ME8097 Non Destructive Testing and Evaluation

Introduction of NDTE

 
SYLLABUS
 Module
• Introduction of NDT
• Applications of NDT
• Comparison of Mechanical testing and NDT
•  NDT methods and Evaluation
• physical characteristics of materials and testing using NDT

• Introduction of Surface NDE

• Methods of Surface NDE
• Magnetic Particle Testing
• NDE Interpretation and evaluation
• Principles and methods of demagnetization
 OBJECTIVE

To study and understand the various Non Destructive

Evaluation and Testing methods, theory and their
industrial applications.
 History of NDT-Instrumentation
After World War II the emerging modern industry
needed more and more testing equipment for
the production of flawless components.
Therefore, instruments for NDT were developed,
produced in quantities and continuously
improved. I met most of those persons working
in this modern industrial field not only in
Germany but also in other parts of the world.
The first NDT-method coming into industrial
application was the X-Ray Technique
 NDT standards and training
The need to ensure high standards of quality and safety during
manufacturing, assembly and while in-service has led to the development
of NDT standards and specifications for both civil and military aviation.
There are several national and international organizations that develop
standards for NDT methods, equipment and training.
❑American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASN
T)
,
❑ British Institute of Non-Destructive Testing,
❑
International Committee for Non-Destructive Testi
ng
❑ European Federation for Non-Destructive Testing.
❑American Society for Testing and Materials(ASTM
).
REF:https://www.astm.org/Standards/nondestructive-testing-standards.html
 Alternative name

Non destructive testing (NDT)

Non destructive evaluation (NDE)

Non destructive inspection (NDI)

 Level of Testing

▪ Surface testing

▪Sub surface testing

▪ Internal Surface testing

 N S
T I O
C A
LI
PP
A
 Material sorting and characterization
 Production monitoring
 Thickness measurement
 Defect detection/ location
 Defect characterization
 Major task of NDT is to detect and identify the
range of defects.
Main objectives
 (i) To detect internal or surface flaws
 (ii)To measure the dimensions of the specimen
 (iii) To determine material structure or chemistry
 (iv) To evaluate material’s physical or mechanical
properties.
 What are Some Uses
of NDE Methods?
• Flaw Detection and Evaluation
• Leak Detection
• Location Determination
• Dimensional Measurements Fluorescent penetrant indication

• Structure and Microstructure Characterization

• Estimation of Mechanical and Physical Properties
• Stress (Strain) and Dynamic Response Measurements
• Material Sorting and Chemical Composition
Determination
When are NDE Methods Used?
– To assist in product development
– To screen or sort incoming materials
– To monitor, improve or control
manufacturing processes
– To verify proper processing such as
heat treating
– To verify proper assembly
– To inspect for in-service damage
 When are NDT used
To ensure product integrity and reliability
To control manufacturing processes
To lower production costs
To maintain a uniformity in quality level
NDT tests can be performed …
(i) During manufacturing
(ii) After manufacturing
(iii) Even on parts that are already in service
The equipments are easy to handle
Defects can be detected without damaging
the components
Methods are quick and accurate
Components can be sorted out on the basis
of electrical, magnetic or chemical
properties
Test results and other information can be
conveniently recorded on paper films, cassettes,
floppies, DVD, CD. etc
 NON DESTRUCTIVE TEST DESTRUCTIVE TEST
Used for finding out defects Used for finding out the
of materials properties of the material
Load is not applied on the material Load is applied on the material

No load applications, so no Due to load application,

chance for material damage material gets damaged
No requirement of special Special equipments are required
equipments
Non expensive Expensive
Less skill Skill is required
e.g: dye penetrate test, ultrasonic, e.g: tensile test, compression test,
radiography, etc hardness test, etc
 GENERAL TERMS used in NDT
The following terms generally used in NDT
• Defect
• Discontinuity
• Evaluation
• Examination
• False indication
• Flaw
• Flaw characterization
• Imperfection
• Indication
• Reference standard
• Relevant indication
• Sensitivity
• Standard
 GENERAL TERMS
• Discontinuity an interruption in the normal physical
structure of an article (ex. cracks, seams, porosity)

• Defect : a discontinuity that interferes with the usefulness of

the article
All defects are discontinuities, but not all discontinuities
are defects!!

• Evaluation: determination of whether a relevant indication is

cause to accept or to reject a material or component.

• Examination: the process of determining the condition of an

area of interest by non-destructive means against established
acceptance or rejection criteria.
 GENERAL TERMS
Flaw: an imperfection or discontinuity that maybe detectable by
non- destructive testing and is not necessarily rejectable.

Flaw characterization: the process of quantifying the size, shape, orientation,

location, growth, or other properties of a flaw based on NDE response.

Imperfection: a departure of a quality characteristic from

its intended condition.

Indication: the response or evidence from a non-destructive examination that

requires interpretation to determine relevance reply
 GENERAL TERMS
Inspection: the observation of any operation performed on materials and/or
components to determine its acceptability in accordance with given criteria.

Interpretation: the process of determining whether an indication is

nonrelevant or relevant, which may include determining the indication type
and/or other data necessary to apply the established evaluation criteria for
acceptance or rejection.

Limited certification: an accreditation of an individual’s qualification to

perform some but not all of the operations within a given nondestructive
examination method or technique that consists of one or more than one
operation, or to perform nondestructive examinations within a limited scope
of responsibility.
 GENERAL TERMS
Reference standard: a material or object for which all relevant
chemical and physical characteristics are known and
measurable, used as a comparison for, or standardization of,
equipment or instruments used for non-destructive
testing.

Relevant indication: an NDE indication that is caused by a

condition or type of discontinuity that requires evaluation.

Sensitivity: a measure of the level of response from a

discontinuity by NDE
 GENERAL TERMS
Regulation Vs. Code
• Regulation: A principle, rule, or law designed to control or
govern behavior.

• Code:
1) A systematic collection of regulations and rules of
procedure or conduct.
2) A standard that has been adopted by one or more
governmental bodies and is enforceable by law, or
when it has been incorporated into a business
contract.
- Example: ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code
 GENERAL TERMS
Specification vs. Procedure
Specification: An explicit set of requirements to be satisfied by a
material,
product, or service.
– If a material, product or service fails to meet one or
more of the applicable specifications, it may be
referred to as being out of specification (OOS)

Procedure: Standardized and documented process for

performing an
experiment or conducting an evaluation.
 GENERAL TERMS
Method: the following is a list of non-destructive examination methods and
respective abbreviations used within the scope of Section V (ASME):
RT — Radiography
UT — Ultrasonics
MT — Magnetic Particle
PT — Liquid Penetrants
VT — Visual
LT — Leak Testing
ET — Electromagnetic (Eddy Current)
AE — Acoustic Emission
MFL-Magnetic Flux Leakage 
VA- Vibration analysis
IR- Thermal/Infrared Testing
NR- Neutron radiography
Six Most Common NDT Methods
• Visual
• Liquid Penetrant
• Magnetic
• Ultrasonic
• Eddy Current
• X-ray
 Common Application of NDT
• Inspection of Raw Products
• Inspection Following Secondary
Processing
• In-Services Damage Inspection
 Inspection of Raw Products
• Forgings,
• Castings,
• Extrusions,
• etc.
 Inspection Following
Secondary Processing
• Machining
• Welding
• Grinding
• Heat treating
• Plating
• etc.
Power Plant Inspection
Periodically, power plants are
shutdown for inspection.
Inspectors feed eddy current probes
into heat exchanger tubes to check
for corrosion damage.

Pipe with damage Probe

Signals produced by
various amounts of
corrosion thinning.
 Wire Rope Inspection
Electromagnetic devices and
visual inspections are used to
find broken wires and other
damage to the wire rope that is
used in chairlifts, cranes and
other lifting devices.
Inspection of Material without causing
damage to the original part
 Crash of United Flight 232
Sioux City, Iowa, July 19, 1989
A defect that went undetected
in an engine disk was
responsible for the crash of
United Flight 232.
 Inspection For
In-Service Damage

• Cracking
• Corrosion
• Erosion/Wear
• Heat Damage
• etc.
 Storage Tank Inspection
Robotic crawlers use
ultrasound to inspect
the walls of large above
ground tanks for signs
of thinning due to
corrosion.

Cameras on long
articulating arms
are used to
inspect
underground
storage tanks for
damage.
 Rail Inspection
Special cars are used to
inspect thousands of
miles of rail to find
cracks that could lead
to a derailment.
 Bridge Inspection
• The US has 578,000
highway bridges.
• Corrosion, cracking and
other damage can all
affect a bridge’s
performance.
• The collapse of the Silver
Bridge in 1967 resulted
in loss of 47 lives.
• Bridges get a visual
inspection about every 2
years.
• Some bridges are fitted
with acoustic emission
sensors that “listen” for
sounds of cracks growing.
DEV
 Pressure Vessel Inspection
The failure of a pressure vessel can
result in the rapid release of a large
amount of energy.
To protect against this dangerous
event, the tanks are inspected using
radiography and ultrasonic testing.
Classified on the basis of use of aids used
(i) Unaided or direct visual testing
(ii) Aided visual testing Unaided
or direct visual testing
As the name suggests, the unaided visual
testing is carried out with naked eye (without
using any optical aids)
The most important instrument in visual
inspection is human eye
 Visual Inspection

Definition: A nondestructive examination method used to

evaluate an item by observation.

• Used to determine the surface condition of an article,

alignment of mating surfaces, compliance with physical
requirements (dimensions, settings), etc.

• Usually the this method employed for locating suspected

defects
• Also the oldest and most commonly used NDT method
 As the name suggests, the aided inspection is
carried out with the help of optical aids (such as
magnifying glasses, microscopes, borescopes,
fiberscopes) and a variety of other optical imaging
and image enhancement tools.
 The optical aids are mainly used for
(i) Magnification of defects which cannot be
detected by unaided visual inspection
(ii) Assisting in the inspection of defects
areas where not easily accessible to human eye
The optical aids used for visual inspection are
(i) Magnifying Mirrors (small, angled mirrors)
(ii) Magnifying glasses, multi-lens magnifiers,
measuring magnifiers
(iii) Microscopes(optical and electron)
(iv) Boroscopes
(v) Fiberscopes and videoscopes
(vi) Telescopes
(vii) Periscopes
(viii)Optical comparators
(ix) Optical flats(for surface flatness measurements)
(x) Photographic records
(xi) Closed-circuit television (CCTV) systems
(xii) Machine vision systems
 Visual Inspection
Types of Examinations
Per Section XI of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (Rules for In-
service Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant Components), there are three
types of examinations used during an in-service inspection:

Visual
Surface
Volumetric
• Visual testing is the most commonly used test method in industry.
Because most test methods require that the operator look at the
surface of the part being inspected, visual inspection is inherent in
most of the other test methods.
• As the name implies, VT involves the visual observation of the
surface of a test object to evaluate the presence of surface
discontinuities.
• VT inspections may be by Direct Viewing, using line-of sight vision,
or may be enhanced with the use of optical instruments such as
magnifying glasses, mirrors, boroscopes, charge-coupled devices
(CCDs) and computer-assisted viewing systems (Remote Viewing).
• Corrosion, misalignment of parts, physical damage and cracks are
just some of the discontinuities that may be detected by visual
examinations.
 Visual Inspection
Why Visual Examination?
• Can be used to inspect for surface-breaking discontinuities:
– Cracks
– Holes
– Corrosion
• Does not require special equipment other than good eyesight (optical and
mechanical aids optional to improve inspection quality)
• Low cost
 Visual Inspection
Surface/Volumetric Examinations
• Surface examinations indicate the presence of discontinuities on the
surface of an article
– Typical inspection methods: liquid penetrant, magnetic particle, eddy
current
• Volumetric examinations indicate the presence of discontinuities
throughout the volume of the article
– May be conducted from either the inside or outside of the component
– Typical inspection methods: radiography, ultrasonic testing, eddy
current (for thin tubing or plates)
 Visual Inspection
VT-1, VT-2, VT-3
• VT-1: Exams conducted to detect discontinuities on the surface of
components (“specific exam”)
• VT-2: Exams conducted to detect evidence of leakage from pressure
retaining components (tanks, pipes, etc.)
• VT-3: Exams conducted to determine the general mechanical and
structural condition of components and their supports (“general exam”)
⮚ Verification of clearances and settings
⮚ Inspection for loose or missing parts
 Visual Inspection
Direct vs. Remote
• Direct visual exams usually surface to be examined
– may use mirrors or magnifying lenses

• Remote visual exams performed in areas that are

inaccessible for direct examination (inside of pipes and tanks
or in hazardous or radioactive areas)
 Visual Inspection
Optical Aids
• Used when direct visual examination is not possible
– Microscopes
– Borescopes
– Fiberscopes
– Video Cameras
 Visual Inspection
Mechanical Aids
– Micrometers
– Calipers
– Depth gauges
– Thread pitch gauges
– Feeler gauges
– Weld gauges
 Visual Inspection
Certification Requirements, Continued
• Must also pass annual eye exams for:
1) Near vision acuity (sharpness of vision) – Jaeger chart
2) Far vision acuity – Snellen chart
3) Color vision – Ishihara
 Visual Inspection
Certification Requirements
• ASNT Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A,

• Level I – Trainee
• Level II – More experienced
• Level III – Highest certification
 sharpness of vision – Jaeger chart

The Jaeger chart is an eye chart used in

testing near vision acuity. It is a card on
which paragraphs of text are printed,
with the text sizes increasing from 0.37
mm to 2.5 mm. This card is to be held by
a patient at a fixed distance from the
eye dependent on the J size being read.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=KckLNbBmv8E

Visual Inspection
Snellen chart
The so-called “Snellen chart” is an eye
chart that is used to measure visual
acuity, or how well somebody sees.
The Snellen chart is the most prevalent
eye chart
 Visual Inspection
Color vision -Ishihara test
The Ishihara test is a color perception
test for red-green color deficiencies.
The test consists of a number of
colored plates, called Ishihara plates,
each of which contains a circle of dots
appearing randomized in color and size.
Within the pattern are dots which
form a number or shape clearly visible
to those with normal color vision, and
invisible, or difficult to see, to
those with a red-green color vision
defect, or the other way around.
 Visual Inspection
Inspection Requirements
Usually requires a written procedure that outlines the following:
• Type of exam to be performed (VT-1 or VT-3)
• Illumination requirements (ex. 50 foot-candles)
– 1 foot candle is equal to the amount of light given off by a
standard candle at a distance of 1 foot
• Surface preparation requirements
• Acceptance criteria
• Inspection interval (how often inspection must occur)
• Required test documentation
 Borescope
• Borescope tubing may be either rigid or flexible.
• Rigid borescopes include some of the most inexpensive
designs, as they typically involve only a hollow tube,
eyepiece, a light source, and one or more relay lenses.
• Lenses used in rigid borescopes are typically achromats, GRIN
lenses, or Harold Hopkins designs.
• While rigid borescopes are economical and
effective, their grave disadvantage is that their viewing is
effectively limited to a straight line.
• When inspecting certain entities, such as straight pipes,
engine cylinders, and fuel injectors, rigid borescopes are
effective.
Applications
• Borescopes are useful for
inspecting bores and cavities of
many different devices and types
of equipment, including those
listed below.
• Turbines
• Cast parts
• Building interiors (forensics and
general inspection)
• Automotive components - fuel
injectors, engine cylinders,
motors, and manifolds
• Tanks and boilers
• Pumps and valves
• Specialized military use - gun
bore inspection,
surveillance
 Fiberscopes
• Fiberscopes use optical fiber to transmit an image from the end of a
flexible tube to a viewer's eyepiece.
• Fiber optic technology is one of two prominent methods of facilitating
flexible bore inspection, the other of which is the image sensor technology
used in videoscopes.
• Like all borescopes, fiberscopes consist of the three main parts described
below.
• The insertion section, which consists of a flexible tube containing optical
fiber, imaging optics (ie lenses), and some means for transmitting light in
order to illuminate the cavity to be inspected.
• The control section, consisting of a light source connected to a light guide
or other means of transmission.
• The eyepiece, including lenses and other optical components.
 Applications
• Fiberscopes are commonly used in nondestructive testing (NDT)
applications for inspecting hard-to-reach cavities.

• Borescopes in general are used to inspect pipes, turbines, engines, tanks

and vessels, pumps, valves, manifolds, and many other equipment
types.

• They are also used to aid in finding and removing loose components when
used in conjunction with retrieval tools.

• Specialized fiberscopes for inspecting organs and cavities within a living

body are referred to as endoscopes.
Videoscopes (or video borescopes)
• Videoscopes (or video borescopes) are advanced borescopes which
use image sensors to relay images to an operator.
• Same physical design as borescopes, they are disparate products in
terms of capabilities, quality, and operation.
• While simple borescopes use optical lenses to project an image
from the tip (or distal end) to a viewer's eyepiece, videoscopes use
an image sensor to send the image to a video screen.
• Typical videoscopes have an optical lens, an image sensor, and
some form of illumination in order to capture an image.
• Videoscopes require a control unit and readout monitor
• while a rigid borescope's tube contains a series of optical
components, a videoscope's contains only a signal bus for
transmitting the digital image signal.
 Applications
Videoscopes are typically used to inspect cavities and crevices of turbines,
pipes, buildings, pumps, valves, automotive components, and other
manufactured equipment. A common videoscope application is the visual
inspection of aircraft turbines. The image below shows turbine components
which can be inspected using a scope. Access to these internal components
is achieved by threading the scope through an ignitor port, air inlet, or
specially-designed borescope access hatch.
 Inspection of cleaning in machines
 Checking for corrosion, erosion and deformities of
machine components
 Checking for ruptures, cracks and wear of parts in the
equipment.
 Monitoring of manometers, pressure and
temperatures
 Monitoring of oil level, greasing and greasing
apparatus.
 Monitoring of the operational conditions of
systems or machines.
 Visual Testing of welds
 Visual Testing of Pumps
 Visual Testing of hydraulic systems
 Visual Testing of Belt Pulley
 Most basic and common
inspection method.

Tools include
fiberscopes, borescopes,
magnifying glasses and
mirrors.

Portable video inspection

unit with zoom allows
inspection of large tanks
and vessels, railroad tank
cars, sewer lines.
Robotic crawlers permit
observation in hazardous
or tight areas, such as air
ducts, reactors, pipelines.
 UNIT-2
SURFACE NDE METHODS

Inspection of Material without causing

damage to the original part

Today 3/9/2021
SYLLABUS
Liquid Penetrant Inspection
 Defects

• Porosity
• Undercutting
• Rollover or “Cold Lap”
• Slag inclusion
• Poor penetration
• Voids
Porosity &
Undercut
Cold shut & Slag inclusion
 Basic Processing Steps of a Liquid
Penetrant Inspection
1.Surface Preparation:
• One of the most critical steps of a liquid
penetrant inspection is the surface preparation.
• The surface must be free of oil, grease, water, or other
contaminants that may prevent penetrant from
entering flaws.
• The sample may also require etching if
mechanical operations such as machining, sanding,
or grit blasting have been performed.
Materials that are commonly inspected using LPI

• Metals (aluminum, copper, steel, titanium,

etc.)
• Glass
• Many ceramic materials
• Rubber
• Plastics
 2.Penetrant Application:

Once the surface has been thoroughly cleaned

and dried, the penetrant material is applied by
spraying, brushing, or immersing the part in a
penetrant bath.
 UNIT-2
SURFACE NDE METHODS

Inspection of Material without causing

damage to the original part

Today 4/9/2021
 3.Penetrant Dwell:
• The penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient time to
allow as much penetrant as possible to be drawn from or to
seep into a defect.

• Penetrant dwell time is the total time that the penetrant is in

contact with the part surface.

• Dwell times are usually recommended by the

penetrant producers or required by the specification
being followed.

• The times vary depending on the application, penetrant

materials used, the material, the form of the material being
inspected, and the type of defect being inspected for Minimum
dwell times typically range from five to 60 minutes.
4.Excess Penetrant Removal:
This is the most delicate part of the
inspection procedure because the excess
penetrant must be removed from the
surface of the sample while removing as
little penetrant as possible from defects.
Depending on the penetrant system used,
this step may involve cleaning with a solvent
,direct rinsing with water, or first treating
the part with an emulsifier and then rinsing
with water
 5.Developer Application
• A thin layer of developer is then applied to the sample to
draw penetrant trapped in flaws back to the surface where
it will be visible.

• Developers come in a variety of forms that may be applied

by dusting (dry powdered), dipping, or spraying
 Indication Development

• The developer is allowed to stand on the

part surface for a period of time sufficient
to permit the extraction of the trapped
penetrant out of any surface flaws.

• This development time is usually a

minimum of 10 minutes, Significantly
longer times may be necessary for tight
cracks.
 Inspection
Inspection is then performed under
appropriate lighting to detect indications
from any flaws which may be present.
 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
• A liquid with high surface wetting characteristics is
applied to the surface of the part and allowed time to
seep into surface breaking defects.
• The excess liquid is removed from the surface of the
part.
• A developer is applied to pull the trapped penetrant
out the defect and spread it on the surface where it
can be seen.
• Visual inspection is the final step in the process. The
penetrant used is often loaded with a fluorescent dye
and the inspection is done under UV light to increase
test sensitivity.
Liquid Penetrant Testing (LPI/DPT)
 Capillary action or capilarity
• It is the ability of a liquid to flow against gravity
where liquid spontaneously rise in a narrow space .
• This effect can cause liquids to flow against the force
of gravity.
• It occurs because of inter-molecular attractive
forces between the liquid and solid surrounding
surface.
• If the diameter of the tube is sufficiently small, then
the combination of s urface tension (which is caused
by c ohesion within the liquid) and force of adhesion
between the liquid and container act to lift the liquid.
Liquid Penetrant Inspection
 Penetrant materials basic types
Type 1 – Fluorescent Penetrants
• Fluorescent penetrants contain a
dye or several dyes that
fluoresce when exposed to
ultraviolet radiation.
• Fluorescent penetrant
systems are more sensitive
than visible penetrant systems
because the eye is drawn to
the glow of the fluorescing
indication.
Type 2 - Visible Penetrants
• Visible penetrants contain a
red dye that provides high
contrast against the white
developer background.
• visible penetrants do not
require a darkened area
and an ultraviolet light in
order to make an
inspection.
• Visible penetrants are also
less vulnerable to
contamination from things
such as cleaning fluid that can
significantly reduce the
strength of a fluorescent
indication.
Penetrant materials basic
 Penetrants are then classified by remove the
excess penetrant from the part.
Method A - Water Washable
• Water washable (Method A) penetrants can be removed from the part by
rinsing with water alone. (sometimes it referred to as self-emulsifying
systems)
Method B - Post-Emulsifiable,
Lipophilic
• The penetrant is oil soluble and interacts with the oil-based emulsifier to make
removal possible.
Hydrophilic
• Post-emulsifiable, hydrophilic systems (Method D), use an emulsifier that is a
water soluble detergent which lifts the excess penetrant from the surface of the
part with a water wash.
Method C - Solvent Removable
• Solvent removable penetrants require the use of a solvent to remove the
penetrant from the part.
 Primary Advantages

• The method has high sensitivity to small surface

discontinuities.
• metallic and nonmetallic, magnetic and nonmagnetic,
and conductive and nonconductive materials may be
inspected.
• Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be
inspected rapidly and at low cost.
• Parts with complex geometric shapes are routinely
inspected.
• Indications are produced directly on the surface of the
part and constitute a visual representation of the flaw.
• spray cans make penetrant materials very portable.
• Penetrant materials and associated equipment are
relatively inexpensive
 UNIT-2
SURFACE NDE METHODS

Inspection of Material without causing

damage to the original part

Today 6/9/2021
 Primary Disadvantages
• Only surface breaking defects can be detected.
• Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can be
inspected.
• Pre cleaning is critical since contaminants can mask
defects.
• Metals from machining, grinding, and grit or vapor blasting
must be removed prior to LPI.
• The inspector must have direct access to the
surface being inspected.
• Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection
sensitivity.
• Multiple process operations must be performed and
controlled.
• Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
• Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.
 Main Uses of LPT
• Used to locate cracks, porosity, and other defects
that break the surface of a material and have
enough volume to trap and hold the penetrant
material.

• Liquid penetrant testing is used to inspect large

areas very efficiently and will work on most non
porous materials.
Penetrant properties

•Chemically stable
•Flash point more than 95 deg
•Higher degree of wettability
•Low viscosity
•Ability to Penetrate disccontinuity
•No toxic
•Should not react with surface
Magnetic Particle Inspection
 Content In MPI
• Principles,
• Applications,
• Magnetisation methods,
• Magnetic particles.
• Dry technique and wet technique,
• Demagnetization
• Magnetism and Ferromagnetic Materials
• Introduction of Magnetic Particle Inspection
• Basic Procedure and Important Considerations
1. Component pre-cleaning
2. Introduction of magnetic field
3. Application of magnetic media
4. Interpretation of magnetic particle
indications
• Examples of MPI Indications
 Introduction
• Magnetic particle inspection can detect
both production discontinuities
• seams,
• laps
• grinding cracks
• quenching cracks) and
• in-service damage (fatigue and overload
cracks).
 Basic Principle
In theory, magnetic particle testing has a
relatively simple concept. It can be considered as
a combination of two nondestructive testing
methods: magnetic flux leakage testing and visual
testing. For the case of a bar magnet, the
magnetic field is in and around the magnet. Any
place that a magnetic line of force exits or enters
the magnet is called a “pole”(magnetic lines of
force exit the magnet from north pole entre to
south pole)

Magnetic lines of force Opposite poles attracting Similar poles repelling

around a bar magnet
 Basic Principle
When a bar magnet is broken in the center of its length, two complete
bar magnets with magnetic poles on each end of each piece will
result. If the magnet is just cracked but not broken completely in two,
a north and south pole will form at each edge of the crack. The
magnetic field exits the north pole and reenters at the south pole.
The magnetic field spreads out when it encounters the small air gap
created by the crack because the air cannot support as much
magnetic field per unit volume as the magnet can. When the field
spreads out, it appears to leak out of the material and, thus is called
a flux leakage field.
 Interaction with a magnetic field, materials can be
classified as

Paramagnetic materials Diamagnetic materials

Ferromagnetic Materials
• A material is considered ferromagnetic if it can be
magnetized. Materials with a significant Iron, nickel
or cobalt content are generally ferromagnetic.
• Ferromagnetic materials are made up of many regions in
which the magnetic fields of atoms are aligned. These
regions are call magnetic domains.
• Magnetic domains point randomly in demagnetized
material, but can be aligned using electrical current or an
external magnetic field to magnetize the material.
Magnetized

Demagnetized
 How Does Magnetic Particle
Inspection Work?
A ferromagnetic test specimen is magnetized with
a strong magnetic field created by a magnet or
special equipment. If the specimen has a
discontinuity, the discontinuity will interrupt the
magnetic field flowing through the specimen and
a leakage field will occur.
 Hysteresis loop
A great deal of
information can be
learned about the
magnetic properties of
a material by studying
its hysteresis loop. A
hysteresis loop shows
the relationship
between the induced
magnetic flux density
(B) and the
magnetizing force (H).
It is often referred to as
the B-H loop.
 Terminologies in MPI
• Black Light: ultraviolet light which is filtered to produce
a wavelength of approximately 365 nanometers. Black
light will cause certain materials to fluoresce.
• Central conductor: an electrically conductive bar
usually made of copper used to introduce a circular
magnetic field in to a test specimen.
• Coil: an electrical conductor such a copper wire or
cable that is wrapped in several or many loops that are
brought close to one another to form a strong
longitudinal magnetic field.
 Terminologies in
MPI
• Discontinuity: an interruption in the structure of the
material such as a crack.
• Ferromagnetic: a material such as iron, nickel and
cobalt or one of it’s alloys that is strongly attracted
to a magnetic field.
• Heads: electrical contact pads on a wet
horizontal magnetic particle inspection machine.
The part to be inspected is clamped and held in
place between the heads and shot of current is
sent through the part from the heads to create a
circular magnetic field in the part.
• Leakage field: a disruption in the magnetic field.
This disruption must exte n d to the surface of the
 Terminologies in
MPI
• Non-relevant indications: indications produced
due to some intended design feature of a specimen
such a keyways, splines or press fits.
• Prods: two electrodes usually made of copper or
aluminum that are used to introduce current in to
a test part. This current in turn creates a circular
magnetic field where each prod touches the part.
(Similar in principal to a welding electrode and
ground clamp).
• Relevant indications: indications produced from
something other than a design feature of a test
specimen. Cracks, stringers, or laps are examples
of relevant indications.
 Terminologies in
MPI
• Suspension: a bath created by mixing particles
with either oil or water.
• Yoke: a horseshoe magnet used to create a
longitudinal magnetic field. Yokes may be made
from permanent magnets or electromagnets.
 Direction of the Magnetic Field
•Two general types of magnetic fields
(longitudinal and circular) may be established within
the specimen. The type of magnetic field established
is determined by the method used to magnetize the
specimen.
• A longitudinal magnetic field has
magnetic lines of force that run
parallel to the long axis of the part.
• A circular magnetic field has magnetic lines of
force that run circumferentially around
perimeter of a part.
 longitudinal magnetic field
created using permanent magnets or
electromagnets or coil or solenoid
A circular magnetic field
passing current through the component or by
passing current through a conductor
surrounded by the component.
Importance of Magnetic Field Direction
■Being able to magnetize the part in two
directions is important because the best detection of Flux
defects occurs when the lines of magnetic force are Leakage
established at right angles to the longest dimension of
the defect.
■This orientation creates the largest disruption of the
magnetic field within the part and the greatest flux
leakage at the surface of the part.
■An orientation of 45 to 90 degrees between the
magnetic field and the defect is necessary to form an No Flux
indication. Leakage

■Since defects may occur in

various and unknown
directions, each part is
normally magnetized in two
directions at right angles to
each other.
 Pre-cleaning
• When inspecting a test part with the magnetic
particle method it is essential for the particles to
have an unimpeded path for migration to both
strong and weak leakage fields alike. The part’s
• surface should be clean and dry before
inspection.
• Contaminants such as oil,
grease, or scale may not only
prevent particles from being
attracted to leakage fields,
they may also interfere with
interpretation of indications.
 Basic Procedure
Basic steps involved:

1. Component pre-cleaning

2. Introduction of magnetic field

3. Application of magnetic media

4. Interpretation of magnetic particle

indications
Introduction of the Magnetic Field
There are a variety of methods that can be used
to establish a magnetic field in a component
for evaluation using magnetic particle
inspection. It is common to classify
the magnetizing methods as either
• Direct method or contact method
• Indirect or non-contact method
 Direct method or contact method
•clamping the component between two
electric contact
•clamps or prods
The component between two electrical
contacts in a special piece of
equipment. Current is passed through
the component and a circular magnetic
field is established in and around the
component. When the magnetizing
current is stopped, a residual magnetic
field will remain within the component.
The strength of the induced magnetic
field is proportional to the amount of
current passed through the component.
 Indirect or non-contact method
• permanent magnets
• Electromagnets in the
form of an adjustable
horseshoe magnet
(called a yoke)
• central conductor
• coils and solenoids
Introduction of the Magnetic Field
AC or DC current

The required magnetic field can be introduced into a

component in a number of different ways.
1. Using a permanent magnet or an electromagnet
that contacts the test piece
2. Flowing an electrical current through the specimen
3. Flowing an electrical current through a coil of wire
around the part or through a central conductor
running near the part.
 Producing a Longitudinal Field Using Permanent &
Electromagnetic Magnets

•Permanent magnets and

electromagnetic yokes are
also often used to produce
a longitudinal magnetic
field.
•The magnetic lines of force
run from one pole to the
other, and the poles are
positioned such that any
flaws present run normal to
these lines of force.
Producing a Longitudinal Magnetic Field Using a Coil

•A longitudinal magnetic Coil on Wet Horizontal Inspection Unit

field is usually established

by placing the part near
the inside or a coil’s
annulus.
•This produces
magnetic lines of force
that are parallel to the Portable Coil
long axis of the test part.
DEV
 Circular Magnetic Fields
Magnetic Field

Electric
Current

•Circular magnetic fields are produced by

passing current through the part or by placing
the part in a strong circular magnet field.
•A headshot on a wet horizontal test unit and
the use of prods are several common
methods of injecting current in a part to
produce a circular magnetic field.
•Placing parts on a central conductors
carrying high current is another way to
produce the field.
 UNIT-2
SURFACE NDE METHODS

Inspection of Material without causing

damage to the original part

RE-CLASS Today
13/9/2021
 Field indicator
• Ketos ring
• Pie Gauge
• Shims
• Quantitative Quality Indicator
(QQI)
 Application of Magnetic
Media (Wet Versus Dry)
•MPI can be performed using either
dry particles, or particles
suspended in a liquid.
•With the dry method, the particles
are lightly dusted on to the surface.
•With the wet method, the part is
flooded with a solution carrying
the particles.
• The dry method is more portable.
•The wet method is generally more
sensitive since the liquid carrier
gives the magnetic particles
additional mobility.
 Dry Magnetic Particles
• Magnetic particles come in a variety of colors. A color
that produces a high level of contrast against the
background should be used.
•Diameter of about 50 µm while the course particles
have a diameter of 150 µm
•Dry testing particles cannot be made exclusively of the
fine particles where coarser particles are needed to
bridge large discontinuities and to reduce the powder's
dusty nature
•Most dry particle mixes have particles with L/D ratios
between one and two
Recommended for rough surface.
 Wet Magnetic Particles
Wet particles are typically supplied
as visible or fluorescent. Visible
particles are viewed under normal
white light and fluorescent
particles are viewed under black
light.
•Cover the surface easy
•Provide uniform layer
•Better mobility
•Visible even small flaw
•Low viscous
•Not recommended for
rough surface.
Interpretation of Indications
After applying the magnetic field, indications
that form must interpreted.
This process requires that the inspector
distinguish between relevant and non-
relevant indications.

The following series of images

depict relevant indications
produced from a variety of
components inspected with the
magnetic particle method.
 Gear with Service
Induced Crack

Fluorescent, Wet Particle Method

Crane Hook with Service
Induced Crack

Fluorescent, Wet Particle Method

 Drive Shaft with
Heat Treatment Induced Cracks

Fluorescent, Wet Particle Method

Splined Shaft with Service
Induced Cracks

Fluorescent, Wet Particle Method

Threaded Shaft with Service
Induced Crack

Fluorescent, Wet Particle Method

Large Bolt with Service
Induced Crack

Fluorescent, Wet Particle Method

 Crank Shaft with
Service Induced Crack Near Lube Hole

Fluorescent, Wet Particle Method

Lack of Fusion in SMAW Weld

Indication

Visible, Dry Powder Method

 Toe Crack in SMAW Weld

Visible, Dry Powder Method

Throat and Toe Cracks in Partially Ground
Weld

Visible, Dry Powder Method

Magnetic Particle Crack Indications
 UNIT-2
SURFACE NDE METHODS

Inspection of Material without causing

damage to the original part

Today 20/9/2021
 Demagnetization
• Parts inspected by the magnetic particle method may
sometimes have an objectionable residual magnetic field
that may interfere with subsequent manufacturing
operations or service of the component.
• Possible reasons for demagnetization include:
– May interfere with welding and/or machining operations
– Can effect gauges that are sensitive to magnetic fields
if placed in close proximity.
– Abrasive particles may adhere to components surface
and cause and increase in wear to engines
components, gears, bearings etc.
 Demagnetization (Cont.)
• Demagnetization requires that the residual magnetic
field is reversed and reduced by the inspector.
• This process will scramble the magnetic domains and
reduce the strength of the residual field to an
acceptable level.

Magnetized Demagnetized
 Advantages of Magnetic
Particle Inspection
• Can detect both surface and near sub-
surface defects.
• Can inspect parts with irregular shapes easily.
• Precleaning of components is not as critical as it
is for some other inspection methods. Most
contaminants within a flaw will not hinder flaw
detectability.
• Fast method of inspection and indications are
visible directly on the specimen surface.
• Considered low cost compared to many other
NDT methods.
• Is a very portable inspection method especially
when used with battery powered equipment.
 Limitations of Magnetic
Particle Inspection
• Cannot inspect non-ferrous materials such as aluminum,
magnesium or most stainless steels.
• Inspection of large parts may require use of equipment
with special power requirements.
• Some parts may require removal of coating or plating to
achieve desired inspection sensitivity.
• Limited subsurface discontinuity detection capabilities.
Maximum depth sensitivity is approximately 0.6” (under ideal
conditions). Magnetic particle testing can only detect flaws at
or near the surface.
• Post cleaning, and post demagnetization is often
necessary.
• Alignment between magnetic flux and defect is important
 APPLICATIONS
The method is used to inspect a variety of product forms including
• castings, forgings, and weldments. Many different
industries use
• magnetic particle inspection such as structural steel,
automotive
• petrochemical, power generation, and aerospace
industries.
• Underwater inspection is another area where
magnetic particle inspection may be used to test
items such as offshore structures and underwater
pipelines.
 ME8097 Non Destructive Testing and Evaluation

UNIT-3 THERMOGRAPHY AND EDDY CURRENT

TESTING(ET)
Date:20/09/21
 
SYLLABUS
 THERMOGRAPHY

Thermography- Principles, Contact and non contact

inspection methods, Advantages and limitation -
infrared radiation and infrared detectors,
Instrumentations and methods, applications.
 BASIC CONCEPTS
HEAT: Energy that is transferred from one body to
another as the result of a difference in temperature.
TEMPERATURE: Temperature is the measure of hotness
expressed in several scales (Farenheit,celcius or Kelvin)
EMMISIVITY:Emissivity is a term representing material
ability to emit thermal radiation.
INFRARED: Infrared is electromagnetic radiation with
wavelengths longer than those of visible light. It is
therefore generally invisible to the human eye.
 THERMOGRAPHY
• Thermography testing, also known as infrared
inspection, is a contact-free predictive maintenance
method used to detect connections defects, system
overloads, deteriorated insulation, and other potential
problems in electrical components.
• Thermography inspection refers to the nondestructive
testing of parts, materials or systems through the
imaging of the thermal patterns at the object's
surface.
• Infrared thermography is used to find areas of excess
heat so that problems can be corrected before they
lead to excess power usage, increased maintenance
costs, service interruptions, catastrophic equipment
failure, and/or equipment damage.
 UNIT-3

Inspection of Material without causing

damage to the original part

Today 23/9/2021
 USES OF THERMOGRAPHY
ve Maintenance
e Maintenance
n Monitoring
Investigations
and Development
ssurance

w.youtube.com/watch?v=c
APPLICATIONS OF THERMOGRAPHY

FURNACE LINING
PIPE SECTION
FUEL STORAGE TANK
How does thermographic testing work?
• Thermography measures surface temperatures of electrical
components by using highly specialized infrared visual scanning
technology.
• During a scan, a thermal ‘camera’ is used to pick up traces of
heat allowing inspectors to easily identify heat anomalies by
their color in the thermal image.
 CLASSIFICATION OF THERMOGRAPHY TESTING
On the basis of approaches
• Passive Approach
• Active Approach
PASSIVE APPROACH
Principle
• In passive approach of thermography testing, materials
and structures are naturally at different temperature
than the background.
• For example, the human body is normally at a
temperature higher than the ambient temperature
hence it is detected by an IR camera without any
additional stimulation or source.
PASSIVE APPROACH
• An object at elevated temperature with respect to
environment can be monitored using an IR camera without an
aid of additional external source of energy.
• A computer system is used to display and process images.
Advantages
• Helpful while inspecting larger areas.
• It does not require any additional thermal equipment's.
Limitations
• An experienced thermographer is needed to interrupt thermo
graphic results.
• Effective results depending upon temperature difference(defect
specimen and surroundings)
Applications
• Monitoring electrical and electronic components
• Detection of insulation problems in buildings
ACTIVE APPROACH
• In active approach ,an external stimulus is needed to produce a
thermal contrast in the object surface.
• When external source of heat is applied the thermal state of the
object to be inspected is destabilized.
• In this technique the sample is heated by an external
source.
• Controlled heat source and its surface temperature is
monitored as a function of time through changes of
emitted infrared radiation.
• IR camera acquires data on thermal emissions and is
displayed in the computer.
 ELEMENTS OF INFRARED DETECTION SYSTEM
A typical system for detecting infrared radiation is given in the
following block diagram :

Infrared Source
• All objects above 0 K radiate infrared energy and hence are
infrared sources.
• Infrared sources also include tungsten lamps, silicon carbide,
and various others.
Transmission Medium
• Three main types of transmission medium used for Infrared
transmission are vacuum, the atmosphere, and optical fibers.
• The transmission of IR – radiation is affected by presence of
CO2, water vapour and other elements in the atmosphere.
• Due to absorption by molecules of water carbon dioxide,
ozone, etc. the atmosphere highly attenuates most IR
wavelengths leaving some important IR windows in the
electromagnetic spectrum
• These are primarily utilized by thermal imaging/ remote
sensing applications.
 OPTICAL COMPONENTS
• Often optical components are required to converge or
focus infrared radiations, to limit spectral response, etc.

• To converge/focus radiations, optical lenses made of

quartz, CaF2, Ge and Si, polyethylene Fresnel lenses, and
mirrors made of Al, Au or a similar material are used.

• For limiting spectral responses, band pass filters are

used. Choppers are used to pass/ interrupt the IR beams.

  
 
Infrared detectors
Various types of detectors are used in IR sensors. Important
specifications of detectors are
Photosensitivity or Responsivity
• Responsivity is the extreme sensitivity from light source.
• Output Voltage/Current per watt of incident energy. Higher
the better.
Noise Equivalent Power (NEP)
• Noise-equivalent power is a measure of the sensitivity of a
photo detector or detector system.
Signal Processing

• Since detector outputs are typically very small, preamplifiers

with associated circuitry are used to further process the
received signals
 Various Thermography Techniques
PULSED THERMOGRAPHY(FLASH THERMOGRAPHY)

• In this technique energy sources xenon flash tubes are used

to pulse heat the specimen surface.
• The duration and energy source depends on the thermo
physical properties of both, the specimen and the flaw
Modes of Thermography
Reflection Mode: In this mode inspecting defects closer to the
heated surface
Transmission Mode
In this mode inspecting defects are not closer to the heated surface

• Defective zones will appear at higher or lower temperature

with respect to non defective zones on the surface.
• The temperature evolution on the surface is then monitored
using an infrared camera
• When observing the thermal wave on the surface of the
material the defects explore themselves and can be
compared with the defect free products.
• The thermo physical differences create surface
interferences in the thermal waves and recorded by
thermal camera
• Multiple hundred of thermal images are sequenced and
analyzed by special software and the results are recorded.
 DATA PROCESSING and ANALYZING TECHNIQUES
• The specimen surface is submitted to heat pulse by using
external heat source.
• The heat pulse generated will have a periodic wave with
different frequencies and amplitudes.
• The thermal camera is kept in front of specimen and it travels
from surface through the specimen.
• As time elapses, the surface temperature decreases uniformly
for a specimen which is defect free.
• On the other hand cracks or discontinuities act as resistance to
heat flow that produce temperature patterns at the surface.
 LOCK IN THERMOGRAPHY
• Also called as modulated thermography
• In this technique, the specimen surface is
periodically illuminated by heating source like
halogen lamps, to inject thermal waves in to the
specimen.
• Heat is produced and propagates through the
material by radiation.
• Internal defects will act as barrier and changes
its amplitude.
 VIBRO THERMOGRAPHY TESTING
• Also known as Ultrasound Thermography
• It utilizes mechanical waves to directly simulate
internal defects without heating the surface.
• In Vibro-thermography cracks or damage in an object
are made visible through frictional heating caused by
high frequency ultrasound.
• The heat is generated through the dissipation of
mechanical energy at the crack surfaces by vibration. 
VIBRO THERMOGRAPHY
 Advantages and Limitations
Advantages
• Real time data acquisition is possible.
• Thermal imaging products provide fast and accurate
measurements of objects which are difficult to touch/to
reach such as high altitude power lines.
• It can help in identifying air leakages, documenting irregular
heat dispersion and identifying
possible irregularities in insulation.
Disadvantages
• Thermal imaging products require high initial
investment cost.
• Thermal imaging cameras can not see through glass
as thermal energy can be reflected off shiny
surfaces. 
• Thermal imaging cameras are not used for study of
under water objects.
• Surface thickness of the object influence on the
data output
 UNIT-3

Inspection of Material without causing

damage to the original part

Today 24/9/2021
EDDY CURRENT TESTING
 Introduction

• Eddy current inspection is one of several

methods that use the principal of
“electromagnetism” as the basis for
conducting examinations.

• Several other methods such as Remote Field

Testing (RFT), Flux Leakage and Barkhausen
Noise also use this principle.
 Eddy Current Testing

Coil's
Coil magnetic
field

Eddy current's
magnetic
field
Eddy
currents

Conductive
material
Principle
 Working
•
…
Eddy current testing is based on the physics phenomenon of
electromagnetic induction.
• In an eddy current probe, an alternating current flows through a wire coil and
generates an oscillating magnetic field.
• If the probe and its magnetic field are brought close to a conductive material like
a metal test piece, a circular flow of electrons known as an eddy current will
begin to move through the metal like swirling water in a stream.
• That eddy current flowing through the metal will in turn generate its own
magnetic field, which will interact with the coil and its field through mutual
inductance.
• Changes in metal thickness or defects like near-surface cracking will
interrupt or alter the amplitude and pattern of the eddy current and the
resulting magnetic field.
• This in turn affects the movement of electrons in the coil by varying the
electrical impedance of the coil.
• The eddy current instrument plots changes in the impedance amplitude and
phase angle, which can be used by a trained operator to identify changes in the
test piece.
 Generation of Eddy Currents (cont.)
•Eddy currents are strongest at the surface of the material and
decrease in strength below the surface.
•The depth that the eddy currents are only 37% as strong as they
are on the surface is known as the standard depth of penetration or
skin depth.
•This depth changes with probe frequency, material conductivity
and permeability.

Standard
Depth

Depth
Depth of
Penetration
(Skin Depth)

1/e or 37 %
Eddy Current of surface density Eddy Current
Density High Density Low
Frequency High Frequency Low
Conductivity High Conductivity Low
Permeability Permeability
 Crack Detection
• Crack detection is one of the primary uses of eddy current inspection.
• Cracks cause a disruption in the circular flow patterns of the eddy
currents and weaken their strength.
• This change in strength at the crack location can be detected.

Magnetic
Field From
Test Coil

Magnetic
Field From
Eddy Currents

Crack

Eddy Currents
 UNIT-3

Inspection of Material without causing

damage to the original part

Today 25/9/2021
 Equipment
• Equipment for eddy current inspection is very
diversified. Proper equipment selection is
important if accurate inspection data is desired
for a particular application.
• As a minimum, at least three basic pieces
of equipment are needed for any eddy
current examination:
– Instrumentation
– Probes
– Reference Standards
Instrumentation - Meters
Meters are typically
the simplest form
of eddy current
instrumentation.

The two general

categories of meters
are digital and
analog.
 Analog Meters
Analog meters can be
used for many different
inspection
applications such as
crack detection,
material thickness
measurements,
nonconductive coating
measurements or
conductive coating
measurements.
 Analog Meters
(cont.)
The display read-out found on most analog
instruments is typically either a calibrated
or uncalibrated display.
• Calibrated displays have an
inherent scaling factor which
correlates to the property the
instrument is designed to
measure such as conductivity.
• Uncalibrated displays are
typically more flexible in the
variety of different tests they
can perform. These types of
instruments, however,
require the use of data
extrapolation techniques if
quantitative data is desired
Eddy Current
Probes
 Eddy Current Probes
• Probes selection is(cont.)
critical to acquiring
adequate inspection data.
• Several factors to consider include:
– Material penetration requirements (surface
vs. subsurface)
– Sensitivity requirements
– Type of probe connections on eddy
current instrument (many variations)
– Probe and instrument impedance matching
(will probe work with instrument)
– Probe size (smaller probes penetrate less)
– Probe type (absolute, differential, reflection
or hybrid)
 Eddy Current Probes
(cont.)
• Due the the large variety of probes in eddy
current testing there are many different systems
of classification.
• Three of the most common classifications are:
– Surface probes
– Inside Diameter (I.D.) or Bobbin Probes
– Outside Diameter (O.D.) or Encircling probes
 Eddy Current Probes
(cont.)
Surface probes are coils that are typically mounted
close to one end of a plastic housing. As the name
implies, the technician moves the coil end of the
probe over the surface of the test component.
 Eddy Current Probes
(cont.)
Some surface probes are specifically designed
for crack detection of fastener holes.These
include sliding probes, ring probes and hole
probes.
 Eddy Current Probes
(cont.)
Surface probes can
be very small in size
to allow accessibility
to confined areas.

Finger
Probe

DE
V
 Eddy Current Probes
(cont.)
• Inside Diameter (I.D.) probes, also known as bobbin probes,
are coils that are usually wound circumferentially around a
plastic housing. These probes are primarily designed for
inspection inside of tubular materials.
 Reference Standards
(cont.)
• In order to give the eddy current inspector
useful data while conducting an inspection,
signals generated from the test specimen
must be compared with known values.
• Reference standards are typically
manufactured from the same or very similar
material as the test specimen.
• Many different types of standards exist for due to
the variety of eddy current inspections performed.
• The following slides provide examples of
specific types of standards.
 Reference Standards
(cont.)
Material thickness standards used to help
determine such things as material thinning
caused by corrosion or erosion.
 Reference Standards
(cont.)
Crack
Standards:
 Reference Standards
(cont.)
ASME Tubing Pit
Standard:
 Reference Standards
(cont.)
Nonconductive coating (paint) standard with
various thickness of paint on aluminum substrate.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mDyXBqUuhfg
 UNIT-3

Inspection of Material without causing

damage to the original part

Today 30/9/2021
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1YUSn___VxQ
 Advantages of Eddy Current
Inspection
• Sensitive to small cracks and other defects
• Detects surface and near surface defects
• Inspection gives immediate results
• Equipment is very portable
• Method can be used for much more than
flaw detection
• Minimum part preparation is required
• Test probe does not need to contact the part
• Inspects complex shapes and sizes of
conductive materials
 Limitations of Eddy Current
Inspection
• Only conductive materials can be inspected
• Surface must be accessible to the probe
• Skill and training required is more extensive
than other techniques
• Surface finish and and roughness may interfere
• Reference standards needed for setup
• Depth of penetration is limited
• Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to
the probe coil winding and probe scan direction
are undetectable
SYLLABUS
Radiographic Testing
SYLLABUS
 Radiographic Testing

• Radiography - basic principle,

electromagnetic radiation sources,
• X-ray films, exposure,
• Penetrameters, inspection standards,
• Radiographic imaging, inspection
techniques,
• Applications, limitations and safety.

DEV
 Introduction to Radiology
• Radiography uses penetrating radiation
that is directed towards a component.
• The component stops some of the
radiation.

• The amount that is stopped or absorbed

is affected by material density and
thickness differences.

• These differences in “absorption” can be

recorded on film, or DEV
electronically.
Electromagnetic spectrum

DEV
 Properties of X-Rays and Gamma Rays
• They are invisible to humans.
• They propagate in straight lines in free space.
• In special cases they are reflected, diffracted,
refracted, and polarized as is light, but to a much
smaller degree.
• They propagate at a velocity of 3x108meters per
second as does light.
• They consist of transverse electromagnetic vibrations
as does light.
• X-rays have energies between roughly 1KeV
and 50MeV.
• X-rays for NDI are produced by the interaction of
high- energy electrons or ions with matter.
Properties of X-Rays and Gamma Rays
• Gamma rays are produced in nuclear
transformations, such as radioactive decay.
• X-rays and gamma rays expose (darken)
photographic film.
• They stimulate fluorescence and phosphorescence
in some materials.
• They are capable of ionizing gases and changing
the electrical properties of some liquids and solids.
• They are able to damage and kill living cells and
to produce genetic mutations.
• They are differentially absorbed or scattered by
different media.
• X-rays may be diffracted by the crystalline, structure
of materials which acts like a grating.
 Interaction of X-ray with Material
Absorb
Scatter
Transmitted
Photo electric scattering
Compton scattering
Pair production
X-ray result image
What is the difference between gamma raysand x-
rays?

• Gamma rays and x-rays, like visible,

infrared, and ultraviolet light, are part of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

• While gamma rays and x-rays pose the

same kind of hazard, they differ in their
origin. Gamma rays originate in the
nucleus.

• X-rays originate in the electron fields

surrounding the nucleus or are machine-
produced.
DEV
 Good heat

conductor

1% to x-rays
99% to heat
energy

DEV
Basic construction of X-ray
equipment

DEV
 X-ray Radiography
x-rays are produced by an X-ray generator system.
These systems typically include an X-ray tube
head, a high voltage generator, and a control
console.

DEV
 X-ray Radiography (cont.)
• X-rays are produced by establishing a very high
voltage between two electrodes, called the
anode and cathode.
• To prevent arcing, the anode and cathode are
located inside a vacuum tube, which is
protected by a metal housing.
 X-ray Radiography (cont.)
• The cathode contains a small
filament much the same as in a
light bulb. Electrons
• Current is passed through the + -
filament which heats it. The heat
causes electrons to be stripped X-ray
off. Generator

• The high voltage causes these

“free” electrons to be pulled
toward a target material (usually
made of tungsten) located in
the anode.
• The electrons impact against
the target. This impact causes
an energy exchange which
causes x-rays to be
createDdEV.
 Radiography
Radiography involves the use of penetrating
gamma- or X-radiation to examine material's and
product's defects and internal features. An X-ray High Electrical Potential
machine or radioactive isotope is used as a source
of radiation. Radiation is directed through a part Electrons
and onto film or other media. The resulting
+ -
shadowgraph shows the internal features and
soundness of the part. Material thickness and
density changes are indicated as lighter or darker
X-ray Generator or
areas on the film. The darker areas in the
Radioactive Source
radiograph below represent internal voids in the Creates Radiation
component.

Radiation
Penetrate
the
Sample

Exposure Recording Device

 Radiation sources
X-rays or gamma radiation is used
x-ray source
Properties and Generation of X-ray
• X-rays are electromagnetic
radiation with very short
wavelength (≈ 10-8 -10-12 m)
• The energy of the x-ray can
be calculated with the
equation
E = hν = hc/λ
e.g. the x-ray photon with
wavelength 1Å has energy
12.5 keV
 Production of X-rays
X-rays are produced
whenever high-speed
electrons
W collide with a metal
target.
A source of electrons – hot
W filament, a high
accelerating voltage
targe X-rays Vacuu (30-50kV) between the
t m cathode (W) and the anode
and a metal target.
The anode is a water-cooled
block of Cu containing
desired target metal.
 X-ray Spectrum
• A spectrum of x-ray is
produced as a result of the I
k
interaction between the character
istic α
incoming electrons and the radiation continuous
inner shell electrons of the radiation
target element. k
β
• Two components of the
spectrum can be identified,
namely, the continuous
spectrum and the
characteristic spectrum. λ
SWL - short-wavelength limit
 Absorption of x-ray
• All x-rays are absorbed to some extent in passing through
matter due to electron ejection or scattering.
• The absorption follows the equation

I0 ρ, I
μ

where I is the transmitted intensity;

x
x is the thickness of the matter;
μ is the linear absorption coefficient (element dependent);
ρ is the density of the matter;
(μ/ρ) is the mass absorption coefficient (cm2/gm).
 Film Radiography
The part is placed between the radiation source
and a piece of film. The part will stop some of the
radiation. Thicker and more dense area will stop
more of the radiation.

• The film darkness (density) will

vary with the amount of radiation
reaching the film through the
X-ray film test object.
• Defects, such as voids, cracks,
inclusions, etc., can be
detected.= less exposure

= more exposure
Top view of developed film
 Contrast and Definition
Contrast

 
The first subjective criteria for determining radiographic quality is
radiographic contrast. Essentially, radiographic contrast is the
degree of density difference between adjacent areas on a
radiograph.
              

It is essential that sufficient

contrast exist between the
defect of interest and the
surrounding area. There is no
viewing technique that can
extract information that does
not already exist in the original
radiograph

low kilovoltage high kilovoltage

 Definition
Radiographic definition is the abruptness of change in going from
one density to another.

good poor

High definition: the detail portrayed in the radiograph is equivalent to

physical change present in the part. Hence, the imaging system
produced a faithful visual reproduction.
 The quality of a radiographic image can be assessed in
terms of three factors:

• 1. Image sharpness. Usually, in radiography, the inverse

of sharpness - unsharpness or blurring - is used.
• 2. Image contrast. The density change on a film for a
given thickness change in the specimen. If a small image
detail shows only dimly, this is a low contrast image; if
the detail is easily seen, this is a higher contrast image.
• 3. Image Noise. random variation of brightness
or color information in images, and is usually an
aspect of electronic noise. It can be produced by
the image For radiography-on-film, this is
effectively graininess.
 Interaction of X-ray with Material
Absorb
Scatter
Transmitted
Photo electric scattering
Compton scattering
Pair production
 Filters in Radiography
• An X-ray filter is a device to block or filter out some
or all wavelengths in the X-ray spectrum.

• Filtration is required to absorb the lower-energy x-ray

photons emitted by the tube before they reach the
target.

• The use of filters produce a cleaner image by absorbing the

lower energy x-ray photons that tend to scatter more.

• The total filtration of the beam includes the inherent filtration

(composed of part of the x-ray tube and tube housing) and
the added filtration (thin sheets of a metal inserted in the x-
ray beam).
• Filters are typically placed at or near the x-ray port in the
direct path of the x-ray beam.
• Placing a thin sheet of copper between the part and the film
cassette has also proven an effective method of filtration.
 Densitometer.
• Film density is measured with a
densitometer.

• A densitometer simply has a

photoelectric sensor that measures
the amount of light transmitted
through a piece of film.

• The film is placed between the light

source and the sensor and a density
reading is produced by the
instrument
 Wire IQI
• widely used IQI in radiography-on-film is the wire type. Various
patterns of wire type IQIs are described in German, Scandinavian,
British, Japanese, Chinese, American CEN and ISO Standards.
• These consist of a series of straight wires of the same or similar
material to the specimen, the wires being of different diameters taken
from the series 0.10, 0.125, 0.16, 0.20, 0.25, 0.32, 0.40, 0.50, 0.63,
0.80, 1.00,… The wires may be 10, 20, 30, 50mm according to the
various Standards and are held parallel to one another in a low density
plastic mount, with appropriate identification symbols.
• A typical wire IQI will contain six or seven wires taken from the
above series and is therefore relatively cheap to make in any
material in which standard wires are manufactured.
• The wire IQI is placed on the specimen and, on its image on the film,
the diameter of the thinnest VISIBLE wire is taken as a measure of IQI
(wire) sensitivity.
• In many Standards, the IQI (wire) sensitivity is specified as a
percentage value
Wire IQI
 step/hole type IQI
• A second widely-used IQI is the step/hole type in which a step
wedge of the same or similar material to the specimen has one or
two drill-holes in each step, the hole diameter being the same as
the step thickness: the holes must not be chamfered.

• This type of IQI is shown in detail in EN 462-2:1994, AFNOR

NFA 04 304 and BS 3971:1985. Typically, there are six steps,
with two holes in the steps thinner than 0.8mm.

• The step thicknesses and hole diameters are from the same
series given for wire diameters.

• IQI step/hole sensitivity is based on the smallest discernible

hole diameter, not the step visibility: if there are two holes in the
step, both must be discernible.
IQIs (Penetrameters) to ASTM E 1742-95 IQI or “Penetrameter” to ASTM E 1025

DEV
 Normal placement of an
IQI
• Standard practice is to
place the IQI on the
side of the specimen
facing the radiation
source, on the grounds
that this is the region of
the image where
geometric unsharpness
and therefore image
blurring, will be the
largest.
• Most tables of IQI
values assume that the
IQI is in this position.
Defects in welding detect
by radiography
 Cold lap
• Cold lap is a condition
where the weld filler
metal does not properly
fuse with the base metal
or the previous weld
pass material (interpass
cold lap).
• The arc does not melt
the base metal
sufficiently and causes
the slightly molten
puddle to flow into the
base material without
bonding.
 Porosity
• Porosity is the result of gas
entrapment in the solidifying
metal.
• .
• SometiPorosity can take many
shapes on a radiograph but often
appears as dark round or irregular
spots or specks appearing
singularly, in clusters, or in
rowsmes, porosity is elongated and
may appear to have a tail. This is
the result of gas attempting to
escape while the metal is still in a
liquid state and is called wormhole
porosity.
• All porosity is a void in the material
and it will have a higher
 Cluster porosity
• Cluster porosity is caused
when flux coated
electrodes are
contaminated with
moisture.
• The moisture turns into
a gas when heated and
becomes trapped in the
weld during the welding
process.
• Cluster porosity appear
just like regular porosity in
the radiograph but the
indications will be grouped DEV
close together.
 Slag inclusions
• Slag inclusions are
nonmetallic solid
material entrapped in
weld metal or between
weld and base metal.
• In a radiograph, dark,
jagged asymmetrical
shapes within the weld or
along the weld joint
areas are indicative of
slag inclusions.
 Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack
of penetration (LOP)
• Incomplete penetration (IP) or
lack of penetration (LOP)
occurs when the weld metal
fails to penetrate the joint.
• It is one of the most
objectionable weld
discontinuities.
• Lack of penetration allows a
natural stress riser from which
a crack may propagate.
• The appearance on a
radiograph is a dark area with
well-defined, straight edges
that follows the land or root
face down the center of the
weldment.
 Incomplete fusion
• Incomplete fusion is a
condition where the
weld filler metal does
not properly fuse with
the base metal.
• Appearance on
radiograph: usually
appears as a dark line
or lines oriented in the
direction of the weld
seam along the weld
preparation or joining
area.
DEV
 Internal concavity
• Internal concavity is a
condition where the weld
metal has contracted as
it cools and has been
drawn up into the root of
the weld.
• On a radiograph it looks
similar to a lack of
penetration but the line
has irregular edges and
it is often quite wide in
the center of the weld
DEV
image.
 Internal or root undercut
• Internal or root undercut
is an erosion of the
base metal next to the
root of the weld.
• In the radiographic
image it appears as a
dark irregular line offset
from the centerline of
the weldment.
• Undercutting is not as
straight edged as LOP
because it does not DEV
follow a ground edge.
 External or crown undercut
• External or crown
undercut is an erosion of
the base metal next to
the crown of the weld.
• In the radiograph, it
appears as a dark
irregular line along the
outside edge of the
weld area.
 Offset or mismatch
• Offset or mismatch are terms
associated with a condition
where two pieces being
welded together are not
properly aligned.
• The radiographic image shows
a noticeable difference in
density between the two
pieces.
• The difference in density is
caused by the difference
in material thickness.
• The dark, straight line is
caused by the failure of the
weld metal to fuse with the
land area.
DEV
 Inadequate weld
reinforcement
• Inadequate weld reinforcement
is an area of a weld where the
thickness of weld metal
deposited is less than the
thickness of the base material.
• It is very easy to determine by
radiograph if the weld has
inadequate reinforcement,
because the image density in
the area of suspected
inadequacy will be higher
(darker) than the image density
of the surrounding base
material.
 Excess weld reinforcement
• Excess weld reinforcement is
an area of a weld that has weld
metal added in excess of that
specified by engineering
drawings and codes.
• The appearance on a
radiograph is a localized,
lighter area in the weld.
• A visual inspection will easily
determine if the weld
reinforcement is in excess of
that specified by the
engineering requirements.
• Cracks can be detected
in a radiograph only
when they are
propagating in a
direction that produces a
change in thickness that
is parallel to the x-ray
beam.
• Cracks will appear as
jagged and often very
faint irregular lines.
Cracks can
sometimes appear as
"tails" on inclusions or
 Areas of Application
• Can be used in any situation when one wishes to view the
interior of an object
• To check for internal faults and construction defects, e.g.
faulty welding
• To ‘see’ through what is inside an object
• To perform measurements of size, e.g. thickness
measurements of pipes

Standard:

ASTM
– ASTM E94-84a Radiographic Testing
– ASTM E1032-85 Radiographic Examination of Weldments
– ASTM E1030-84 Radiographic Testing of Metallic Castings
Radiographic Images
 Limitations of Radiography
• There is an upper limit of thickness through which
the radiation can penetrate, e.g. γ-ray from Co-60
can penetrate up to 150mm of steel
• The operator must have access to both sides of an
object
• Highly skilled operator is required because of the
potential health hazard of the energetic radiations
• Relative expensive equipment
 Examples of radiographs

                                                                                              

Cracking can be detected in a radiograph only the crack is propagating in a direction that
produced a change in thickness that is parallel to the x-ray beam. Cracks will appear as
jagged and often very faint irregular lines. Cracks can sometimes appearing as "tails" on
inclusions or porosity.
                                                                                             

Burn through results when too much heat causes excessive weld metal to
penetrate the weld zone. Lumps of metal sag through the weld creating a thick
globular condition on the back of the weld. On a radiograph, burn through appears
as dark spots surrounded by light globular areas.
  
                                        
                                        

Gas porosity or blow holes Sand inclusions and dross

are caused by accumulated are nonmetallic oxides,
gas or air which is trapped by appearing on the radiograph
the metal. These as irregular, dark blotches.
discontinuities are usually
smooth-walled rounded
cavities of a spherical,
elongated or flattened shape.
 Radiation Safety
Use of radiation sources in industrial
radiography is heavily regulated by Govt .
organizations due to potential public and
personal risks.

DEV
 Radiation Safety
(cont.)
Technicians who work with radiation must wear monitoring devices
that keep track of their total absorption, and alert them when they
are in a high radiation area.

Survey Meter Pocket Dosimeter Radiation Alarm Radiation Badge

 Radiation Safety (cont.)
There are three means of protection to help
reduce exposure to radiation:

DEV
300
• 2 types of testing methods, Destructive testing & Non-
Destructive testing

• Destructive testing-After testing the material looses its

functionality, e.g. Chemical analysis, mechanical
properties etc.

• Non-Destructive testing-The soundness of material is

tested without affecting its functionality.

• NDT methods enhaneces the reliability of the

components/product at manufacturing stage or in service.

301
The use of noninvasive
techniques to determine
the integrity of a material,
component or structure
or
quantitatively measure
some characteristic of
an object.

i.e. Inspect or measure without doing harm.

302
• Visual inspection (VT)
• Liquid penetration (PT)
• Magnetic particle testing (MT)
• Eddy current testing (ET)
• Radiography (RT)
• Ultrasonic testing (UT)

303
• Flaw Detection and Evaluation

• Leak Detection

• Dimensional Measurements

• Structure and Microstructure

Characterization

• Estimation of Mechanical and Physical

properties

• Stress (Strain) and Dynamic Response

Measurements

• Material Sorting and Chemical Composition

Determination
304
There are NDT application at almost any stage
in the production or life cycle of a component.

•To assist in product development

•To screen or sort incoming materials

•To monitor, improve or control

manufacturing processes

•To verify proper processing such as heat

treating

•To inspect for in-service damage

305
• A liquid with high surface wetting characteristics is applied
to the surface of the part and allowed time to seep into
surface breaking defects.
• The excess liquid is removed from the surface of the
part.

• A developer (liquid/powder) is applied to pull the

trapped penetrant out the defect and spread it on the
surface where it can be seen.
• Visual inspection is the final step in the process. The
penetrant used is often loaded with a fluorescent dye
and the inspection is done under UV light to increase
test sensitivity.

306
The part is magnetized. Finely milled iron particles coated with
a dye pigment are then applied to the specimen. These
particles are attracted to magnetic flux leakage fields and will
cluster to form an indication directly over the discontinuity.
This indication can be visually detected under proper lighting
conditions.

307
Eddy current testing is particularly well suited for detecting surface cracks but
can also be used to make electrical conductivity and coating thickness
measurements. Here a small surface probe is scanned over the part surface
in an attempt to detect a crack.

308
309
FREQUENCY RANGE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
(Hz)

0 - 20 Infrasound Earth quake

20 – 20,000 Audible sound Speech, music

> 20,000 Ultrasound Bat, Quartz crystal

310
• Sound frequency above human audible range is called
ultrasonic sound

• The ultrasonic principle is based on the fact that solid

materials are good conductors of sound waves & reflected
at interfaces.

• Whereby the waves are not only reflected at the interfaces

but also by internal flaws (material separations, inclusions
etc.)

• A considerable amount of information about the part being

examined can be collected, such as the presence of
discontinuities, part or coating thickness; and acoustical
properties can often be correlated to certain properties of
the material.

311
• RESOLUTION:-The ability to detect nearby small
defects separately
• SENSITIVITY:-The ability to detect the smallest
defect
• ATTENUATION:-At a grain boundary the wave is
partly absorbed, partly scattered & partly
transmitted, so the sum of absorption & scattering
is the attenuation of the wave
• ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE:-The resistance offered by
the medium to he propagation of sound wave
through it
• HASH:-At times when the material is very coarse
the waves are reflected from the grain boundaries
& we get small echoes which are known as hashes
or noise
312
• Sound is produced by a vibrating body
and travels in the form of a wave.

• Sound waves travel through materials by

vibrating the particles that make up the
material.

• The pitch of the sound

is determined by the
frequency of the wave

• Ultrasound is sound
with a pitch too high
to be detected by the
human ear.

313
• The measurement of sound waves from crest
to crest determines its wavelength (λ).

• The sound wavelength

is inversely proportional
to its frequency. (λ = 1/f)

• Several wave modes of

vibration are used in
ultrasonic inspection.
The most common are
longitudinal, shear, and
Rayleigh (surface) waves.

• The velocity of sound in

a given material is
constant and can only
be altered by a change
in the mode of energy. 314
If the particles oscillates in the direction parallel to
the propagation of wave than it is said to be a
Longitudinal wave

PROPERTIES OF LONGITUDINAL WAVES

• Propagates by compression & rarefaction of the particles in the
direction of travel
• Can propagate in solid, liquid & gases
• It has the highest velocity & longest wavelength among all types
of waves
• It has lesser attenuation than shear waves

315
LONGITUDINAL WAVE
Direction of oscillation Direction of propagation

316
If the particle oscillates in the direction
perpendicular to the propagation of wave then it
is said to be a Transverse or shear wave

PROPERTIES OF TRANSVERSE WAVES

• Propagates by lateral shear at right angle to
the direction of wave travel
• Can only travel in solid mediums

317
Ultrasound is generated with a transducer

A piezoelectric element
in the transducer
converts electrical
energy into mechanical
vibrations (sound), and
vice versa.

The transducer is
capable of both
transmitting and
receiving sound
energy.

318
• Ultrasonic waves are introduced into a material where
they travel in a straight line and at a constant speed
until they encounter a surface

• The probe has a piezoelectric crystal in it which is

excited by extremely short electrical discharge, causing
it to vibrate & produce Ultrasonic waves

• The probe is coupled to the surface of the test object

with a liquid or coupling paste so that the sound waves
from the probe are able to be transmitted into the test
object.

• The operator then scans the test object, i.e. he moves

the probe evenly to and fro across the surface. In doing
this, he observes the instrument display for any signals
caused by reflections from internal discontinuities 319
• At surface interfaces some of the wave energy is
reflected and some is transmitted.

• The amount of reflected or transmitted energy can

be detected and provides information about the
size of the reflector.

• The travel time of the sound can be measured and

this provides information on the distance that the
sound has traveled.

320
The reflection takes place at an interface due to
difference in acoustic impedance of the two
mediums

Medium 1 Medium 2

Incoming wave Transmitted wave

Reflected wave

321
Interface
 s

Probe
Sound travel path
Flaw

Work piece

322
• Not only the back
surface reflect the
sound wave, the same
is done by every
change in the
composition of the
material

• A flaw too reflects the

sound wave

• Depending on the size

of flaw the back wall
echo amplitude
changes
323
• Change in depth of flaw changes the
position of defect echo on screen

• When the flaw is near the probe the defect

echo is near the initial pulse

• As the flaw changes its position its defect

echo also moves accordingly.

• However the defect echo would always lie

towards the left of the Back wall echo

324
325
• As the size of flaw increases the amplitude
of the defect echo also increases

• And if the amplitude of the defect echo

increases the amplitude of the back wall
echo will decrease

• If the flaw is capable of reflecting the whole

sound wave then in such a case there would
be no Back wall echo

326
327
• Ultrasonic testing is a very versatile inspection method,
and inspections can be accomplished in a number of
different ways.
• Ultrasonic inspection techniques are commonly divided
into three primary classifications.
• Pulse-echo and Through Transmission
(Relates to where reflected or transmitted energy is
used)
• Normal Beam and Angle Beam
(Relates to the angle that the sound energy enters the
test article)
• Contact and Immersion
(Relates to the method of coupling the transducer to
the test article)

328
 Pulse echo
technique

Immersion testing

Through transmission

329
• In pulse-echo testing, a transducer sends out a pulse of
energy and the same listens for reflected energy (an
echo).
• Reflections occur due to the presence of discontinuities
and the surfaces of the test article.
• The amount of reflected sound energy is displayed
versus time, which provides the inspector information
about the size and the location of features that reflect the
sound.

330
 Digital display showing
signal generated from
sound reflecting from
back surface.

Digital display showing the

presence of a reflector
midway through material,
with lower amplitude back
surface reflector.

The pulse-echo technique allows testing when access to only one

side of the material is possible, and it allows the location of
reflectors to be precisely determined.
331
Digital display
showing received
sound through
material thickness.

Digital display
showing loss of
received signal due
to presence of a
discontinuity in the
sound field.

332
• In normal beam testing, the sound beam is
introduced into the test article at 90
degree to the surface.

• In angle beam testing, the sound beam is

introduced into the test article at some
angle other than 90.

• The choice between normal and angle

beam inspection usually depends on:
- The orientation of the defect – the
sound should be directed to produce
the largest reflection from the feature.

333
• Transducers are manufactured in a variety of forms, shapes
and sizes for varying applications.

• Transducers are categorized in a number of ways which

include:
•- Contact or immersion
•- Single or dual element
•-Normal or angle beam

• In selecting a transducer
for a given application, it
is important to choose the
desired frequency,
bandwidth, size, and in some cases focusing
which optimizes the inspection capabilities.
334
• Probes whose beams
are normal to the
surface are called
straight-beam
probes.

• Normal probes
transmit and receive
the sound waves
normal to the surface
of the test object.

• Probes whose beams enter at an angle are

called angle-beam probes.

• Angle probes transmit and receive the sound

waves at an angle to the surface of the test
object. 335
• Flaw detectors are
instruments designed
primarily for the inspection
of components for defects.
• However, the signal can be
evaluated to obtain other
information such as material
thickness values.
• Both analog and digital
display.
• Offer the user options of
gating horizontal sweep and
amplitude threshold.

336
• Information from ultrasonic testing can be
presented mainly in three formats.

 A-scan
 B-scan
 C-scan

337
• B-scan presentations display a
profile view (cross-sectional) of a
test specimen.

• Only the reflector depth in the

cross-section and the linear
dimensions can be determined.

• A limitation to this display

technique is that reflectors may be
masked by larger reflectors near
the surface.

338
• The C-scan presentation displays a plan type view of the
test specimen and discontinuities.

• C-scan presentations are produced with an automated data

acquisition system, such as in immersion scanning.

• Use of A-scan in conjunction with C-scan is necessary when

depth determination is desired.

Photo of a Composite C-Scan Image of 339

Component Internal Features
• Sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.
• Depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is
superior to other methods.
• Only single-sided access is needed when pulse-echo
technique is used.
• High accuracy in determining reflector position and
estimating size and shape.
• Minimal part preparation required.
• Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
• Detailed images can be produced with automated
systems.
• Has other uses such as thickness measurements, in
addition to flaw detection.

340
• Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
• Skill and training is more extensive than with some other
methods.
• Normally requires a coupling medium to promote transfer
of sound energy into test specimen.
• Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small,
exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are difficult to
inspect.
• Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult
to inspect due to low sound transmission and high signal
noise.
• Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go
undetected.
• Reference standards are required for both equipment
calibration, and characterization of flaws.

341
• A sound beam can be roughly divided into a
convergent (focusing) area, the near-
field, and a divergent (spreading) part, the
far field

• The length N of the near-field (near-field length)

and the divergence angle is dependent on the
diameter of the element, its frequency and the
sound velocity of the material to be tested

• The center beam is termed the acoustic axis.

342
• Calibration is a operation of configuring the
ultrasonic test equipment to known values. This
provides the inspector with a means of comparing
test signals to known measurements.

• Calibration standards come in a wide variety of

material types, and configurations due to the
diversity of inspection applications.

• Calibration standards are typically manufactured

from materials of the same acoustic properties as
those of the test articles.

343
• To select the appropriate NDT method we
must consider the following
 Thickness of material to be tested
 Location of discontinuity
 Type of material to be tested
 Orientation of discontinuity
 Type of defect

344
 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses high frequency sound energy
to conduct examinations and make measurements.
Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw
detection/evaluation, dimensional measurements,
material characterization, and more

very short ultrasonic pulse-waves with center

frequencies ranging from 0.1-15 MHz, and occasionally
up to 50 MHz, are transmitted into materials to detect
internal flaws or to characterize materials.
Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
 Ultrasonic Inspection (Pulse-Echo)
High frequency sound waves are introduced into a material and
they are reflected back from surfaces or flaws.
Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, and inspector can
visualize a cross section of the specimen showing the depth of
features that reflect sound. f

initial
pulse

back surface
echo
crack
echo

crack
0 2 4 6 8 1
0
plat
e
Oscilloscope, or flaw
detector screen
 C U I and IUT
Contact Ultrasonic Inspection
ultrasonic testing allows for the inspection of
parts that are large, irregularly shaped, or
unable to be transported.
 Immersion Ultrasonic Inspection (IUT)

Immersion ultrasonic testing is a

laboratory-based inspection, useful
for the detection of smaller defects,
from cracking to porosity.
Submersing a component or material
allows for better sound travel from
the transducer, and provides
accurate reporting of sub-surface
irregularities and flaws. IUT supports
a broad range of requirements as it
applies to any wall thickness, as well
as any material. 
 UT advantages
• It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.
• The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is
superior to other NDT methods.
• Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique
is used.
• It is highly accurate in determining reflector position and estimating
size and shape.
• Minimal part preparation is required.
• Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
• Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
• It has other uses, such as thickness measurement, in addition to
flaw detection.
 UT limitations
As with all NDT methods, ultrasonic inspection also has its limitations,
which include:
• Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
• Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
• It normally requires a coupling medium to promote the transfer of sound
energy into the test specimen.
• Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin
or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
• Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due
to low sound transmission and high signal noise.
• Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected.
• Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration and the
characterization of flaws.
Acoustic Emission Testing
 Introduction to Acoustic Emission Testing

Acoustic Emission (AE) refers to the generation of transient elastic waves produced by a
sudden redistribution of stress in a material. When a structure is subjected to an external
stimulus (change in pressure, load, or temperature), localized sources trigger the release of
energy, in the form of stress waves, which propagate to the surface and are recorded by
sensors. With the right equipment and setup, motions on the order of picometers (10 -12 m)
can be identified. Sources of AE vary from natural events like earthquakes and rockbursts to
the initiation and growth of cracks, slip and dislocation movements, melting, twinning, and
phase transformations in metals. In composites, matrix cracking and fiber breakage and
debonding contribute to acoustic emissions. AE’s have also been measured and recorded in
polymers, wood, and concrete, among other materials.
 Schematic Diagram of a Basic Four-
channel Acoustic Emission Testing System
Fatigue detection by acoustic emissions

Acoustic emission refers to the generation of transient waves during the rapid release of energy
from localized sources within a material. The source of these emissions is closely associated
with the dislocation accompanying plastic deformation and the initiation and extension of fatigue
cracks in material under stress. Other sources of acoustic emission are: melting, phase
transformation, thermal stress, cool down cracking and the failure of bonds and fibres in
composite materials.

Acoustic emissions are measured by piezoelectric transducers mounted on the surface of the
structure under test and loading the structure. Sensors are coupled to the structure by means of
a fluid couplant or by adhesive bonds. The output of each piezoelectric sensor is amplified
through a low-noise preamplifier, filtered to remove any extraneous noise and furthered
processed by suitable electronic equipment. Multiple sensors may be placed in the region of the
source so that the source(s) may be spatially located.
Traditionally, acoustic emissions as a technique has be restricted to the monitoring of high cost
structures due to the expense of the monitoring equipment. However, as equipment costs
steadily fall, the range of viable applications expands rapidly.
• AE Barkhausen Techniques
 Applications

• Weld Monitoring
• Bucket Truck (Cherry Pickers) Integrity
Evaluation
• Gas Trailer Tubes
• Bridges
• Aerospace Structures
 Advantages
● High sensitivity.
● Early and rapid detection of defects, flaws, cracks etc.
● Real time monitoring.
● Cost Reduction.
● Defective area location: only critical defects provide sustainable Acoustic
Emission sources.

Disadvantages of acoustic emissions monitoring

The disadvantage of acoustic emission monitoring is that commercial acoustic emissions systems
can only estimate qualitatively how much damage is in the material and approximately how long the
components will last. So, other methods are still needed to do more thorough examinations and
provide quantitative results.
Operating environments are often very noisy, and the acoustic emission signals are usually very
weak. Thus, signal discrimination can be very difficult, yet extremely important for successful
applications.
Although acoustic emissions have been used in materials-related studies for about four decades,
many problems still exist. The most important difficulty is associated with the reliability of acoustic
emissions results.
 Other applications
● aircraft life estimation
● pressure vessel testing
● structural integrity testing
● production quality control
● materials testing
● concrete corrosion monitoring
● pipeline monitoring
● bridge monitoring
● wind turbine monitoring
● ship hull monitoring
● leak detection
● mine wall stability
● earthquake prediction
THERMOGRAHY
 Inspection of Material without causing damage to the original part

Summary
UNIT I OVER VIEW OF NDT
NDT Versus Mechanical testing, Overview of the Non Destructive Testing
Methods for the detection of manufacturing defects as well as material
characterisation. Relative merits and limitations, Various physical characteristics
of materials and their applications in NDT., Visual inspection – Unaided and
aided.

UNIT II SURFACE NDE METHODS

Liquid Penetrant Testing - Principles, types and properties of liquid penetrants,
developers, advantages and limitations of various methods, Testing Procedure,
Interpretation of results. Magnetic Particle Testing- Theory of magnetism,
inspection materials Magnetisation methods, Interpretation and evaluation of
test indications, Principles and methods of demagnetization, Residual
THANK YOU