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Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
NDT Level III Examinations
Basic and Method Exams
ASNT NDT Level III certification candidates are required to pass both the NDT Basic and a
method examination in order to receive the ASNT NDT Level III certificate.
Exam Specifications
The table below lists the number of questions and time allowed for each exam. Clicking on an
exam will take you to an abbreviated topical outline and reference page for that exam. For the full
topical outlines and complete list of references, see the topical outlines listed in the American
National Standard ANSI/ASNT CP-105, Standard Topical Outlines for Qualification of
Nondestructive Testing Personnel.
MFL
Magnetic Flux Leakage Testing
90 Questions Time: 2 hrs Certification: NDT only
The next section discussion deals with the first step, producing the magnetizing
force.
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Seams & Laps
Excitation systems that use permanent magnets offer the least flexibility.
Such systems use high energy product permanent magnet materials such as
neodymium iron boron, samarium cobalt and aluminum nickel. The major
disadvantage with such systems lies in the fact that the excitation cannot be
switched off. Because the magnetization is always turned on, it is difficult to
insert and remove the test object from the test rig. Although the magnetization
level can be adjusted using appropriate magnetic shunts, it is awkward to do
so. Consequently, permanent magnets are very rarely used for magnetization.
(1) φ=NI/S
where I is the current (ampere) in the coil, N is the number of turns in the coil
and S is the reluctance (ampere per weber) of the magnetic circuit.
Keywords:
Reluctance (ampere per weber)
In a DC field, the reluctance is the ratio of the "magnetomotive force” (MMF) in a magnetic circuit
to the magnetic flux in this circuit. In a pulsating DC or AC field, the reluctance is the ratio of the
amplitude of the "magnetomotive force” (MMF) in a magnetic circuit to the amplitude of the
magnetic flux in this circuit. (see phasors)
S = N I / Ф, F =NI
where
S is the reluctance in ampere-turns per weber (a unit that is equivalent to turns per henry).
F is the magnetomotive force (MMF) in ampere-turns
Ф is the magnetic flux in webers.
"Turns" refers to the winding number of an electrical conductor comprising an inductor
Weber, unit of magnetic flux in the International System of Units (SI), defined as the amount
of flux that, linking an electrical circuit of one turn (one loop of wire), produces in it an
electromotive force of one volt as the flux is reduced to zero at a uniform rate in one second.
Tesla, a flux density of one Wb/m2 (one weber per square metre) is one tesla.
Where:
H (magnetic field intensity) is measured in units of amperes per meter (symbol: A·m−1 or A/m)
in the SI.
B (magnetic flux density) is measured in teslas (symbol: T) and newtons per meter per ampere
(symbol: N·m−1 ·A−1 or Newtons per Ampere meter N/(m·A)) or weber/m2 in the SI.
B is most commonly defined in terms of the Lorentz force it exerts on moving electric charges.
In everyday life, magnetic fields are most often encountered as a force created by permanent
magnets, which pull on ferromagnetic materials such as iron, cobalt, or nickel and attract or
repel other magnets. Magnetic fields are widely used throughout modern technology,
particularly in electrical engineering and electromechanics. The Earth produces its own
magnetic field, which is important in navigation, and it guards Earth's atmosphere from solar
wind. Rotating magnetic fields are used in both electric motors and generators. Magnetic
forces give information about the charge carriers in a material through the Hall effect. The
interaction of magnetic fields in electric devices such as transformers is studied in the
discipline of magnetic circuits.
Almost three centuries later, William Gilbert of Colchester replicated Petrus Peregrinus' work and
was the first to state explicitly that Earth is a magnet Published in 1600, Gilbert's work, De
Magnete, helped to establish magnetism as a science.
In 1750, John Michell stated that magnetic poles attract and repel in accordance with an inverse
square law. Charles-Augustin de Coulomb experimentally verified this in 1785 and stated
explicitly that the north and south poles cannot be separated. Building on this force between
poles, Siméon Denis Poisson (1781–1840) created the first successful model of the
magnetic field, which he presented in 1824. In this model, a magnetic H-field is produced by
'magnetic poles' and magnetism is due to small pairs of north/south magnetic poles.
First, in 1819, Hans Christian Oersted discovered that an electric current generates a magnetic
field encircling it. Then in 1820, André-Marie Ampère showed that parallel wires having
currents in the same direction attract one another. Finally, Jean-Baptiste Biot and Félix
Savart discovered the Biot–Savart law in 1820, which correctly predicts the magnetic field
around any current-carrying wire.
Extending these experiments, Ampère published his own successful model of magnetism in 1825.
In it, he showed the equivalence of electrical currents to magnets and proposed that
magnetism is due to perpetually flowing loops of current instead of the dipoles of magnetic
charge in Poisson's model. This has the additional benefit of explaining why magnetic charge
can not be isolated. Further, Ampère derived both Ampère's force law describing the force
between two currents and Ampère's law, which, like the Biot–Savart law, correctly described
the magnetic field generated by a steady current. Also in this work, Ampère introduced the
term electrodynamics to describe the relationship between electricity and magnetism.
In 1850, Lord Kelvin, then known as William Thomson, distinguished between two magnetic
fields now denoted H and B. The former applied to Poisson's model and the latter to
Ampère's model and induction. Further, he derived how H and B relate to each other.
Between 1861 and 1865, James Clerk Maxwell developed and published Maxwell's equations,
which explained and united all of classical electricity and magnetism. The first set of these
equations was published in a paper entitled On Physical Lines of Force in 1861. These
equations were valid although incomplete. Maxwell completed his set of equations in his later
1865 paper A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field and demonstrated the fact that
light is an electromagnetic wave. Heinrich Hertz experimentally confirmed this fact in 1887.
Often the magnetic field is defined by the force it exerts on a moving charged particle. It is known
from experiments in electrostatics that a particle of charge q in an electric field E experiences
a force F = q· E. However, in other situations, such as when a charged particle moves in the
vicinity of a current-carrying wire, the force also depends on the velocity of that particle.
Fortunately, the velocity dependent portion can be separated out such that the force on the
particle satisfies the Lorentz force law,
F = q· (E + v × B)
Here v is the particle's velocity and × denotes the cross product. The vector B is termed the
magnetic field, and it is defined as the vector field necessary to make the Lorentz force law
correctly describe the motion of a charged particle. This definition allows the determination of
B in the following way.
Magnetic Force
The magnetic field B is defined from the Lorentz Force Law, and specifically from the magnetic
force on a moving charge:
1. The force is perpendicular to both the velocity v of the charge q and the magnetic field B.
2. The magnitude of the force is F = qvB sinϴ where ϴ is the angle < 180 degrees between the
velocity and the magnetic field. This implies that the magnetic force on a stationary charge or
a charge moving parallel to the magnetic field is zero.
3. The direction of the force is given by the right hand rule. The force relationship above is in the
form of a vector product.
Keywords:
Fmagnetic = qv · B sinϴ
The magnitude of the force is F = qv · B sinϴ where ϴ is the angle < 180 degrees between the
velocity and the magnetic field. This implies that the magnetic force on a stationary charge or
a charge moving parallel to the magnetic field is zero.
(2) (3)
(4)
Where:
ax is the cross sectional area (square meter) of the air gaps, test object or
yoke; Lx is the length (meter) of the air gaps, test object or yoke; μ0 is the
permeability of free space (μ0 = 4π.10–7 H·m–1); μr is relative permeability; and
subscripts g, s and y denote the air gaps, test object and yoke, respectively.
Note that the magnetic circuit consists of two air gaps, one at each end of the test object. Both air
gaps need to be taken into account in calculating the total reluctance of the magnetic circuit.
Legend
I = electric current
P, Q = points of discontinuities in
example
R = point at which magnetic field
intensity H is measured
S = point at which magnetic flux
density B is measured
(5)
Question: a or r?
Legend
H = magnetic field intensity
I = electric current
Legend
H = magnetic field intensity
I = electric current
r = tube radius
Legend
C = capacitor
Ic = capacitor discharge current
Ie = eddy current
SCR = silicon controlled rectifier
Legend
C = capacitor
Ic = capacitor discharge current
Ie = eddy current
SCR = silicon controlled rectifier
(6)
Here Ie is the amount of eddy current (ampere) contained within the cylinder
of radius r (meter). Investigation of the effect of the eddy current is
theoretically quite complicated because of its effect on the inductance, which
in turn affects Ic. In practice, however, measurement of the magnetic flux
density B in the material will yield the final degree of magnetization of that
material.
Several other practical conclusions can be drawn from the above discussion.
• Pulse duration plays a greater role than pulse amplitude Ic(max) in
determining the amount of flux induced in a test object. This is intuitively
seen in direct current tests.
• It is not possible to give simple rules that relateIc(max) to magnetization
requirements. This relationship can be shown with a magnetic flux meter.
• The eddy currents induced during pulse magnetization play an important
role in the result. They can shield midwall regions from magnetization.
• Larger capacitances at lower voltages provide better magnetization than
smaller capacitances at higher voltages because larger capacitances at
lower voltages lead to longer duration pulses and therefore to lower eddy
currents. The lower voltage is an essential safety feature for outdoor use.
A maximum of 50 V is recommended.
(7)
Where:
N is the number of turns in the coil,
V is the voltage induced in the coil and
φ is the magnetic flux (weber) linking the coil.
It must be mentioned that only the component of the flux parallel to the axis of
the coil (or alternately perpendicular to the plane of the coil) is instrumental in
inducing the voltage.
(8)
(a) (b)
1. It is essential that the probe scan velocity (relative to the test object)
should be constant to avoid introducing artifacts into the signal through
probe velocity variations.
2. The output is proportional to the spatial gradient of the flux in the direction
of the coil. The output of the pickup coil can be integrated for
measurement of the leakage flux density rather than of its gradient.
figure 1
The second and newer technology is the magnetoresistive sensor shown in figure 2 or
sometimes referred to as AMR (Anisotropic magnetoresistance). Unlike the Hall Effect sensor
that uses a change in voltage the AMR is based off a change in resistance. This change in
resistance is more sensitive thus; a lower strength magnet can be utilized. The best advantage of
the AMR sensor is that it will work with the axially magnetized magnet and in most cases the
radially magnetized magnet. Like the Hall Effect, the AMR has no moving parts and nothing to
wear out and is fast therefore it is a good solution for high-speed applications. The
magnetoresistive sensor does not suffer from double switch points and has a much better noise
immunity than Hall Effects.
I know what you are thinking there must be some negatives. The initial cost of the AMR or GMR
sensor may be slightly more than the reed sensor however this cost is becoming less and less
and it is even less once you figure the cost of down time after your reed switch fails or the
proximity flag is moved. In addition, the AMR and GMR sensors are 3-wire devices unlike the 2-
wire reed switch. However, in the end the AMR and GMR sensors are still the better solution.
(9)
Where:
dl is an element of length (meter), H is the magnetic field intensity (ampere
per meter) and I is the current (ampere) in the test object.
In the electric case, the relation of field to source is quantified in Gauss's Law
which is a very powerful tool for calculating electric fields
(10)
(11)
Where:
R is the radius (meter) of the cylindrical test object. A surface field intensity
that creates an acceptable magnetic flux leakage field from the minimum
sized discontinuity must be used. Such fields are often created by specifying
the amperage per meter of the test object’s outside diameter.
Where the test object is a tube, the L·D–1 ratio is given by the length between
the poles divided by twice the wall thickness of the tube. (The distance L from
pole to pole can be longer or shorter than the actual length of the test object
and must be estimated by the operator.)
As a rough example, with L = 460 mm (18 in.) and D = 19 (0.75 in.), the L·D–1
ratio is 24.
(12)
9.5.0 Preface
Simulated defects of different shapes and sizes were created in a section of
API X70 steel line pipe and were investigated using a residual magnetic flux
leakage (MFL) technique. The MFL patterns reflected the actual shape and
size of the defects, although there was a slight shift in their position. The
defect features were apparent even at high stresses of 220 MPa when the
samples were magnetized at those particular stresses. However, unlike the
active flux technique, the residual MFL needs a sensitive flux detector to
detect the comparatively weaker flux signals.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang Journal of Nondestructive Evaluation, Vol. 22, No. 4, December 2003 (© 2004)
9.5.1 Introduction
The magnetic flux leakage (MFL) technique is frequently used for in-service
monitoring of oil and gas steel pipelines, which may develop defects such as
corrosion pits as they age in service. Under the effect of typical operating
pressures, these defects act as “stress raisers” where the stress
concentrations may exceed the yield strength of the pipe wall. The main
objective of MFL inspection is thus to determine the exact location, size, and
shape of the defects and to use this information to determine the optimum
operating pressure and estimate the life of a pipeline. Most MFL tools rely on
active magnetization in which the pipe wall is magnetized to near saturation
by using a strong permanent magnet, and the flux leaking out around a defect
is measured at the surface of the pipeline.
Keywords:
■ Near saturation
■ Active magnetization
■ Flux leaking out
Keywords:
■ 30 G (Gauss)
Keywords:
■ Residual flux patterns are basically similar to the active flux patterns.
■ Very weak and may have opposite magnetic polarity
■ For high excitation current level, there is no reversal of polarity
MFLpp
Active
magnetization
Vertical lift-off
S N End lift-off
In-service oil and gas pipelines are subjected to high stresses (up to 70% of
the yield strength); thus the variations in the active MFL patterns brought
about by the increased level of stress have been the subject of study. When
the pipe is axially magnetized, the higher circumferential stresses are known
to affect the active MFL signals and patterns from circular blind-hole defects
in two ways:
(1) they rotate the macroscopic magnetic easy axis of the pipe from the axial
direction toward the circumferential direction, which causes the change in
MFLpp, and
(2) they modify the MFL pattern by producing localized flux variations as a
result of stress concentrations around defects.
To study such changes in the residual MFL patterns, measurements were
made on circular and racetrack defects at different stress levels.