Optik 127 (2016) 2217–2225

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Optik
journal homepage: www.elsevier.de/ijleo

Development and modelling of the dielectric properties of

tissue-mimicking phantom materials for ultra-wideband microwave
breast cancer detection
Lakhvinder Singh Solanki a , Surinder Singh a,∗ , Dharmendra Singh b
a
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering & Technology, Longowal, Sangrur, Punjab 148106,
India
b
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, IIT, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this paper, development and characterization of oil-in-gelatin dispersions are recommended that
Received 5 February 2015 approximate the dispersive dielectric properties of different human soft tissues over the microwave
Accepted 29 October 2015 frequency range from 0.5 GHz to 20 GHz. Different tissues are mimicked by selection of an appropriate
concentration of oil. Thus, these materials can be used to construct heterogeneous phantoms including
Keywords: anthropomorphic types for ultra-wideband microwave breast cancer detection and imaging systems.
Breast cancer
The dielectric constant of the human tissues decreases from low to high frequencies. The experimental
Curve fitting
data are analyzed and relevant dielectric parameters are determined by curve fitting. It is concluded that
Phantom
Ultra-wideband
bioelectric modelling provides a useful tool in the development of different human tissue mimicking
Soft tissues mediums and complex structured phantom to be used for the breast cancer detection.
© 2015 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Another type of material polyacrylamide gel has been used as

Phantoms that closely mimic the physical properties of various
human tissues have attracted great attention for the development
and testing of medical imaging techniques such as ultrasound, mag-
netic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT) [1,2],
etc. There has been growing interest and research on the interac-
tions of electromagnetic waves with biological tissues, particularly
at microwave frequencies. Applications of electromagnetic engi-
neering in medicine have recently been attracting the minds of new
generations of microwave researchers despite strong competition
from wireless communication and other related technologies.
Therefore, the need for biological phantoms that mimic the elec-
tromagnetic properties of tissues at microwave frequencies has
greatly increased. Many different tissue-mimicking (TM) phan-
tom materials have been developed to simulate the properties of
high-water-content and low-water-content biological tissues over
ranges of frequencies. These materials can be roughly divided into
several classes, according to the base ingredient. Although a com-
prehensive literature review is beyond the scope of this paper,
several such classes have been discussed briefly.
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 9417589632.
E-mail address: surinder sodhi@rediffmail.com (S. Singh).
the main ingredient for the fabrication of the TM materials and the
phantoms [3,4]. These materials are attractive due to their optical
transparency and elastic properties. These resulting phantoms
have very short life and they lose their properties when exposed
to air for several hours or even are kept in air-tight container for
several weeks [3]. More recently, these materials were adapted by
several researchers [5–7]. These materials were fabricated with
complicated methods as well as the chemicals used during the
fabrication, that are not easily available. Gelatin-based materials
are attractive due to their stable mechanical properties, availability
of the chemicals used in fabrication and ease of fabrication [8–11].
Oil-in-gelatin recipe has been developed to simulate variety of
human TM materials over the microwave frequency range from
500 MHz to 20 GHz [8]. Different tissues have been mimicked by
selection of different concentrations of oil at 0%, 10%, 30%, 50%,
80% in gelatin solution. These materials possess long term stability
and can be employed in fabrication of the heterogeneous config-
urations without change in dielectric properties and mechanical
properties. These materials are useful to fabricate heterogeneous
phantoms including anthropomorphic types for narrowband and
ultra-wideband microwave technologies [10].
This paper addresses the compulsion for TM materials that
enable the construction of stable heterogeneous and anthropo-
morphic phantoms for the early breast cancer detection using

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijleo.2015.10.215
0030-4026/© 2015 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.
2218 L.S. Solanki et al. / Optik 127 (2016) 2217–2225
Table 1
Design goal for the compositions of tissue-mimicking materials.
S. no. Water taken Gelatin Vol. of solution Vol. of sample
(ml) added (g) taken (ml)
1 150 26.8 169.143 150
2 150 26.8 169.143 150
3 150 26.8 169.143 150
4 150 26.8 169.143 150
5 150 26.8 169.143 150
6 150 26.8 169.143 150
low-power UWB microwave signals. Three dimensional and
numerical breast phantoms of the breast have been opted for the
research and analysis [1,2,12–19]. Although, healthy and cancerous
tissues contrasts have been compared for identification of tumour,
sometimes research has been focused to estimate the size of the
smallest detectable tumour. In references [12,13], numerical anal-
ysis has been carried out over the frequency range of 0.5–11 GHz.
Although the minimum size of the detectable tumour has been esti-
mated numerically [14,16,18], it has drawn special attention for
the development of TM materials with high precision for small size
clutters rejection [15,18,19]. Tumour also has to be detected in dis-
persive [17,18] and complex media which raises the requirement of
development of TM materials with diversified dielectric properties.
Propitious theoretical outcomes and preliminary laboratory exper-
iments have brought low power microwave breast cancer detection
at the door steps of initial pre-clinical studies and developments.
Anthropomorphic breast phantoms are required to be developed to
bridge the gap between the relatively simple phantoms that have
been used in experimental feasibility studies and the much more
complex structure of the actual human breast to be encountered in
pre-clinical studies. This UWB application serves as a compelling
demonstration for the development of the TM materials presented
in this paper. Since the breast is a heterogeneous tissue volume
with constituents possessing dielectric properties that span the
biological spectrum, the specifications for TM materials dictated
by this UWB application are of a general nature. The development
of breast tissue phantoms requires TM materials for low-water-
content tissues (breast fat), higher-water-content tissues (breast
glandular tissues and cancerous lesions) and tissues of intermedi-
ate water content (skin). There is variation in physical structure of
breast and its configuration from one region to other region and
existence of the tumour in complex fibroglandular tissues. Hence,
it has become the need of the present that different TM materials
that can be juxtaposed without the risk of their properties changing
due to diffusion across the interface.
In this paper more emphasis has been given over the use of the
curve fitting techniques for the analysis, estimation and validation
of the properties of various materials. The curve fitting techniques
have also been incorporated to analyze the properties of biological
tissues [20–26]. The blood has been the rare part of researches with
curve fitting techniques [27], but majority of the work has been
carried out over other human body parts like muscles [20–24]. But
some of the investigations have also been carried out over breast
tissues [25,26]. Modelling of the pre-properties of the biological tis-
sues has been made based upon many properties like viscoelastic
[21], shape [23], optical [20–25] and acoustic [26]. The structure of
the human breast is complex in nature and each part of the breast
possesses a large span of the dielectric properties. The develop-
ment of the phantoms with tissue mimicking materials for breast
tissues containing water content differently in each tissue of the
breast requires variable dielectric. There is also variation in electri-
cal properties of biological tissues geographically from one region
to other region and it again causes the variation in the electrical
% of oil (in Oil added Surfactant Formaldehyde Ready vol. of
solution) added (ml) (0.56 ml per (0.0108 g per ml of sample (ml)
1 ml of oil) the gelatin
solution)
0 0 0 1.62 151.62
9.1 13.65 7.644 1.62 172.914
16.7 25.05 14.028 1.62 190.698
23.1 34.65 19.404 1.62 205.674
28.6 42.9 24.024 1.62 218.544
33 49.5 27.72 1.62 228.84
properties of the breast tissues. Hence, it has become a compulsion
for the development of the method for selective development of
TM materials to fulfil the need of the development of the breast
phantom with physical as well as electrical complex nature.
To satisfy the above requirements, we have created a TM phan-
tom material over the frequency range of 500 MHz to 20 GHz that
approximates the dispersive dielectric properties of various biolog-
ical tissues. Similar materials have previously been developed for
ultrasound phantoms. These gelatin-based materials contain vary-
ing percentages of oil, which allow materials with a wide range
of dielectric properties to be constructed. A critical property of
these materials is the ability to create heterogeneous and anthropo-
morphic configurations with long-term stability of mechanical and
electromagnetic properties. In addition, these materials are elastic
as well as inexpensive and easily fabricated and moulded.
The aim of this paper is to fabricate TM materials as per the
design goals given in Table 1. Later dielectric properties of the TM
materials will be measured and data will be used in curve fitting to
find an optimized model of the TM materials with parameters: % of
oil in gelatin solution and destination frequency of measurement.
The optimized model of dielectric properties of TM materials will
be validated with measured results.
This paper is organized into six parts: Section 2 represents the
preparation of TM materials with the complete method of the fabri-
cation of the TM materials. Section 3 describes the measurement of
dielectric properties of TM materials and results. Section 4 explains
the simulations and modelling including the details of the curve
fitting over the measured data of the electrical properties and gen-
eration of the appropriate model. After that model validation and
generation for the electrical properties of the TM materials have
been done, later on, these are compared with the measured ones.
In the last section the discussion, conclusions and future scopes
have been reported.
2. Method of preparation of the TM materials
First, a gelatin solution (gelatin and distilled water) will be taken
at a temperature of 50 ◦ C. Then quantities of gelatin solution and
oil are combined and a surfactant added. Vigorous stirring creates a
uniform emulsion. The emulsion is cooled to 40 ◦ C, and an amount
of formaldehyde solution is added. Then the emulsion is cooled to
about 34 ◦ C and poured into a container. The gelatin matrix sur-
rounding the oil droplets congeals as the temperature drops below
26 ◦ C. Within 24 h chemical cross-linking of the gelatin molecules
by the formaldehyde raises the melting point of the gelatin matrix
to over 100 ◦ C [7].
The procedure for producing an oil-in-gelatin dispersion hav-
ing volume per cent oil between 0% and 33% is as follows: first
take 150 ml of 18 M cm deionized water in a beaker. Add with
stirring 26.8 g (dry mass) of 200 bloom gelatin to the mixture pro-
duced. Heat the mixture in a double boiler. When the mixture has
become transparent (at about 90 ◦ C) and no air bubbles are sus-
pended beneath the surface, stir the mixture for about 10 min to
 L.S. Solanki et al. / Optik 127 (2016) 2217–2225 2219

Fig. 1. Phantom samples with % if oil in gelatin molten (a) 0% oil, (b) 9.1% oil, (c) 16.7% oil, (d) 23.1% oil, (e) 28.6% oil, (f) 33% oil.

produce uniformity and then remove any air bubbles from the sur-
face. Cool the mixture down to 50 ◦ C. Remove the beaker from the
water bath and pour 150 ml into another beaker which already con-
tains a quantity of oil (Saffola oil – vegetable oil) at 50 ◦ C. If a volume
per cent oil of 9.1% is desired, then the amount of oil should be
13.65 ml. Vigorously stir the mixture until oil droplets almost dis-
appeared and using a syringe, add 0.56 ml of liquid surfactant per
ml of oil. The emulsion should become uniform and for larger per-
centages oil nearly white. Using a needle and syringe add 1.62 g of
formaldehyde solution (37% by weight formaldehyde). The amount
of formaldehyde solution is 0.0108 g per ml of the gelatin solution.
Cool in the water tub to about 34 ◦ C and pour into the container for
cooling and solidifying. Allow at least 10 days for cross-linking of
gelatin to be completed. Repeat the above procedure to form other
samples as per the design goals.

2.1. TM material samples production Fig. 2. Measurement setup with Agilent E8364C PNA microwave network analyzer
and 85070E dielectric probe kit in lab.

Oil in gelatin samples is produced for the purpose of dielectric

properties characterization. We have generated six homogeneous
samples of the TM materials, as per the design goals given in Table 1
with the oil percentages of 0%, 9.1%, 16.70%, 23.10%, 28.60%, 33% in
gelatin solutions as shown in Fig. 1(a)–(f). From the ready molten
of each type with specific % of oil in gelatin, 150 ml of the molten
has been poured in each sample plastic jars of capacity of 200 ml.
After pouring molten to the sample plastic jars, they are covered
with lids to prevent desiccation and are left undisturbed while
under congealing process. The flat upper surface of the sample is
then accessed for the dielectric spectroscopy measurements. These
samples are later sealed with plastic covers and preserved at low
temperature in refrigerator for more than 10 days.
3. Dielectric measurement
With the experimental setup shown in Fig. 2 the dielectric prop-
erties of the TM samples have been measured using the Agilent
85070E Open Ended Dielectric Probe Kit with Agilent E8364 C PNA
microwave network analyzer [10]. The dielectric probe kit setup
has been established and connected to VNA as shown in Fig. 3. The
dielectric probe was calibrated before start of the measurements
and calibration of probe is validated with distilled water dielec-
tric measurements [28]. All the measurements are performed at
room temperature (approximately 27 ◦ C). As per the flow chart
given in Fig. 4, the measurements are carried out. The tip of the
probe is placed on the bare surface of the TM material sample in
jar; care is taken not to puncture the surface of the sample. The
flat face of the probe is held touching the surface of the sample
for about 5–6 min, before taking the record of the measurement.
Three measurements are taken for each sample at different pos-
itions on the flat surface of sample under test (SUT) and results are
averaged.
2220 L.S. Solanki et al. / Optik 127 (2016) 2217–2225
Fig. 3. Dielectric probe kit setup.
3.1. TM samples measurements and discussion
Using the dielectric probe method, dielectric properties of all
the six samples of the Gelatin prepared six oil percentages like 0%,
9.1%, 16.7%, 23.1%, 28.6%, 33% are measured at room temperature
27 ◦ C, 10 days after the samples were prepared. At the time of
measurement both real dielectric and imaginary dielectric were
measured, but later real part of the dielectric has been considered
for analysis. The dielectric measurement results of the six samples
of Gelatin have been used and plotted. Fig. 5(a)–(f) shows the
relative permittivity (εr ) respectively, of the above six different
Fig. 4. Flow chart for dielectric measurement of a gelatin sample (SUT).
homogeneous TM samples measured over the frequency range of
0.5–20 GHz.
Since the permittivity of the oil is very low (about 2.5 at 6 GHz)
[7], hence from Fig. 5(a)–(f), it is concluded that by increasing the
% of oil in the gelatin molten, the dielectric constant is decreased.
The dielectric constant also decreases over the entire measurement
range as frequency increases from 0.5 GHz to 20 GHz and vice versa.
Fig. 5(a) shows the permittivity of the 0% oil TM sample, which rep-
resents the upper bound in the attainable dielectric properties. The
dielectric properties of the 0% oil sample make it a suitable stimu-
lant for high water content tumour. It is straightforward to decrease
the permittivity of the TM samples to possess the TM materials
with low water content like fibroglandular tissues and skin; it can
be done by increasing the % of oil in the samples. Fig. 5(f) shows the
lower bound on the dielectric properties as the goals designed but
this lower bound can be extended more low by more increasing the
% of oil in TM samples.
From Fig. 5(a)–(f), it appears that TM sample with small oil %
possesses the properties of suitable stimulant for high water con-
tent tissues and samples with high oil % possesses the properties of
stimulant for low water content tissues.
4. Simulation and modelling of TM materials
4.1. Curve fitting simulator
CurveExpert Professional (CurveExpert Professional 2.0.4) is a
cross-platform solution for curve fitting and data analysis. Data can
be modelled using a toolbox of linear regression models, nonlinear
regression models, smoothing methods, or various kinds of splines.
Overall 60 models are built-in, but custom regression models may
also be defined by the user. Full-featured publication quality graph-
ing capability allows thorough examination of the curve fit. The
process of finding the best fit can be automated by letting Curve-
Expert compare the data to each model to choose the best curve.
The software is designed for the purpose of generating high quality
results and output while saving time in the process.
4.2. Model selection
The permittivity of the six TM material samples has been
recorded with different compositions of the oil % in Gelatin molten
and recorded at different frequencies 0.5–20 GHz with increment
step size of 0.1999 GHz. After analyzing the data recorded, dielectric
values of TM samples with % of oil at 0.0%, 9.1%, 16.7%, 23.1%, 28.6%,
33.3% are selected at frequencies 1 GHz, 5 GHz, 10 GHz, 15 GHz,
20 GHz and are tabulated as in Table 2. These tabulated values are
modelled with the curve fitting technique using the CurveExpert
Professional Simulator. With this curve fitting technique, the mod-
els tabulated in Table 2 have been recommended by the simulator
for various simulations for the data. The data values of ‘oil % in
gelatin solution’ are taken as first column and values of ‘dielec-
tric measured of the TM samples’ at frequency ‘1 GHz’ is taken in
second column. Both column values are added to the simulator
and processed. Regression analysis of these values is done with
simulator. The models possessing the close proximity to the real
values of the data are recommended and enlisted with ranking
as per the juxtaposition to measured data. This process has been
repeated for other frequencies at 5 GHz, 10 GHz, 15 GHz, 20 GHz
also and in all these repetitions, regression analysis has been done.
In Table 3 variable x represents the percentage of oil in gelatin
solution and variable y represents the dielectric of TM materi-
als for the models tabulated in Table 4 at all discrete frequencies
mentioned.
 L.S. Solanki et al. / Optik 127 (2016) 2217–2225 2221

(a) Gelatin Sample with 0 % oil (b) Gelatin Sample with 9.1 % oil
80 60
Measured Measured
50
60

Dielectric

Dielectric
40
40
30

20 20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Frequency (Hz) 10 Frequency (Hz) 10
x 10 x 10

(c) Gelatin Sample with 16.7 % oil (d) Gelatin Sample with 23.1 % oil
60 50
Measured Measured
50 40
Dielectric

Dielectric
40 30

30 20

20 10
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Frequency (Hz) 10 Frequency (Hz) 10
x 10 x 10

(e) Gelatin Sample with 28.6 % oil (f) Gelatin Sample with 33 % oil
50 50
Measured Measured
40 40
Dielectric

Dielectric
30 30

20 20

10 10
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Frequency (Hz) 10 Frequency (Hz) 10
x 10 x 10

Fig. 5. Dielectric constant (real) εr of Gelatin Phantom with (a) 0% of oil, (b) 9.1% of oil, (c) 16% of oil, (d) 23% of oil, (e) 28% of oil, (f) 33% of oil, over frequency range from 0.5
to 20 GHz.

Table 2
Dielectric values for the six phantoms at different frequencies with variation in percentage of oil in TM samples.

S. no. Oil % in gelatin solution Dielectric measured of the TM samples

1 GHz 5 GHz 10 GHz 15 GHz 20 GHz

1 0.0 69.6184 59.8533 44.8315 32.4762 25.1064

2 9.1 55.5535 47.3942 35.3422 25.7246 20.2431
3 16.7 55.9968 48.0546 36.2408 26.6126 21.0685
4 23.1 49.3033 41.9947 31.4818 23.2053 18.6062
5 28.6 41.8014 36.2558 29.5167 23.8192 19.6415
6 33.0 40.8525 35.7849 29.5466 24.0719 19.9332

4.3. Optimum curve fitting for TM material
During the regression analysis with simulator for the models
in Table 4 for each frequency the selected models are ranked from
highest rank to lowest. From the tabulated models, Gaussian Model
and Ratkowsky Model are the only models, which have highest rank
Table 3
Proposed models used in curve fitting for dielectric versus % oil in Gelatin.
S. no. Model name Model equation
2
1 Gaussian Model y = ae −(x−b)
Zc 2
a
2 Ratkowsky Model y= b−cx
(1+e )
3 Sinusoidal y = a+b cos(cx + d)
4 Hyperbolic decline y = qo (1 + bx/a)(−1/b )
5 DR-Gamma y =  + (1 − ) (˛,ˇx)
6 DR-LogProbit y =  + (1 − )[1 + erf

x
7 DR-Hill y=˛+ k +x
8 Reciprocal quadratic y = 1/(a + bx + cxz )
9 Farazdhagi-Harris y = 1/(a + bxc )
as per the recommendations of the simulator in frequency range
from 1 GHz to 20 GHz. Gaussian Model has been ranked high twice
and Ratkowsky Model thrice, but when Gaussian Model is ranked
high twice then Ratkowsky Model is ranked next lowest to highest
and it is also common to all discrete frequencies. Hence Ratkowsky
Model has been selected for all discrete frequencies and constants
of this model have been tabulated in Table 5. It is concluded that
Ratkowsky Model is common to all frequencies of 1–20 GHz and
the best suitable model which is in proximity to the data fed to the
simulator.
4.4. Simulation of Ratkowsky Model constants
Three constants a, b, c of the Ratkowsky Model tabulated in
Table 5 are again simulated at the discrete frequencies of 1 GHz,
 (˛+ˇ ln x)  5 GHz, 10 GHz, 15 GHz, and 20 GHz using curve fitting technique.
√
2 The models tabulated in Table 6 have been recommended by
the simulator for various simulation repetitions over the data in
Table 5. The discrete values of ‘frequency’ are taken in first column
and values of constant ‘a’ of Ratkowsky Models are taken in next
2222 L.S. Solanki et al. / Optik 127 (2016) 2217–2225

Table 4
The constant values of each model at different frequencies.

No. Model namea Constants of the Constants of the Constants of the Constants of the Constants of the
models at 1 GHz model at 5 GHz model at 10 GHz model at 15 GHz model at 20 GHz

1 Gaussian Model a = 76.736082, a = 69.250204, a = 48.219053, a = 31.909845, a = 23.588936,

b = −27.689907, b = −33.535760, b = −28.036508, b = −17.569517, b = −6.453113,
c = 52.001036 c = 55.971739 c = 57.175351 c = 57.377531 c = 52.115591
2 Ratkowsky Model a = 87.68088, a = 78.039273, a = 54.250541, a = 35.053677, a = 25.198413,
b = −1.18534, b = −1.036669, b = −1.284235, b = −1.820174, b = −2.468609,
c = −0.04219 c = −0.039020 c = −0.038271 c = −0.039479 c = −0.046348
3 Sinusoidal a = 49.72610, – – – –
b = 46.24900,
c = 0.01869,
d = 1.17169
4 Hyperbolic decline qo = 68.472022, qo = 58.529033, qo = 43.398569, qo = 31.642691, –
a = 71.834435, a = 73.269530, a = 84.781039, a = 105.324281,
b = −0.631328 b = −0.617727 b = −0.728316 c = −0.929292
5 DR-Gamma Gamma = 65.898369, – – – –
alpha = 2.000305,
beta = 0.043962
6 DR-LogProbit Gamma = 63.167542, – – – –
alpha = −5.528596,
beta = 1.514816
7 DR-Hill – – – – Alpha = 21.873938,
theta = −20497497,
eta = 3.660139,
kappa = 51.601213
8 Resiprocal – – – – a = 0.034805,
quadratic b = 0.000001,
c = 2.595409
9 Farazdhagi-Harris – – – a = 0.034805, –
b = 0.000001,
c = 2.595409
a
In all the models tabled in Table 3 and this table, ‘y’ represents dielectric of the TM material and ‘x’ represents % of oil in Gelatin solution.

Table 5 From Table 8 it is concluded that ‘Logistic Power’ model rep-

Ratkowsky Model constants at discrete frequencies.
resents constant ‘a’, polynomial regression (degree = 4) model
Frequency (Hz) a b c represents constant ‘b’ and ‘c’ of the Ratkowsky Model selected vari-
1.0 GHz 87.680881 −1.185347 −0.042194 ation with percentage of oil in Gelatin solution, for the computation
5.0 GHz 78.039273 −1.036669 −0.03902 of the dielectric of the TM sample.
10.0 GHz 54.250541 −1.284235 −0.038271
15.0 GHz 35. 053677 −1.820174 −0.039479
20.0 GHz 25.198413 −2.468609 −0.046348
4.5. To prepare the goal TM material sample

Step 1. The frequency of experiment setup is selected.

right column. Both column values are added to the simulator and Step 2. Using ‘Logistic Power’ model, polynomial regression
processed. Regression analysis of these values is done. The models (degree = 4) model and as per Table 8, their corresponding
possessing the close proximity to the values of the data tabulated constants ‘a ’, ‘b ’, ‘c ’, ‘d ’, ‘e ’, the constants ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’ for Ratkowsky
in Table 5 are recommended and listed with ranking as per the jux- Model are computed with the help of MATLAB.
taposition to the data. This process has been repeated also for other Step 3. The dielectric of the TM material to be designed is selected.
Ratkowsky Model constants ‘b’ and ‘c’. All ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’ constants of Step 4. Using constants ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’ in Ratkowsky Model and the
the Ratkowsky Model have been generated at different frequencies goal dielectric, the % of oil in Gelatin solution is computed with
of 1 GHz, 5 GHz, 10 GHz, 15 GHz, 20 GHz and tabulated in Table 7. MATLAB.
All constants ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’ in Table 7 are further modelled separately to Step 5. Using the computed % of oil in Gelatin solution, the goal
fit in over the frequency range 0.5 to 20 GHz and are tabulated in TM material sample is prepared.
Table 8.
5. Validation of optimized model of TM materials
Table 6
Proposed models used in curve fitting for frequency versus Ratkowsky Model To validate the proposed model to compute the % of oil to be
constants. added to the Gelatin solution, we performed a comparison between
S. no. Model name Model equation their dielectric properties computed with the proposed models and
the actual dielectric properties measured of Gelatin samples rep-
1 Logistic power y = a/(1 + (x/b)c )
2 Richards y= a resenting biological tissues of varying water contents. In Fig. 6, the
1/d
(1+eb−cx )
a modelled and measured phantom dielectric properties of the TM
3 Ratkowsky Model y=
(1+eb−cx )
−(x−b)2
materials against variation of frequency have been depicted. Also in
4 Gaussian Model y= ae
Zc 2
c
Fig. 7, the errata of the modelled and measured phantom dielectric
5 Farazdhagi-Harris y = 1/(a + bx )
6 Hyperbolic decline y = qo (1 + bx/a)(−1/b)
properties with frequency have been unfolded. In Fig. 7(a)–(f), mod-
7 Sinusoidal y = a + b cos(cx + d) elled dielectric properties are shown and error with vertical bars.
8 Polynomial regression (degree = 2) y = a + bx + cx2 · · · In Fig. 7(c)–(e), very less error has been noticed whereas in others
9 Polynomial regression (degree = 3) y = a + bx + cx2 + dx· · · errors noticed are more. The errors noticed may be due to simulator
10 Polynomial regression (degree = 4) y = a + bx + cx2 + dx + ex4 · · ·
limitations. In general, there is very good agreement between the
 L.S. Solanki et al. / Optik 127 (2016) 2217–2225 2223

(a) Gelatin Phantom with 0 % oil (b) Gelatin Phantom with 9.1 % oil
80 80
Measured Measured
60 Modelled 60 Modelled

Dielectric

Dielectric
40 40

20 20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Frequency (Hz) 10 Frequency (Hz) 10
x 10 x 10

(c) Gelatin Phantom with 16.7 % oil (d) Gelatin Phantom with 23.1 % oil
60 50
Measured Measured
50 Modelled 40 Modelled
Dielectric

Dielectric
40 30

30 20

20 10
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Frequency (Hz) 10 Frequency (Hz) 10
x 10 x 10

(e) Gelatin Phantom with 28.6 % oil (f) Gelatin Phantom with 33 % oil
50 50
Measured Measured
40 Modelled 40 Modelled
Dielectric

30 Dielectric 30

20 20

10 10
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Frequency (Hz) 10 Frequency (Hz) 10
x 10 x 10

Fig. 6. Modelled and measured phantom dielectric variation with frequency.

Gelatin Phantom with 0 % oil Gelatin Phantom with 9.1 % oil

80 80
Modelled Modelled
60
60
Dielectric

Dielectric

40
40
20

20 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Frequency (Hz) 10 Frequency (Hz) 10
x 10 x 10
(a) (b)
Gelatin Phantom with 16.7 % oil Gelatin Phantom with 23.1 % oil
60 50
Modelled Modelled
50 40
Dielectric

Dielectric

40 30

30 20

20 10
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Frequency (Hz) 10 Frequency (Hz) 10
x 10 x 10
(c) (d)
Gelatin Phantom with 28.6 % oil Gelatin Phantom with 33 % oil
50 50
Modelled Modelled
40 40
Dielectric

Dielectric

30 30

20 20

10 10
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Frequency (Hz) 10 Frequency (Hz) 10
x 10 x 10
(e) (f)

Fig. 7. Modelled and error with measured phantom dielectric variation with frequency.
2224 L.S. Solanki et al. / Optik 127 (2016) 2217–2225

Table 7
The modelled constant to model ‘Ratkowsky Model’ constants ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’ at different frequencies.

S. no. Model namea Constants to model Ratkowsky Model

Constant ‘a’ Constant ‘b’ Constant ‘c’

1 Logistic power a = 88.531815, – –

b = 12525546182.737692,
c = 2.100591
2 Richards a = 88.326420, b = −3.353115, – –
c = −0.000000, d = 11.164711
3 Ratkowsky Model a = 124.692839, – –
b = −1.046103, c = −0.00000
4 Gaussian Model a = 103.250553, – –
b = −7696012584.952442,
c = 1592166994.513729
5 Farazdhagi-Harris a = 0.010895, b = 0.000000, – –
c = 1.664807
6 Hyperbolic decline qo = 94.258699, – –
a = 22063130127.003071,
b = −0.667300
7 Sinusoidal – a = −2.018915, b = 0.970915, a = −1.460686E0,
c = 1.35859E−10, b = 1.422950E0,
d = −0.666419 c = 9.939576E−12,
d = −9.049337E−02
8 Polynomial regression – – a = −4.362264E−02,
(degree = 2) b = 1.279621E−12,
c = −7.027152E−23
9 Polynomial regression – a = −1.282488, a = −4.292993E−02,
(degree = 3) b = 1.101970E−10, b = 8.448195E−13,
c = −1.354386E−20, c = −1.680971E−23,
d = 2.534825E−31 d = −1.690576E−33
10 Polynomial regression – a = −1.287265, a = −4.376486E−02,
(degree = 4) b = 1.154888E−10, b = 1.769651E−12,
c = −1.473854E−20, c = −2.255995E−22,
d = 3.443035E−31, d = 1.418182E−32,
e = −2.188319E−42 e = −3.824434E−43
a
In all the models tabled in Table 6 and this table, ‘y’ represents constants ‘a’ or ‘b’ or ‘c’ of the Ratkowsky Model and ‘x’ represents frequency of measurements.

Table 8
Models for Ratkowsky Model constants ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’.

S. no. Model Constant modelled Constants in model

1 Logistic power a a = 88.531815,

b = 12525546182.737692,
c = 2.100591
2 Polynomial regression b a = −1.287265,
(degree = 4) b = 1.154888E−10,
c = −1.473854E−20,
d = 3.443035E−31,
e = −2.188319E−42
3 Polynomial regression c a = −4.376486E−02,
(degree = 4) b = 1.769651E−12,
c = −2.255995E−22,
d = 1.418182E−32,
e = −3.824434E−43

modelled results and measured results of the TM materials over
the entire frequency range particularly in the middle samples in
Fig. 7(c)–(e). Although this agreement is little bit deteriorated, for
the high water content TM materials over high end of the frequency
range. For the microwave breast cancer detection approach that
operates from 1 GHz to 20 GHz, 9.1% of oil sample approximates the
dielectric properties for the cancerous cells and 23.1% of oil sam-
ple approximates the dielectric properties of skin. The oil % for the
other fibroglandular tissues in human breast can be approximated
with the proposed model.
6. Conclusion
A new model of the TM materials has been proposed that can
compute and design a variety of biological TM materials over a wide
range of frequencies. The dielectric properties of the TM material
sample can be changed simply by varying the volume percentage
of oil in Gelatin molten. Therefore, stimulants for low water con-
tent and high water content as well as intermediate fibroglandular
tissues can be easily fabricated to analyze the complex structure of
the human breast. Further, the model is well suited to narrow band
applications and analysis since at discrete frequencies the dielec-
tric properties of the TM materials can be tuned very precisely by
just altering the oil concentration in Gelatin molten. The model has
been designed to compute the % of oil in Gelatin to fabricate the
TM material samples to carry on the clinical experimental work for
early breast cancer detection. Specifically, these materials are eas-
ily available in market and can be handled easily. Further, cheap
software is available for simulation with feature of curve fitting
methods, which can be used for modelling of the electrical prop-
erties of the breast TM materials and more complex materials and
phantoms can be designed. Further this model is also useful to fabri-
cate the TM material samples for other human body organs to carry
on clinical experimental work on human brain, liver, etc. The work
 L.S. Solanki et al. / Optik 127 (2016) 2217–2225
can be extended with more number of oil in Gelatin TM materials
samples. To curtail the processing time of simulator, the readings
recorded are segregated, so to make the model more precise, more
number of readings can be incorporated with simulator in curve
fitting technique.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Mr. Om Rajan, Prof. L.M. Joshi
Senior Principle Scientist and all others of Microwave Division,
CEERI, Pilani (Rajasthan), India, for their help with experiments in
their Lab. Also the curve fitting software CurveExpert Professional
has been acknowledged.
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