radio communication systems, selectivity is
important in order to minimize the effect of adjacent channel interference.
Fidelity: Fidelity is the measure of the accuracy with which a
communication system reproduces the input signal at the output. It is
defined as the ability of the system to faithfully reproduce the original
signal without distortion or degradation. A high fidelity system can
accurately reproduce the original signal, preserving its quality and details.
In communication systems, fidelity is important in order to transmit the
signal without any loss of information or distortion. This is particularly
important in applications such as music or voice transmission, where the
quality of the signal is critical.
In summary, sensitivity, selectivity, and fidelity are important
performance parameters that determine the accuracy and efficiency of a
communication system. A good communication system should have high
sensitivity and selectivity, while also maintaining high fidelity in order to
accurately reproduce the original signal.
(b) Explain Super-heterodyne FM receiver
A super-heterodyne FM receiver is a type of FM receiver that uses a
frequency conversion process to convert the incoming FM signal to a fixed
intermediate frequency (IF) that can be easily amplified and detected.
The basic operation of a super-heterodyne FM receiver can be described
as follows:
Antenna: The incoming FM signal is first received by the antenna and is
then passed through a bandpass filter that selects the desired frequency
band and eliminates any unwanted signals.
Mixer: The signal from the bandpass filter is then mixed with a local
oscillator (LO) signal that is tuned to a fixed frequency above the highest
expected frequency of the incoming signal. The mixing process produces
two new signals, the sum and difference frequencies. The difference
frequency is the desired intermediate frequency (IF) signal.
IF amplifier: The IF signal is then amplified by an IF amplifier that is
tuned to the intermediate frequency. The IF amplifier provides most of
the gain in the receiver and also helps to filter out unwanted signals.
Demodulator: The demodulator extracts the original modulating signal
from the IF signal by detecting the variations in frequency of the IF signal
caused by the frequency modulation. This demodulated signal is then
passed through a low-pass filter to remove any high-frequency noise.
Audio amplifier: The demodulated signal is then amplified by an audio
amplifier, which amplifies the signal to a level that can drive a speaker or
headphones.
Output: The final output of the receiver is the demodulated audio signal
that is transmitted by the FM station.
The use of an IF stage in the super-heterodyne FM receiver provides
many benefits over direct-conversion or homodyne FM receivers. The IF
amplifier provides most of the gain in the receiver, which improves
sensitivity and selectivity. Additionally, the use of a fixed IF frequency
simplifies the design of the receiver, making it easier to tune and less
sensitive to component variations. Overall, the super-heterodyne FM
receiver is the most common type of FM receiver used in modern radio
communication systems.

2. (a) Describe the disadvantage of Super-heterodyne AM receiver

Super-heterodyne AM receivers have several disadvantages compared to
other types of AM receivers:
Image frequency interference: One of the main disadvantages of the
super-heterodyne AM receiver is the potential for image frequency
interference. This occurs when the frequency of the desired signal is close
to the frequency of the local oscillator (LO), resulting in the creation of a
second signal at the image frequency. This can cause interference and
result in poor receiver performance.
IF stage tuning: Another disadvantage of the super-heterodyne AM
receiver is the need to tune the IF stage. Because the IF stage amplifies a
range of frequencies, it must be tuned to the desired frequency to provide
maximum selectivity. This can be a complex and time-consuming process,
particularly for multi-stage IF amplifiers.
Cost and complexity: Super-heterodyne AM receivers are more complex
and expensive to build than direct-conversion or homodyne receivers.
They require multiple stages of amplification, filtering, and mixing, which
can increase the cost and complexity of the receiver.
Interference from local oscillator (LO): The LO signal used in the mixing
process can also cause interference in the receiver. The LO signal can leak
into the output signal, causing unwanted noise and distortion. Careful
design and shielding are required to minimize this interference.
Despite these disadvantages, super-heterodyne AM receivers are still
widely used due to their high sensitivity and selectivity. They are
particularly useful in applications where high-quality audio is required,
such as in broadcast and music systems.
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(b) Write short notes on receiver parameters.

Receiver parameters are the key characteristics that determine the
performance of a radio receiver. These parameters include:
Sensitivity: Sensitivity refers to the ability of a receiver to detect weak
signals. A more sensitive receiver can detect lower signal levels, which is
particularly important in situations where the signal strength is low, such
as in remote areas or during periods of low atmospheric activity.
Selectivity: Selectivity is the ability of a receiver to separate the desired
signal from unwanted signals and noise. A more selective receiver can
reject unwanted signals and noise, resulting in clearer reception of the
desired signal.
Frequency response: Frequency response is the ability of a receiver to
accurately reproduce the frequency spectrum of the received signal. A
receiver with a flat frequency response will reproduce the original signal
with minimal distortion, resulting in high-fidelity audio reproduction.
Dynamic range: Dynamic range refers to the range of signal levels that a
receiver can handle without distortion. A receiver with a high dynamic
range can handle both strong and weak signals without distortion or
overload.
Intermodulation distortion: Intermodulation distortion (IMD) is the
creation of unwanted signals caused by the mixing of two or more signals
within the receiver. A receiver with low IMD will produce fewer unwanted
signals and result in better overall performance.
Noise figure: Noise figure is a measure of the amount of noise added by
the receiver to the received signal. A lower noise figure indicates that the
receiver adds less noise to the received signal, resulting in better
performance in low-signal environments.
Image rejection: Image rejection is the ability of a receiver to reject
signals that are at the image frequency, which can cause interference and
reduce receiver performance.
Spurious response: Spurious response is the ability of a receiver to reject
signals at frequencies other than the desired frequency, which can cause
interference and reduce receiver performance.
Channel spacing: Channel spacing is the separation between adjacent
frequency channels in a receiver. A receiver with a narrower channel
spacing can accommodate more channels in a given frequency band,
resulting in higher spectral efficiency.
By understanding these receiver parameters and optimizing them for a
particular application, it is possible to design a radio receiver with high
performance and reliability.
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3. For a broadcast Super-heterodyne AM receiver having no RF amplifier,

the loaded
Quality factor of the antenna coupling circuit is 100.Now, if the
intermediate
frequency is 455kHz; determine the image frequency and its rejection
ratio at an
incoming frequency of 1000kHz
To determine the image frequency and its rejection ratio, we can use the
following formulas:
Image frequency = 2 x Intermediate frequency - Incoming frequency
Rejection ratio = 20 log (Image voltage / Signal voltage)
Given that the intermediate frequency (IF) is 455 kHz and the loaded
quality factor of the antenna coupling circuit is 100, we can find the
bandwidth of the circuit as:
BW = f / Q where f is the resonant frequency and Q is the loaded quality
factor.
BW = f / Q = (1 / (2π x √(LC))) / Q
At resonant frequency, XL = XC, where XL and XC are the inductive and
capacitive reactance, respectively.
Hence, XL = XC 2πfL = 1/(2πfC) f = 1 / (2π √(LC))
By substituting the given values, we can find the resonant frequency:
f = 1 / (2π √(100pF x 100μH)) = 509 kHz
Now, we can find the image frequency as:
Image frequency = 2 x IF - Incoming frequency = 2 x 455 kHz - 1000
kHz = 10 kHz
Next, we can calculate the rejection ratio as follows:
Rejection ratio = 20 log (Image voltage / Signal voltage)
Since there is no RF amplifier, the signal voltage is equal to the antenna
voltage. The image voltage can be calculated using the voltage divider
rule as follows:
Image voltage = Antenna voltage x (Image frequency / (Image frequency
+ IF))
At the incoming frequency of 1000 kHz, the voltage ratio of the antenna
coupling circuit is:
Voltage ratio = 1 / (1 + jQ x ((f - f0)/f0)) where f0 is the resonant
frequency of the circuit, which we have calculated as 509 kHz.
At the incoming frequency of 1000 kHz, the voltage ratio is:
Voltage ratio = 1 / (1 + jQ x ((1000 kHz - 509 kHz) / 509 kHz)) = 0.208
+ j0.422
Therefore, the image voltage is:
Image voltage = Antenna voltage x (Image frequency / (Image frequency
+ IF)) x Voltage ratio = Antenna voltage x (10 kHz / (10 kHz + 455 kHz))
x (0.208 + j0.422) = Antenna voltage x 0.0184 x (0.208 + j0.422) =
0.00776 x Antenna voltage + j0.01514 x Antenna voltage
Now, we can calculate the rejection ratio as follows:
Rejection ratio = 20 log (Image voltage / Signal voltage) = 20 log (|
0.00776 + j0.01514|) = 20 log (0.0172) = -14.17 dB
Therefore, the image frequency is 10 kHz and its rejection ratio is -14.17
dB.
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4. Draw block diagram of Super-heterodyne AM receiver and explain

function of each block.
Superheterodyne is basically a process of designing and constructing
wireless communications such as radio receivers by mixing two
frequencies together in order to produce a difference frequency
component called as intermediate frequency (IF), so as to reduce signal
frequency prior to processing.
A superheterodyne receiver usually consists of an antenna, RF amplifier,
mixer, local oscillator, IF amplifier, detector, AF amplifier and a speaker.
The working of a superheterodyne receiver is explained with the help of
the block diagram given below in Fig1 along with the waveforms at the
output of each block

Fig1. Superheterodyne receiver block diagram

In the superheterodyne receiver, the incoming signal through the antenna
is filtered to reject the image frequency and then amplified by the RF
amplifier.
RF amplifier can be tuned to select and amplify a particular carrier
frequency within the AM broadcast range. Only the selected frequency
and it two sidebands are allowed to pass through the amplifier.
The carrier of the received signal is called radio frequency carrier and its
frequency is radio frequency fRFand the local oscillator signal operates at
fOSC. The amplified RF frequency is then mixed with the local oscillator
frequency. The combining of these two signals is done at the mixer which
produces sum and difference frequency signals of the incoming carrier
signal and local oscillator signal, which are fOSC+fRF , fOSC−fRF and
fOSC−fRF.

The sum frequency (fOSC+fRF) is rejected by the filter and the

remaining difference frequency (fOSC - fRF) signal which is a down
converted frequency signal is called as intermediate frequency (IF)
carrier (fIF=fOSC−fRF).
The frequency of local oscillator is not same as the frequency to which RF
amplifier is tuned. Local oscillator is tuned to a frequency that may be
either higher or lower than the incoming frequency by an amount equal to
the IF frequency.
Thus idea of the superheterodyne receiver is to reduce the high frequency
radio components of the incoming carrier to a fairly low, fixed value such
as to be processed at the different stages of the receiver, and also to
provide good stability, gain and proper selectivity and fidelity.
The modulation of the IF carrier signal is same as that of the original
carrier signal and it has a fixed frequency of 455kHz which is amplified by
one or more stages of amplification.
The IF signal is amplified with the help of IF amplifier which raises its
level for the information extraction process. Also the IF amplifier fulfills
most of the gain and bandwidth requirements of the receiver.
IF amplifier operations are independent to the frequency at which receiver
is tuned, maintaining the selectivity and sensitivity of the
superheterodyne receiver considerably constant throughout the tuning
range of the receiver.
This amplified IF signal is applied to the detector to detect the information
signal component from 455 kHz IF, to reproduce the original information
data, which is generally in the form of audio signal. The detector stage
eliminates one of the sidebands which is still present and separates the
RF from the audio components of the other sideband.
The RF component is filtered out and audio is supplied to the audio stages
for amplification. The generated audio signal is then applied to the AF
amplifier to increase the audio frequency level of the signal and to provide
enough gain to drive the speaker or headphones.
A speaker is connected to the AF amplifier to play the audio information
signal.
An important part of superheterodyne receiver is Automatic gain control
(AGC) which is given to the RF, IF and mixer stages in order to generate
constant output irrespective of the varying input signal.
Superheterodyne radio receiver in spite of being more complicated than
some of the other receivers offers many advantages in terms of
performance, most importantly the selectivity. It is more efficiently able
to remove unwanted and distorting signals than other forms like TRF and
regenerative receivers.
Due to the enormous advantages provided by the superheterodyne
receivers compared to the other radio receivers, they are widely used in
all broadcast radio receivers, commercial radios as well as televisions
operate on the basis of the superheterodyne principle.
Short questions
1. Describe the process of generating an AM signal using an oscillator and
a modulating signal.
Generate a carrier signal: The first step is to generate a high-frequency
carrier signal using an oscillator circuit. The carrier signal typically has a
much higher frequency than the modulating signal and serves as the
carrier wave for the modulated signal.
Generate a modulating signal: The next step is to generate a low-
frequency modulating signal that will be used to vary the amplitude of the
carrier wave. This can be done using an audio input signal, such as a
microphone, or a prerecorded audio source.
Mix the carrier and modulating signals: The modulating signal is then
mixed with the carrier signal in a modulator circuit. The modulator varies
the amplitude of the carrier wave in accordance with the modulating
signal. This creates sidebands around the carrier frequency that contain
the information from the modulating signal.
Amplify the modulated signal: The modulated signal is then amplified by
an RF (radio frequency) power amplifier, which boosts the signal to the
required level for transmission.
Transmit the signal: The final step is to transmit the modulated signal
using an antenna. The signal can be received by a radio receiver, which
demodulates the signal to recover the original modulating signal.
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2. How does the final RF amplifier in an AM transmitter increase the

power of the modulated signal?
The final RF (radio frequency) power amplifier in an AM (amplitude
modulated) transmitter is responsible for increasing the power of the
modulated signal to a level that is suitable for transmission over long
distances. The amplifier achieves this by taking the low-power modulated
signal from the previous stages and amplifying it to a much higher power
level before it is fed to the antenna for transmission.
The RF power amplifier typically consists of one or more transistors or
vacuum tubes that are biased to operate in a linear region where they can
amplify the input signal without introducing significant distortion. The
amplifier circuit is designed to match the output impedance of the
previous stages to the input impedance of the antenna.
The modulated signal is applied to the input of the power amplifier, where
it is amplified to a much higher power level without significantly distorting
the signal. The amount of power amplification is determined by the gain
of the amplifier, which is the ratio of the output power to the input power.
The gain of the amplifier can be adjusted by varying the bias voltage or
current of the transistors or vacuum tubes.
The amplified modulated signal is then fed to the antenna, which radiates
the signal into the surrounding space for reception by a radio receiver.
The power output of the transmitter is determined by the power supplied
to the RF power amplifier and the efficiency of the amplifier in converting
that power to output power.
Overall, the final RF power amplifier in an AM transmitter increases the
power of the modulated signal by amplifying it to a higher power level
without significantly distorting the signal. This allows the signal to be
transmitted over long distances and received by radio receivers.
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3. Describe the basic operation of a tuned radio frequency (TRF) receiver.

A tuned radio frequency (TRF) receiver is an early type of radio receiver
that was commonly used in the early days of radio. The TRF receiver
consists of three main stages: the RF amplifier, the detector, and the
audio amplifier.
The RF amplifier stage amplifies the weak radio frequency signal from the
antenna. This signal is then passed through a series of tuned circuits, also
known as "bandpass filters," which are designed to select a specific radio
frequency from the incoming signal. These tuned circuits are adjustable
and can be tuned to different frequencies using a knob or a dial. The
output of the tuned circuits is then fed to the detector stage.
The detector stage demodulates the amplitude modulated (AM) radio
signal and converts it into a low-frequency audio signal. The most
commonly used detector in TRF receivers is the diode detector, which is a
type of rectifier that allows only the positive half of the incoming signal to
pass through. The output of the detector stage is a pulsating direct
current (DC) signal that varies in amplitude in response to the modulated
radio signal.
The audio amplifier stage amplifies the low-frequency audio signal from
the detector stage to a level that can drive a loudspeaker. The audio
amplifier stage consists of one or more stages of amplification, depending
on the required amplification level. The output of the audio amplifier stage
is then fed to a loudspeaker, where it is converted into sound waves that
can be heard by the listener.
One of the drawbacks of TRF receivers is that they are prone to "image
frequency" interference. This occurs when a radio signal at a frequency
that is the same distance away from the tuned frequency as the desired
signal is also amplified by the RF amplifier stage, resulting in interference.
Despite this, TRF receivers were widely used in the early days of radio
due to their simplicity and ease of use.
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4. Explain how the AGC circuit maintains a constant output level from the
IF amplifier.
The AGC (Automatic Gain Control) circuit is an important part of a radio
receiver that helps to maintain a constant output level from the
intermediate frequency (IF) amplifier, regardless of the strength of the
incoming signal. The AGC circuit detects the strength of the IF signal and
adjusts the gain of the IF amplifier to compensate for any changes in
signal strength.
The AGC circuit typically consists of a diode detector, a low-pass filter,
and a voltage-controlled gain amplifier. The diode detector rectifies the IF
signal and produces a DC voltage proportional to its strength. The low-
pass filter removes any high-frequency components from the rectified
signal and produces a smooth DC voltage that represents the average
strength of the IF signal.
The voltage-controlled gain amplifier is used to adjust the gain of the IF
amplifier in response to changes in the DC voltage from the low-pass
filter. The amplifier is designed to have a higher gain when the DC voltage
is low, and a lower gain when the DC voltage is high. This means that
when the incoming signal is weak, the AGC circuit increases the gain of
the IF amplifier, and when the incoming signal is strong, the AGC circuit
reduces the gain of the IF amplifier.
In this way, the AGC circuit helps to maintain a constant output level from
the IF amplifier, which is important for maintaining a consistent signal
quality and avoiding distortion. By regulating the gain of the IF amplifier
in response to changes in signal strength, the AGC circuit ensures that the
output level of the IF amplifier remains within a narrow range, regardless
of the strength of the incoming signal.
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5. An AM transmitter has a carrier frequency of 600 kHz and a modulation

index of 0.8. The maximum amplitude of the modulating signal is 2 V.
Calculate the peak amplitude of the AM signal and the bandwidth of the
signal.
Given, carrier frequency (fc) = 600 kHz modulation index (m) = 0.8
maximum amplitude of modulating signal (Am) = 2 V
The peak amplitude of the AM signal can be calculated as follows:
Peak amplitude of modulating signal (Amp) = Am × m = 2 V × 0.8 = 1.6
V
Peak amplitude of the AM signal (Ap) = (1 + m) × Amp = (1 + 0.8) × 1.6
V = 2.88 V
The bandwidth of an AM signal can be calculated using the formula:
Bandwidth = 2 × (1 + m) × fm where fm is the frequency of the
modulating signal.
Here, the modulating signal is an audio signal, which typically has a
maximum frequency of 20 kHz. Therefore,
Bandwidth = 2 × (1 + m) × fm = 2 × (1 + 0.8) × 20 kHz = 88 kHz
Hence, the peak amplitude of the AM signal is 2.88 V and the bandwidth
of the signal is 88 kHz.