Aramco Questionair

Prepared By Ahmed Maher 23-12-2015

Reviewed By Khalid Faris 25-12-2015

Issued 1 Revised 2

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Table of Contents
2. WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF GEL? DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THEM? CAUSES OF INCREASING GEL?.....................................................................................................................3
3. ECD? RELATION BETWEEN ECD, GPM & PV? WHAT IS PV? EFFECT OF INCREASING OF PV IN MUD PARAMETERS AND DRILLING OPERATION? .................................................4
4. WHAT IS YP & LSYP, AND WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THEM. .................................................................................................................................................5
5. D-10 D-50& D-90 FOR BARITE AND ALL MARBLE GRADES .................................................................................................................................................................6
6. WHY WE ARE ADDING WATER IN HIGH DENSITY MUD & THE DILUTION RATES? .......................................................................................................................................8
7. WHAT IS THE MECHANISM OF SHALE INHIBITION FOR KCL? ................................................................................................................................................................8
8. WHAT IS CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY?..........................................................................................................................................................................................9
9. WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF STUCK PIPE AND WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THEM? WHAT CAUSES STUCK PIPE? .......................................................................................9
10. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PPT AND HTHP? AND WHY WE RUN BOTH OF THEM? ..............................................................................................................11
11. DEFINE BARITE SAG, WHAT ARE THE CAUSES AND INDICATIONS? ...................................................................................................................................................12
12. DEFINE DYNAMIC BARITE SAG AND IT'S RELATION WITH FLOW RATE & TEMPERATURE? .....................................................................................................................12
13. WHY WE USE BOTH PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EMULSIFIER IN OBM, WHAT THE MECHANISM OF BOTH? .............................................................................................13
14. WHY WE USE WATER IN OBM, WHY WE USE CACL2 IN OBM?.....................................................................................................................................................14
15. WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF THICK FILTER CAKE AND IT'S RELATION WITH FLUID LOSS .............................................................................................................................15
16. IN SPUD MUD, YOU ADD SODA ASH IN THE BEGINNING TO PRECIPITATE CALCIUM THEN YOU ADD LIME, LIME CONTAIN CALCIUM? ..............................................................15
17. HOW TO CALCULATE HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AND KILL MUD WEIGHT? .........................................................................................................................................15
18. FUNCTION AND SCIENTIFIC NAME FOR SPECIALTY CHEMICALS .......................................................................................................................................................15
19. PAC LIMITATION WITH CALCIUM ...........................................................................................................................................................................................16

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2. What are the types of gel? Difference between them? Causes of increasing
Gel?
Gel strength is the measure of drilling fluid attractive forces in static. It is important in the suspension of cuttings and weight
material, at the same time gelation should not be allowed to become Excessive to the extent where it may lead to drilling
complications like high pressures to break circulation that can lead to loss of circulation and excessive surge and swab.

The strength of the gel formed is a function of the amount and type of solids in suspension, time, temperature and chemical
treatment.

Flat Gels (Fragile gels)

Gel strength readings taken at 10-sec ,10-min & 30-min intervals are near in range this is most of the time seen in Polymer muds
with chemicals like DUOVIS (Branched polymer) as the polymers Link together by electrochemical forces forming a network in
static , once shear is applied the linking breaks easily .

So measuring the strength of gel structure over a period of time (10 sec/10 min/30 min) will give readings that are near in values.

Progressive gels
When there is a wide range (difference) between the initial (10 sec) and 10- or 30-min gel readings it is called progressive gels,
and is an indication of solids buildup. If the initial and 10-min gel readings are both high with little difference between the two, it
is called flash gels and may indicate that flocculation has occurred (in muds with clays added or drilled).
Depending on the mud type used progressive gels can be caused by solids build up in the system or contamination from calcium
source, salt or carbonate and bicarbonate.

N.B: Some fluid systems like FLO PRO are operated in the flash gels range for hole cleaning in deviated and horizontal drilling, in
this case the polymer network breaks easily applying shear so you have to differentiate based on mud system used.

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3. ECD? Relation between ECD, GPM & PV? What is PV? Effect of increasing of
PV in mud parameters and drilling operation?

ECD (EQUIVALENT CIRCULATING DENSITY): The pressure on a formation while circulating is equal to the total
annular circulating pressure losses from the point of measurement to the bell nipple, plus the hydrostatic pressure of
the mud. This force is expressed as the density of mud that would exert a hydrostatic pressure equivalent to this
pressure.
ECD (lb/gal) = ρ (lb/gal) + Pa (psi)
0.052 x TVD (ft)

Relation between ECD and flow rate: ECD is directly proportional to annular pressure loss. And annular pressure loss is directly
proportional to square of annular velocity which also increases by increasing flow rate as per the below equations, when flow
rate increases, annular velocity and annular pressure loss increase and ECD increase.

fa = annular friction coefficient

va = Annular velocity
Lm = Length of Interval
D2/D1 annular diameter

In summary since ECD α Pa , Pa α Va2 , Va α Q so ECD α Q if Q then ECD

Relation between ECD & PV: Plastic viscosity is described as that part of resistance to flow caused by mechanical friction.
Primarily, it is affected by:
 Solids concentration.
 Size and shape of solids.
 Viscosity of the fluid phase.
 The presence of some long chain polymers (POLY-PLUS)
 The Oil-to-Water (O/W)

Pv as a physical property by itself only will not affect the ECD as seen in the above equations, Pv does not have a direct relation to
ECD in the equation.

Pv will reflect an increased pressure loss especially inside the drill string as if the Pv increased, this means that the 600 rpm reading
increased (it will increase the friction coefficient inside string and the eventually the pressure loss).

However an increase in plastic viscosity can mean an increase in the percent by volume of solids, a reduction in the size of the
solid particles leading to increased surface area of cuttings which will be reflected in increased plastic viscosity, if not controlled it
will eventually cause undesired overall viscosity of the mud system and result in significant changes in pump pressure in the field
this is very obvious in the ERD wells.

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4. What is YP & LSYP, and what is the difference between them.
Yield Point (YP) in (lb/100 ft2) is the resistance to flow in a
drilling fluid under dynamic conditions, It is measurement of
the electro-chemical or attractive forces in a fluid.

Another definition is the force required to initiate flow.

It is calculated based on extrapolation of 600 and 300 rpm

readings rheogram to the y axis.

Yp in general over estimates the actual low shear viscosity.

LSYP in (lb/100 ft2), sometimes named as the true yield point

or shear stress at zero shear rate in the modified power law, It
has more significance for hole cleaning especially in Horizontal
and Extended reach wells where low pump rate occurs .

In the above figure in the rheograph it is clear that the extrapolation of the 600 and 300 rpm reading to the y axis is giving higher
values than the LSYP.

Mud Rheology significance

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5. D-10 D-50& D-90 for barite and all marble grades

For SAFE CARB

General D90 size specifications with MWD

Barite API 13 A specifications

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 Example PSD for Barite
70
4.2 SG
60
4.1 SG
50

40
Micron

30

20

10

0
d10 d25 d50 d75 d90
120
Volume % Less Than

100

80
Volume (%)

60

40
4.2 SG
20 4.1 SG

0
1 10 100 1000
Patricle Diameter (μm)

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6. Why we are adding water in high density mud & the dilution rates?
High pressure wells require high density mud. As additional solids (both desirable weight material and undesirable low gravity
drilled solids) are incorporated into the system, water requirements become greater.
Additional solids rapidly increase the surface area to be wet, leaving less free water available. Consequently, the viscosity of the
mud increases. Colloidal particles which have a greater specific area are of particular concern because they bind up tremendous
amounts of water. The free water available in a high density mud can quickly become depleted leading to poor flow properties
and gelation. When the mud is subjected to high temperature, free water will be depleted more rapidly due to evaporation at the
surface. Replacement of evaporation water is the starting point when determining water addition requirements, in general
dilution rates ± 20 bbl per hour is required below 150 pcf, as the mud density go up to 150+ pcf the fluid needs a minimum of 20
to 25 bbl/hr water addition to avoid mud dehydration. This is not a rule it’s a field practice, dilution rates up to 30 bph were seen
in the field.

7. What is the mechanism of shale inhibition for KCL?

In general, potassium is used to inhibit reactive shales especially smectites. Clay layers have
a negative charge on surface and have positive charge on the edge.

The net negative charge is compensated by the adsorption of cations (positive ions) on the
unit layer surfaces. The cations that are adsorbed on the unit-layer surfaces may be
exchanged for other cations and are called the exchangeable cations of the clay.

The quantity of cations per unit weight of the clay is measured and reported as the CEC. The
cation may be a single charge ion such as sodium (Na+) or a double-charge ion such as
calcium (Ca2+) or magnesium (Mg2+).

When dry clays come into contact with water the interlayer Spacing expands, and the clay adsorbs a large “envelope” of water.
The water makes hydrogen bonding with clay surfaces and as a result the clay swells and well bore instability starts.
The thickness of the adsorbed-water film is controlled by the type and amount of cations associated with the clay. Water adsorbed
to the large, flat, planar surfaces comprises the major part of the total water retained by hydratable clays.

Divalent cations such as Ca2+ and Mg2+ increase the attractive force between platelets, thus decreasing the amount of water that
can be adsorbed (in formation clays), one cation will attract two negative ions. Monovalent cations such as Na+ give rise to a lesser
attractive force and allow more water to Penetrate between the platelets. That’s why smectites are always the most swellable
shales.

Illites have the same basic structure as montmorillonites (smectites), but they do not show interlayer swelling. The compensating
cations are primarily the potassium ion (K+). The spacing between unit layers is 2.8 Å. The ionic diameter of the K+ is2.66 Å.

This allows the K+ to fit snugly between unit layers forming a bond that prevents swelling in the presence of water. Since the unit
layers do not swell and separate when exposed to water, the potassium ions (K+) between
The unit layers are not available for exchange.

Increasing the concentration of any given cation will increase the probability that it will displace another cation , this is why using
high potassium ion concentration in drilling fluids makes potassium more exchangeable with other clay ions like sodium , thus
reducing the clay hydration effect (like transforming smectites to illites) .

Two ways that potassium can become associated with clay minerals (Eberl concept):

1. Ion exchange (by exchange with clay associated cations).

2. Ion fixation.

The ion exchange reaction is governed by the law of mass action; that is the rate of exchange depends on the concentration of
the ions (i.e. the higher the ratio of K ion to Na ion, the faster the rate of exchange of K+ for Na+). In addition to ion exchange, ion

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fixation will occur in clays with a high layer charge and once potassium is associated with the clay platelets, it is very difficult to
become exchanged as a result of fixation and it stabilizes smectites.

The fixation of potassium is a unique property for potassium only that once its fixed , its very difficult to become exchanged again
unless the other cations are significantly increased.

8. What is cation exchange capacity?

The compensating cations that are adsorbed on the unit-layer surface may be exchanged for other cations and are called the
exchangeable cations of the clay. The quantity of cations per unit weight of clay is measured and reported as the CEC, The CEC is
expressed in millequivalents per 100 g of dry clay (meq/100 g).

The CEC of montmorillonites is within the range of 80 to 150 meq/100 g of dry clay.

The CEC of illites and chlorites is about 10 to 40 meq/100 g, and for kaolinites it is about 3 to 10 meq/100 g of clay.

The Methylene Blue Test (MBT) is an indicator of the apparent CEC of a clay.

9. What are the types of stuck pipe and what is the difference between them?
What causes stuck pipe?
Types of stuck pipes
Mechanically stuck pipe can be grouped into two major categories:
1. Hole packoff and bridges.
2. Wellbore geometry interferences.
Packoffs and bridges are caused by:
 Settled cuttings
 Shale instability
 Unconsolidated formations
Wellbore geometry interferences are
Caused by:
 Key seats
 Under gauge hole
 Stiff drilling assembly
 Mobile formations (like plastic salt)
 Ledges and dogleg

Mechanical sticking is caused by physical obstruction or restriction. Mechanical sticking usually occurs when the drill string is
moving. It also is indicated by obstructed circulation.

Occasionally, however, a limited amount of up/down mobility or rotary freedom is evident, even when the pipe is mechanically
stuck.

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Differentially stuck pipe usually occurs because of one of the following causes/high-risk conditions:
 High overbalance pressures
 Thick filter cakes
 High-solids muds
 High-density muds
 The formation is permeable

Differential sticking is defined as stuck pipe caused by the differential pressure forces from an overbalanced mud column acting
on the drill string against a filter cake deposited on a permeable formation.

When a filter cake builds up on the formation, it increases the contact area between the wellbore and the drill pipe. Excessive
drill solids and high fluid loss increase filter-cake thickness increasing differential sticking probabilities.

It usually occurs while the pipe is stationary during a connection or when taking a survey, and is indicated by full circulation and
no up/down mobility or rotary freedom, other than pipe stretch and torque.

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10. What is the difference between PPT and HTHP? And why we run both of
them?
HTHP
The filtration or wall-building property of a mud is determined by means of a filter press. The test consists of determining the rate
at which fluid is forced through the filter paper. The test is run under specified conditions of time, temperature and pressure. The
thickness of the solid filter cake deposited is measured after the test.

It is a Standard API test done in HTHP wells to simulate the filtration and fluid invasion under HT HP conditions usually 300 F and
500 psi differential.

PPT test

The Permeability Plugging test or Apparatus (PPA) is designed to provide accurate simulation and measurement of down-hole
static filtration. PPT is ideal for predicting how a drilling fluid can form a permeable filter cake to seal off depleted/under pressure
intervals.

The PPT utilizes a conventional HTHP Heating Jacket to simulate reservoir temperature. The fluid cell is inverted, with pressure
applied from the bottom of the cell and filtrate collected out the top. Pressure is transferred to the mud by a small hydraulic hand
pump through a small floating piston within the cell.

The pressure applied can be simulating the same over balance applied on a depleted formation (ex: 3000 psi), also The PPT employs
a ceramic filter disc, which is available in varying porosities.

The disc offers a more authentic representation of the formation as it can be selected based on the formation porosity thus testing
the efficiency of selected bridging materials and it size combination in well bore strengthening.

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11. Define barite sag, what are the causes and indications?
Barite sag is the settling of barite, which causes significant variations in mud density. It is a
major concern, particularly when weighted muds are used in drilling directional and
extended-reach wells.

Sag is most often associated with well angles of 50 to 80° , low annular velocities and low
viscosity clean muds. Possible consequences include lost circulation, stuck pipe, packoffs,
wellbore instability and well-control problems.

Barite sag can happen on static or dynamic conditions, static sagging is usually noticed after
long trips typically, bed growth under static conditions (pumps off) is minimal, although
slumping is most likely to occur during Static periods.

For these reasons, drilling practices prior to and after trips can often prevent static sag-related problems, One of the practices is
tripping in stages and circulating BTMs up.

12. Define dynamic barite sag and it's relation with flow rate & temperature?
Dynamic barite sag is barite settling under dynamic conditions (while drilling or circulation), many factors contribute to dynamic
settling like fluid rheology, hole angle , interval length , flow rates ,pipe eccentricity, and rotation, and annular velocities.

From drilling fluids perspective maintaining adequate low shear rate viscosities minimize sagging the same concept of hole
cleaning in deviated and ERD wells applies.

High temperatures cause mud thinning and increased settling. HTHP testing is necessary To ensure that rheological properties are
adequate under well conditions, in crtical ERD wells, Fann Model 50 and 70 for WBM and oil/ synthetic-base muds is recommended
for LSRYP measurements at actual wellbore conditions (pressure and temperature).

Large annular clearances or low circulation rates promote sag due to low annular velocities. Higher flow rates will reduce sag
tendencies, but pressure limits and downhole tools can limit this as an option.

Long intervals sliding without rotation also promotes barite sagging, usually if high rpm is used in ERD wells sagging is greatly
minimized.

Well design may require compromises in order to minimize and control sag. Sag tendency generally increases with hole angle and
probably is most critical in extended-reach drilling under High Temperatures and High Pressures (HTHP).

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13. Why we use both primary and secondary emulsifier in OBM, what the
mechanism of both?
Non-aqueous drilling fluids are formulated using additives based on a broad group
of chemicals called surface-active Agents or surfactants.

These chemicals include emulsifiers, soaps and wetting agents. They act by
reducing the interfacial tension between two liquids or between a liquid and a
solid. Surfactants have a hydrophilic (water-loving) polar head and an organophilic
(oil-loving or lipophilic) non-polar tail.

The balance between the strength and character of the hydrophilic end and lipophilic end can be measured using The Hydrophilic-
Lipophilic Balance (HLB) range. The HLB number can characterize the functionality of a surfactant. As shown in below Figure, oil-
in water emulsifiers have higher HLB values and water-in-oil emulsifiers have lower HLB numbers, with wetting agents in the
middle.

Primary emulsifier: Primary emulsifier us used to primarily emulsify water in oil, it exhibits low wetting properties such as
VERSAMUL (refer to the above HLB range).
In tight emulsion systems usually the primary emulsifiers are soaps that are formed by the reaction of a fatty acid ester with an
alkali (such as lime) where the hydrogen on the fatty acid is replaced by a metal, such as calcium from lime.

Secondary Emulsifiers: Exhibits more wetting characteristics for solids and also emulsifier for water in oil.
In tight emulsion systems 2ndry emulsifiers are used to supplement water in oil emulsion and change the wettability of solids to
oil wet (VERSACOAT).

A wetting agent is a surface-active agent that reduces the interfacial tension and contact angle between a liquid and
a solid. This causes the liquid to spread over the surface of the solid.

Wetting agents have one end that is soluble in the continuous-phase liquid and the other that has a strong affinity for
solid surfaces thus causing the solids to be oil wet and kept in solution, if the solids become water wet they will
aggregate and settle of the solution.

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14. Why we use water in OBM, why we use CaCl2 in OBM?
To understand this question first we need to understand what water activity is; Water activity (AW) is a measure of the chemical
potential for water to be transferred between mud and shales. Activity is measured using the vapor pressure (relative humidity)
of shale or mud.

Activity can also be estimated based on the chemical composition of the brine (salinity). Pure water has an AW of 1.0. Calcium
chloride brines used in most non-aqueous emulsion muds have an AW between 0.8 (22% wt) and 0.55(34% wt.), Lower values for
activity are more inhibitive.

The transfer of water between an emulsified brine and a shale is often compared to osmosis.

In osmosis, a solvent (water) diffuses through a semipermeable membrane from a low

concentration of solute or salt, to a high concentration of solute or salt, to equalize the
concentrations.

Shale control using this controlled (or balanced) activity is limited mainly to oil- and synthetic-emulsion muds.

Water-base muds containing additives (such as glycols and silicates) exhibit only weak semi-permeable membrane characteristics.

Consequently not only we can inhibit the shales by having lower activity of the water phase, theoretically the shales can be dried
under osmosis by using a high water phase salinity fluid with lower activity than formation water.

Calcium chloride (CaCl2) is normally used to obtain activities from 1.0 to 0.40 , due to the high salinity of calcium chloride
solution it can be used to give the least activity compared to other salts like sodium chloride .

Also using water in oil emulsion enhances the performance of organophilic clays thus giving better viscosities and higher carrying
capacity for oil base muds.

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15. What is the effect of thick filter cake and it's relation with fluid loss
Thick filter cake is formed by poor filtration control , Potential problems related to thick filter cakes and excessive filtration
include tight hole, increased torque and drag, stuck pipe, lost circulation, poor log quality, and formation damage.
Adequate filtration control and the deposition of a thin, low-permeability filter cake are often necessary to prevent drilling
and production problems.

16. In spud mud, you add soda ash in the beginning to precipitate calcium then
you add lime, lime contain calcium?
Calcium is precipitated at the beginning to allow proper prehydration of bentonite and water intake , if calcium is present it will
not allow proper hydration of clay platelets as discussed above in previous questions , then lime is added if desired to flocculate
the gel mud to give the highest rheology for hole cleaning.

17. How to calculate Hydrostatic pressure and kill mud weight?

Hydrostatic pressure = Mwt (ppg) x 0.052 x TVD (ft)

KMW = (SIDP) + Original mud weight

0.052 X TVD

SIDP: Shut in drill pipe pressure.

18. Function and scientific name for specialty chemicals

KLA STOP: additive is a liquid polyamine shale inhibitor that acts as a clay hydration suppressant by intercalating
And reducing the space between clay platelets so that water molecules will not penetrate and cause shale swelling.
Additionally provides a buffered pH in the 9.0 ‐10.0 range, eliminating any required additions of caustic soda or potassium
hydroxide.

POROSEAL: polysaccharide/latex copolymer technology, developed and used to seal shales and low permeability formations. This
product works through a plastering effect thus minimizing pressure transmission and for instance stabilizing the micro-fractures.
It provides supplemental fluid loss control in high temperature applications.

IDCAP D: Low molecular weight dry acrylic acid copolymer, designed for clay encapsulation and clay dispersion inhibition.
Its action is similar to PHPA but the low molecular weight makes it unique as it have minimal effect in viscosity with higher
concentrations that aid in clay encapsulation.

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SPERSENE CF: is a chrome free lingo sulfonate, Lignosulfonates are organic acids that supply anions (negative ions) to the fluid.
These anions reduce the yield point and gel strengths by neutralizing the cations (positive ions) on the clay
Particles (usually on the edges), thus deflocculating (as the clays are flocculated they are bound edge to surface) the clay slurry
causing clay particles to repel one another.

Flocculation + Deffloculant (-ve charge) = Deflocculation (by repulsion)

19. PAC limitation with Calcium

PAC chemistry is derived from polyanionic cellulose, it is anionic (-ve), thus in the presence of high concentration of calcium it will
bind and start to precipitate and its performance in up taking water will be suppressed.

Its mechanism is that it adsorbs a water envelop around the polymer chain aby hydrogen bonding thus reducing the free water.

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