Plasmonic metamaterial

A plasmonic metamaterial is a metamaterial that uses surface plasmons to achieve optical properties not
seen in nature. Plasmons are produced from the interaction of light with metal-dielectric materials. Under
specific conditions, the incident light couples with the surface plasmons to create self-sustaining,
propagating electromagnetic waves known as surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs). Once launched, the SPPs
ripple along the metal-dielectric interface. Compared with the incident light, the SPPs can be much shorter
in wavelength.[1]

The properties stem from the unique structure of the metal-dielectric composites, with features smaller than
the wavelength of light separated by subwavelength distances. Light hitting such a metamaterial is
transformed into surface plasmon polaritons, which are shorter in wavelength than the incident light.

Plasmonic materials
Plasmonic materials are metals or metal-like[2] materials that exhibit negative real permittivity. Most
common plasmonic materials are gold and silver. However, many other materials show metal-like optical
properties in specific wavelength ranges.[3] Various research groups are experimenting with different
approaches to make plasmonic materials that exhibit lower losses and tunable optical properties.

Negative index
Plasmonic metamaterials are realizations of materials first proposed by Victor Veselago, a Russian
theoretical physicist, in 1967. Also known as left-handed or negative index materials, Veselago theorized
that they would exhibit optical properties opposite to those of glass or air. In negative index materials energy
is transported in a direction opposite to that of propagating wavefronts, rather than paralleling them, as is the
case in positive index materials.[4][5]

Normally, light traveling from, say, air into water bends upon passing through the normal (a plane
perpendicular to the surface) and entering the water. In contrast, light reaching a negative index material
through air would not cross the normal. Rather, it would bend the opposite way.

Negative refraction was first reported for microwave and infrared frequencies. A negative refractive index in
the optical range was first demonstrated in 2005 by Shalaev et al. (at the telecom wavelength λ = 1.5 μm)[6]
and by Brueck et al. (at λ = 2 μm) at nearly the same time.[7] In 2007, a collaboration between the
California Institute of Technology, and the NIST reported narrow band, negative refraction of visible light
in two dimensions.[4][5]

To create this response, incident light couples with the undulating, gas-like charges (plasmons) normally on
the surface of metals. This photon-plasmon interaction results in SPPs that generate intense, localized
optical fields. The waves are confined to the interface between metal and insulator. This narrow channel
serves as a transformative guide that, in effect, traps and compresses the wavelength of incoming light to a
fraction of its original value.[5]

Nanomechanical systems incorporating metamaterials exhibit negative radiation pressure.[8]

Light falling on conventional materials, with a positive index of refraction, exerts a positive pressure,
meaning that it can push an object away from the light source. In contrast, illuminating negative index
metamaterials should generate a negative pressure that pulls an object toward light.[8]

Three-dimensional negative index

Computer simulations predict plasmonic metamaterials with a negative index in three dimensions. Potential
fabrication methods include multilayer thin film deposition, focused ion beam milling and self-assembly.[8]

Gradient index

PMMs can be made with a gradient index (a material whose refractive index varies progressively across the
length or area of the material). One such material involved depositing a thermoplastic, known as a PMMA,
on a gold surface via electron beam lithography.

Hyperbolic

Hyperbolic metamaterials behave as a metal when light passes through it in one direction and like a
dielectric when light passes in the perpendicular direction, called extreme anisotropy. The material's
dispersion relation forms a hyperboloid. The associated wavelength can in principle be infinitely small.[9]
Recently, hyperbolic metasurfaces in the visible region has been demonstrated with silver or gold
nanostructures by lithographic techniques.[10][11] The reported hyperbolic devices showed multiple
functions for sensing and imaging, e.g., diffraction-free, negative refraction and enhanced plasmon
resonance effects, enabled by their unique optical properties.[12] These specific properties are also highly
required to fabricate integrated optical meta-circuits for the quantum information applications.

Isotropy
The first metamaterials created exhibit anisotropy in their effects on plasmons. I.e., they act only in one
direction.

More recently, researchers used a novel self-folding technique to create a three-dimensional array of split-
ring resonators that exhibits isotropy when rotated in any direction up to an incident angle of 40 degrees.
Exposing strips of nickel and gold deposited on a polymer/silicon substrate to air allowed mechanical
stresses to curl the strips into rings, forming the resonators. By arranging the strips at different angles to each
other, 4-fold symmetry was achieved, which allowed the resonators to produce effects in multiple
directions.[13][14]

Materials

Silicon sandwich

Negative refraction for visible light was first produced in a sandwich-like construction with thin layers. An
insulating sheet of silicon nitride was covered by a film of silver and underlain by another of gold. The
critical dimension is the thickness of the layers, which summed to a fraction of the wavelength of blue and
green light. By incorporating this metamaterial into integrated optics on an IC chip, negative refraction was
demonstrated over blue and green frequencies. The collective result is a relatively significant response to
light.[4][5]

Graphene

Graphene also accommodates surface plasmons,[15] observed via near field infrared optical microscopy
techniques[16][17] and infrared spectroscopy.[18] Potential applications of graphene plasmonics involve
terahertz to midinfrared frequencies, in devices such as optical modulators, photodetectors and
biosensors.[19]

Superlattice

A hyperbolic metamaterial made from titanium nitride (metal) and aluminum scandium nitride (dielectric)
have compatible crystal structures and can form a superlattice, a crystal that combines two (or more)
materials. The material is compatible with existing CMOS technology (unlike traditional gold and silver),
mechanically strong and thermally stable at higher temperatures. The material exhibits higher photonic
densities of states than Au or Ag.[20] The material is an efficient light absorber.[21]

The material was created using epitaxy inside a vacuum chamber with a technique known as magnetron
sputtering. The material featured ultra-thin and ultra-smooth layers with sharp interfaces.[21]

Possible applications include a “planar hyperlens” that could make optical microscopes able to see objects
as small as DNA, advanced sensors, more efficient solar collectors, nano-resonators, quantum computing
and diffraction free focusing and imaging.[21]

The material works across a broad spectrum from near-infrared to visible light. Near-infrared is essential for
telecommunications and optical communications, and visible light is important for sensors, microscopes and
efficient solid-state light sources.[21]

Applications

Microscopy

One potential application is microscopy beyond the diffraction limit.[4] Gradient index plasmonics were
used to produce Luneburg and Eaton lenses that interact with surface plasmon polaritons rather than
photons.

A theorized superlens could exceed the diffraction limit that prevents standard (positive-index) lenses from
resolving objects smaller than one-half of the wavelength of visible light. Such a superlens would capture
spatial information that is beyond the view of conventional optical microscopes. Several approaches to
building such a microscope have been proposed. The subwavelength domain could be optical switches,
modulators, photodetectors and directional light emitters.[22]

Biological and chemical sensing

Other proof-of-concept applications under review involve high sensitivity biological and chemical sensing.
They may enable the development of optical sensors that exploit the confinement of surface plasmons
within a certain type of Fabry-Perot nano-resonator. This tailored confinement allows efficient detection of
specific bindings of target chemical or biological analytes using the spatial overlap between the optical
resonator mode and the analyte ligands bound to the resonator cavity sidewalls. Structures are optimized
using finite difference time domain electromagnetic simulations, fabricated using a combination of electron
beam lithography and electroplating, and tested using both near-field and far-field optical microscopy and
spectroscopy.[4]

Optical computing

Optical computing replaces electronic signals with light processing devices.[23]

In 2014 researchers announced a 200 nanometer, terahertz speed optical switch. The switch is made of a
metamaterial consisting of nanoscale particles of vanadium dioxide (VO2 ), a crystal that switches between
an opaque, metallic phase and a transparent, semiconducting phase. The nanoparticles are deposited on a
glass substrate and overlain by even smaller gold nanoparticles[24] that act as a plasmonic photocathode.[25]

Femtosecond laser pulses free electrons in the gold particles that jump into the VO2 and cause a
subpicosecond phase change.[24]

The device is compatible with current integrated circuit technology, silicon-based chips and high-K
dielectrics materials. It operates in the visible and near-infrared region of the spectrum. It generates only 100
femtojoules/bit/operation, allowing the switches to be packed tightly.[24]

Photovoltaics
Gold group metals (Au, Ag and Cu) have been used as direct active materials in photovoltaics and solar
cells. The materials act simultaneously as electron [26] and hole donor,[27] and thus can be sandwiched
between electron and hole transport layers to make a photovoltaic cell. At present these photovoltaic cells
allow powering smart sensors for the Internet of Things (IoT) platform.[28]

See also
History of metamaterials
Metamaterial absorber
Metamaterial antennas
Metamaterial cloaking
Nonlinear metamaterials
Photonic metamaterials
Photonic crystal
Spoof surface plasmon
Terahertz metamaterials
Tunable metamaterials
Transformation optics
Theories of cloaking

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Further reading
Garcia-Vidal, F J; Martín-Moreno, L; Pendry, J B (2005). "Surfaces with holes in them: New
plasmonic metamaterials" (http://esperia.iesl.forth.gr/~ppm/DALHM/publications/papers/joav
7ps97.pdf) (Free PDF download). Journal of Optics A: Pure and Applied Optics. 7 (2): S97.
Bibcode:2005JOptA...7S..97G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005JOptA...7S..97G).
doi:10.1088/1464-4258/7/2/013 (https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1464-4258%2F7%2F2%2F013).
Ebbesen, T. W.; Lezec, H. J.; Ghaemi, H. F.; Thio, T.; Wolff, P. A. (1998). "Extraordinary
optical transmission through sub-wavelength hole arrays" (http://arep.med.harvard.edu/pdf/E
bbsen98.pdf) (Free PDF download). Nature. 391 (6668): 667–669.
Bibcode:1998Natur.391..667E (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998Natur.391..667E).
doi:10.1038/35570 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35570). S2CID 205024396 (https://api.seman
ticscholar.org/CorpusID:205024396).
Barnes, WL; Dereux, A; Ebbesen, TW (2003). "Surface plasmon subwavelength optics" (htt
p://www.physics.oregonstate.edu/~ostroveo/COURSES/ph673/Notes/Nature2003_plasmon.
pdf) (Free PDF download). Nature. 424 (6950): 824–30. Bibcode:2003Natur.424..824B (http
s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Natur.424..824B). doi:10.1038/nature01937 (https://doi.or
g/10.1038%2Fnature01937). PMID 12917696 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12917696).
S2CID 116017 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:116017).
Barnes, W. L (2011). "Metallic metamaterials and plasmonics" (http://rsta.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/369/1950.toc). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. 369 (1950):
3431–3433. Bibcode:2011RSPTA.369.3431B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011RSPT
A.369.3431B). doi:10.1098/rsta.2011.0185 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.2011.0185).
ISSN 1471-2962 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1471-2962). PMID 21807718 (https://pubme
d.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21807718). Theo Murphy Meeting Issue organized and edited by William
L. Barnes.

External links
Plasmonic metamaterials - From microscopes to invisibility cloaks (http://www.physorg.com/
news/2011-01-plasmonic-metamaterials-microscopes-invisibility-cloaks.html). Jan 21, 2011.
 PhysOrg.com.

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