Non-Destructive Testing

Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)

• NDT = Inspecting, testing and evaluating materials, components or structures,
without damaging or destroying the serviceability of the part or system.
• Terms Non-destructive examination (NDE), Non-destructive inspection (NDI), and
Non-destructive evaluation (NDE) are also commonly used.
• The common NDT task in an industrial application is:
- To detect and locate flaws and defects.
- Quantitative characterization of materials, components and structures.
• Traditional NDT/NDE areas of applications include:
- Flaw detection,
- Structural health monitoring,
- Materials characterization.
 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
Terminology and definitions are given in EN ISO 9712 standard (Qualification
and certification of NDT personnel):
• NDT method: Discipline applying a physical principle in non-destructive
testing. Example: Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
• NDT technique: A specific way of utilizing an NDT method.
Example: Phased Array Ultrasonic Technique (PAUT).
• NDT instruction: Written description of the precise steps to be followed in
testing to an established standard, code, specification or NDT procedure.
• NDT procedure: Written description of all essential parameters and
precautions to be applied when non-destructively testing of products in
accordance with standard(s), code(s) or specification(s).
 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
• With respect to the "non-destructiveness", these methods are especially
used in periodical, in-service inspections during the lifetime of components
and structures.
• They are also used during production and installation of components and
structures as a quality control tool.
• The role of NDT is to characterize material and component conditions
regarding flaws that might cause:
- Ship hull (or any other structure) crack.
- Machines, reactors, boilers and pressure vessels to fail.
- Pipelines to burst.
- Other circumstances leading to any kind of malfunctioning.
• NDT can be applied on-site or in a laboratory.
• NDT is similar to medical non-invasive diagnostics.
 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
• The number of NDT methods is large and continues to grow.
• New ways of applying physics and other scientific disciplines are
developed, providing more efficient and reliable NDT methods. The five
common and most often used NDT methods are:
• Visual inspection (VT)
• Penetrant testing (PT)
• Magnetic particle testing (MT)
• Radiography (RT)
• Ultrasonic testing (UT)
• NDT is divided into various methods (by scientific principle). These
methods may be further subdivided into various techniques.
• Choosing the appropriate method and technique is an important part of
the performance of NDT.
 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
• No single NDT method will work for all flaw detection or measurement
applications.
• Each method has advantages and limitations.
• Usual systematization of the 5 common NDT methods is regarding the
inspected area/volume:
• Surface NDT methods:
• Visual inspection (VT)
• Penetrant testing (PT)
• Magnetic particle testing (MT)
• Volumetric NDT methods:
• Radiographic testing (RT)
• Ultrasonic testing (UT)
 Surface NDT methods: Visual testing
• The most basic NDT method is a visual examination, using light and
sight/vision, alone or in conjunction with various aids → optical
testing.
• Commonly employed to support other NDT methods; it is applicable
to a wide variety of materials.
• Direct technique → looking at a part to see if surface imperfections
are visible.
• Remote visual inspection (RVI) is supported by a wide range of
equipment.
Surface NDT methods: Penetrant testing
• Test component is coated with a liquid that
contains a visible or fluorescent dye → liquid
penetrates into the surface flaws due to the
capillary effect.
• Excess liquid is removed from the surface but is
left in the surface breaking discontinuities.
• The developer is applied to draw the penetrant
out of the discontinuities.
• With fluorescent dyes, the bleed-out can be
seen under UV light.
• With visible dyes, vivid colour contrast against
white developer can be seen under the daylight
or white light.
 Penetrant application

Excess penetrant removal

Developer
application
 Surface NDT methods: Magnetic testing
• Accomplished by inducing a magnetic field
in a ferromagnetic material.
• Iron particles (either dry or suspended in a
liquid; either visible or fluorescent) are
applied to the surface.
• Surface flaws disrupt the magnetic field
flow, forcing a part of the field to leak out at
the surface.
• Iron particles are attracted and concentrated
at the magnetic flux leakage location
producing a visible indication of flaws on the
surface.
Magnetization equipment
 Applying detection media

Inspection

Inspection - Evaluation and recording

Volumetric NDT methods: Radiographic testing
• Exposing a component to the penetrating
gamma- or X-radiation that passes through
the component being inspected.
• Differences in thickness and density
(homogeneity) of the component are
proportional to the absorption of penetrating
radiation.
• Exposure → a radiographic image of the
components’ internal features is generated,
indicating lighter or darker areas on the
image.
• Radiation penetrates through the
structure:
• Using sources of short wavelength
electromagnetic radiation:
• X-rays and gamma-rays
• Shorter wavelength → greater
penetration:
• “Hard” radiation
• “Soft" radiation
• Radiation (photon) energy:
• 100 keV ≈ 100 kV↪ 0.01 nm = 10-5 μm

gamma-rays
Two of the most commonly used sources of radiation in industrial radiography
are:
• X-ray equipment (or generators), shown in Picture 1, and
• Gamma-ray sources (radioactive isotopes), shown in Picture 2.
Accordingly, industrial radiography is often subdivided into “X-ray Radiography”
or “Gamma Radiography”, depending on the type of the radiation source used.
Film viewing equipment

Film positioning
Volumetric NDT methods: Ultrasonic testing
• High-frequency sound waves are transmitted into
a material to detect imperfections or to locate
changes in material properties.
• Pulse-echo technique → ultrasonic probe
introduces sound pulses into a test component;
internal imperfections or geometrical surfaces
return reflections (echoes) to the probe.
• Returned pulses are displayed on the screen (the
so-called A-scan).
• Distance from the probe to the reflector and size
of the reflector (flaw inside the material) can be
determined.
UT instrument

Coupling media
Testing volume

Scanning area and directions

 Evaluation of NDT findings: Indications
• The appearance of the indication is a result
of the NDT method/technique applied, due
to:
• The application of the particular physical
principle.
• The interaction of the physical principle with
the tested component and/or material.
 Evaluation of NDT findings: Indications
• When an indication is formed, the contrast of the indication is of
great importance to clearly distinguish the indication during the
testing performed.
Evaluation of NDT findings: Flaws
Whether the flaw in the material exists or
not, it is assessed on the basis of the
following characteristics of the indication:
• Appearance
• Contrast
• Shape
• Location on the component
• Size/intensity
• Other terminology for flaws:
• Discontinuities
• Imperfections
• Non-homogeneities
 Evaluation of NDT findings: Flaws
• Some indications do not originate from the
flaw in the material or component.
• These are false indications and could appear
as an effect of the:
- Components' geometry and/or surface
condition.
- Physical properties of the material (acoustic,
magnetic, density, etc.).
 Evaluation of NDT findings: Flaws
• For a detected flaw, the following parameters are
evaluated (as it can be seen on the picture):
- Size of the flaw (e.g. length of the crack; some other NDT
methods/techniques can determine the depth of the crack).
- The position of the flaw (location of each crack can be measured).
- Flaw orientation (e.g. all cracks are longitudinal).
- Features of the grouped flaws (usually it is about flaw density within the
region of interest).
• The parameters of the detected flaws are further
evaluated against the acceptance criteria that are
usually given in product testing specifications
(standards, codes, rules, etc.). When the parameters of
flaws go beyond the defined acceptance criteria, they
are considered as unacceptable flaws and are assessed
as defects. For example:
Evaluation of NDT findings: NDT Outcome
• Having analyzed the indications, the NDT
operator has to define the outcome of the
NDT examination.
• Finally, the outcome of NDT is not of dual
nature:
- There is a flaw.
- There is NO flaw.
 Reliability of NDT
• Beside two generally recognized final outcomes of
NDT (there is a flaw - there is NO flaw: TP + TN),
there are two additional outcomes that occur in
everyday non-destructive inspection practice:
• False indication (already mentioned, FP):
- Indications that do not originate from the flaw in the
material or component.
• Missed flaw (FN):
- Some indication will not appear despite the fact that a
flaw exists in the material.
- Sometimes the indication is not seen and detected by the
operator due to the poor contrast and/or small size of the
indication.
- Or it could be for some other reasons.
• The causes for "missed flaw" examination outcome
have to be analyzed with respect to each of the
essential elements of NDT system.
 Reliability of NDT
The essential elements of the NDT system that
influence the final outcome of the NDT inspection
performance are:
• Operator: test performance, competence, knowledge
and skills.
• Testing procedure: selection of NDT
method/technique and testing setup (sensitivity and
evaluation threshold; setup checking; extent of the
testing; other testing parameters).
• Equipment: performance characteristics of the used
instruments, probes, etc.
• Components and material: components' geometry
and/or surface condition, acoustic and magnetic
properties, density, etc.
 Reliability of NDT
• The reliability of NDT performance is of great
importance:
• It has to be kept on the highest possible level
by managing and controlling appropriate
activities/steps.
• All actions taken before and during the NDT
performance will not give only discrete results
(detected and not detected) but will
contribute to either increase or decrease of
the NDT reliability level.
• It is commonly presented by Probability of
Detection curve which can be intuitively
interpreted from the picture.
 Reliability of NDT
To ensure the reliability of NDT, the
minimum prerequisites are:
• NDT personnel has to be certified (3 certification
levels).
• Testing procedures must be verified (usage of
reference blocks).
• Performance characteristics of the equipment must
be periodically checked.
• Properties of the component and material must be
taken into account (through the development of the
testing procedure including a selection of NDT
technique and equipment; during the execution of
the tests concerning the competences of NDT
personnel).
 NDT operator certification
• 3 levels of certification for NDT
methods:
• Level 1 (technician):
• Able to perform specific calibrations,
specific NDT and specific evaluations.
• Level 2 (technologist):
• Able to set up and calibrate equipment and
to interpret and evaluate results.
• Level 3 (expert):
• Able to develop, qualify and approve
procedures, and to designate the particular
NDT methods, techniques and procedures
to be used.
 NDT operator certification
• Certification schemes:
• 3rd party (ISO 9712 and former EN 473,
ASNT ACCP).
• Employer based (SNT-TC-1A).