Lecture Notes on Wind Energy

UNIT -2
Site Selection
The selection of the site is the most important decision in the development of an offshore wind farm.
It is best accomplished through a short-listing process that draws together all known information on
the site options, with selection decisions driven by health and safety, feasibility, economics and
programme, taking account of information on consenting issues, grid connection and other technical
issues discussed below.
1. High annual average wind speed
2. Availability of anemometry data
3. Availability of wind V (t) Curve at the proposed site
4. Wind structure at the proposed site
5. Altitude of the proposed site
6. Terrain and its aerodynamic
7. Local Ecology
8. Distance to road or railways
9. Nearness of site to local centre/users
10. Nature of ground
11. Favorable land cost

1. High annual average wind speed:

The speed generated by the wind mill depends on cubic values of velocity of wind, the small
increases in velocity markedly affect the power in the wind. For example, Doubling the velocity,
increases power by a factor of 8. It is obviously desirable to select a site for WECS with high wind
velocity. Thus a high average wind velocity is the principle fundamental parameter of concern in
initially appraising WESCS site. For more detailed estimate value, one would like to have the average
of the velocity cubed.

2. Availability of anemometry data:

It is another improvement sitting factor. The anemometry data should be available over some time
period at the precise spot where any proposed WECS is to be built and that this should be
accomplished before a sitting decision is made.

Prepared by Mahmood Alam (MED, IU Lko)

 Lecture Notes on Wind Energy

3. Availability of wind V(t) Curve at the proposed site:

This important curve determines the maximum energy in the wind and hence is the principal initially
controlling factor in predicting the electrical output and hence revenue returns to the WECS
machines.

It is desirable to have average wind speed ‘V’ such that V ≥ 12-16 km/hr (3.5 – 4.5 m/sec) which is
about the lower limit at which present large scale WECS generators ‘cut in’ i.e., start turning. The
V(t) Curve also determines the reliability of the delivered WECS generator power, for if the
V(t) curve goes to zero there be no generated power during that time.

If there are long periods of calm the WECS reliability will be lower than if the calm periods are short.
In making such reliability estimates it is desirable to have measured V(t) Curve over about a 5 year
period for the highest confidence level in the reliability estimate.

4. Wind structure at the proposed site:

The ideal case for the WECS would be a site such that the V(t) Curve was flat, i.e., a smooth steady
wind that blows all the time; but a typical site is always less than ideal. Wind especially near the
ground is turbulent and gusty, and changes rapidly in direction and in velocity. This departure from
homogeneous flow is collectively referred to as “the structure of the wind”.

5. Altitude of the proposed site:

It affects the air density and thus the power in the wind and hence the useful WECS electric power
output. Also, as is well known, the wind tend to have higher velocities at higher altitudes. One must
be carefully to distinguish altitude from height above ground. They are not the same except for a sea
level WECS site.

6. Terrain and its aerodynamic:

One should know about terrain of the site to be chosen. If the WECS is to be placed near the top but
not on the top of a not too blunt hill facing the prevailing wind, then it may be possible to obtain a
‘speed-up’ of the wind velocity over what it would otherwise be. Also the wind here may not flow
horizontal making it necessary to tip the axis of the rotor so that the aeroturbine is always
perpendicular to the actual wind flow.
It may be possible to make use of hills or mountains which channel the prevailing wind into a pass
region, thereby obtaining higher wind power.

Prepared by Mahmood Alam (MED, IU Lko)

 Lecture Notes on Wind Energy

7. Local Ecology
If the surface is base rock it may mean lower hub height hence lower structure cost. If trees or grass
or vegetation are present, all of which tend to destructure the wind, the higher hub heights will be
needed resulting in larges system costs that the bare ground case.

8. Distance to road or railways:

This is another factor the system engineer must consider for heavy machinery, structure, materials,
blades and other apparatus will have to be moved into any choosen WECS site.

9. Nearness of site to local centre/users:

This obvious criterion minimizes transmission line length and hence losses and cost. After applying
all the previous string criteria, hopefully as one narrows the proposed WECS sites to one or two they
would be relatively near to the user of the generated electric energy.

10. Nature of ground:

Ground condition should be such that the foundation for a WECS is secured. Ground surface should
be stable. Erosion problem should not be there, as it could possibly later wash out the foundation of a
WECS, destroying the whole system.

11. Favorable land cost:

Land cost should be favorable as this along with other siting costs, enters into the total WECS system
cost.

12. Other conditions such as icing problem, salt spray or blowing dust should not present at the site,
as they may affect aero turbine blades or environmental is generally adverse to machinery and
electrical apparatus.

Wind Speed Measurement:

HOW AN ANEMOMETER MEASURES WIND SPEED

A cup anemometer is characterized by simplicity: the rotating speed of its shaft is proportional to
wind speed, which means the average speed is also proportional to the number of turns during a
specified timeframe. The ratio of wind speed and shaft speed is called the anemometer factor, and it
varies depending on the physical construction of the unit, typically ranging from 2 to 3. Wind speed is
calculated as follows:

Prepared by Mahmood Alam (MED, IU Lko)

 Lecture Notes on Wind Energy

Instantaneous Wind Speed = Anemometer Factor x Instantaneous Shaft Speed

Average Wind Speed = Anemometer Factor x (Number of Turns / Time)

The sampling frequency of an anemometer describes how often the unit takes a wind speed
measurement. For example, an anemometer with a frequency of 0.1 Hz counts the number of turns
over a 10-second period to provide a speed value. While another with a 1-Hz frequency counts the
turns once per second. Anemometers with a higher sampling frequency provide a more detailed wind
profile. Since they can capture short-term changes in wind speed, which are averaged when the
sampling period is longer.

Wind Speed statistics:

In order to predict and model the potential of any site, either historical records of the renewable
energy potentials or statistical methods are employed. Site potential analysis is considered the first
step in the design of any system of renewable energy sources. In order to use historical records from
the site, it is recommended that data for at least 3years and above are used. But for areas with sparse
or limited data, a year measurement may be adequate to at least describe the seasonal variability of
the wind-speed. Some of the drawbacks of the historical approach include data accuracy, time,
technical challenges and expense. These may result in unrealistic or inaccurate predictions. Recently,
statistical methods have gained much popularity. Some reasons for this are economy, shorter times
and the possibility of predicting the behaviour of the system with less error [1]. Therefore, statistical
methods are now employed for the analysis of renewable energy resources. Statistical distributions
used for the assessment of the renewable energy potential at a site include Weibull, Gamma,
Lognormal, Rayleigh and Pearson type three to mention but few. Much work has been carried out in
analysing the renewable energy potential of particular sites.

Determination of the Mean Wind Speed

Wind speed is the fundamental factors considered in the development of wind energy conversion
systems. The judgements begin with the determination of the mean wind speed, which acts as an
important parameter in the wind-power generation system. Therefore, the mean wind speeds, for
some sites were obtained from data collected over a period of one year. The data involved are
sampling of wind speed and solar radiation at 5 minute intervals. The Quarterly samples of the wind
speed data used in the analysis are shown in Figures 1 to 4 for January, April, August and December
respectively. The mean wind speed, of the site is normally obtained using Equation (1). Using this
method may lead to underestimation of the site potential [14]. However, the month-to-month wind-
speed variation of a particular site can vary between -30% to +30 % of the annual average [15].

Prepared by Mahmood Alam (MED, IU Lko)

 Lecture Notes on Wind Energy

where vi is the wind observed, and N is the data point. Regardless of the shape and scale parameters,
use of mode or the mean wind speed in the power density equation would always introduce a
significant error in the energy estimate.

Wind Turbine Selection & Sitting Criteria

Wind Turbine Definitions:

Rotor: rotating collector of the wind turbine, usually utilizing blades or vanes.
Swept area: the profile area of the rotor that faces the wind.
Tower: support for the wind turbine.
Alternator: where the mechanical energy of the rotor is converted into electricity by moving magnets
past copper wire coils.
HAWT: Horizontal axis wind turbine. Rotor turns so that the blades intersect across (roughly 90˚ to)
the wind direction.
VAWT: Vertical axis wind turbine. Rotor intersects wind in multiple directions, from downwind to
upwind.
Yaw: Change in direction of a HAWT on the tower. Affects the angle of attack of the rotor with
respect to the wind direction.
Wind shear, also known as wind speed gradient: The difference (increase) in wind speed with
height. Wind shear is greater closer to the ground and in terrain with tall objects, such as buildings
and trees. Can cause differential stress on wind turbine, as well as reduce wind speed.

Turbulence: Non-laminar wind, caused be interference with the ground, nearby objects, and the
wind turbine components (such as the tower).
Wind Power Factors: The power available from wind is found from the equation, P = ½•d•A•V3
where P = power, d = density, A = area, V = wind speed. Thus, the most important factors for energy
production from a wind turbine are the swept area (size) of the rotor, and, especially, the wind speed.
If the rotor diameter is doubled the available energy increases by a factor of 4. If wind speed doubles
the available energy increases by a factor of 8. For example, a 25% increase in wind speed, say from
10 mph to 12.5 mph, will result in approximately twice the wind power available.

Prepared by Mahmood Alam (MED, IU Lko)

 Lecture Notes on Wind Energy

Wind Tower Height: As a general rule, small wind turbines should be located so that the lowest part
of the rotor is a minimum height of 10 m (30 ft) above an obstacle within a 100 to 150 m (300 to 500
ft) radius, in order to reduce wind shear and turbulence, and increase wind speed. A taller tower is
always the best investment in a wind energy system. For example, an increase in tower height from
100 to 120 ft may result in a 20 to 25% increase in energy production. Increasing tower height from
near ground level, say from 30 ft to 100 ft, will result in a more dramatic energy production increase,
possibly as much as 100%.

Energy Production vs. Peak Power: Power is an instantaneous measurement, in kilowatts (kW).
Energy, in kilowatt-hours (kWh), is what does the work and what is purchased from (or sold to) the
utility company, and what really matters in a wind energy system. The peak power rating of a wind
turbine has little importance compared to its energy production over time. A wind turbine that is
“rated” at a high kW power output in high winds may be very poor at producing energy over an entire
year, as the high winds at which it is rated do not occur over a long period of time. Thus, the peak
power rating of a wind turbine should not be used as selection criteria. If peak power ratings between
different wind turbines are compared, it should be done at a standard wind speed, typically 11 meters
per second (m/s), or 25 mph.
Power curve and energy production estimates for wind turbines should be used with caution. Turbine
manufacturer estimates of energy production are often not based on real world testing and are often
overly optimistic. Only power and energy curves based on testing certified by an industry-accepted,
qualified, independent, test facility should be trusted.

Turbulence: Turbulence reduces effective wind speed available to the wind turbine, as well as the
efficiency and reliability of wind turbine. Locating a wind turbine as recommended in the Tower
Height section will minimize turbulence. In addition, it is recommended to separate adjacent wind
turbines by a distance of at least 3 times the rotor diameter (or width), and to not align multiple wind
turbines in prevailing wind directions.

Lift vs. Drag: Most modern power-producing wind turbines employ the aerodynamic lift effect,
utilizing rotors blades with an airfoil shape. Such rotors typically use 2 to 3 blades and operate at a
high rpm speed. Lift-style wind turbines have a theoretical maximum conversion efficiency of wind

Prepared by Mahmood Alam (MED, IU Lko)

 Lecture Notes on Wind Energy

energy to mechanical energy, called the Betz Limit, of 59%. Practically, the conversion efficiency
limit for small lift wind turbines, from wind power to electrical power, is near 30%.
Wind turbines that do not use airfoil blades employ the drag effect, i.e. the wind simply pushes the
rotor. Wind turbine rotors using the drag effect turn more slowly (lower rpm) than lift rotors, and
often have many blades, or a solid rotor surface. The theoretical limit for conversion efficiency from a
drag-style wind turbine is 15% (compared to 59% for a lift turbine), with actual conversion
efficiencies often much lower. Wind powered water pumpers are one example of drag wind turbines
in use.
A type of rotor commonly used in VAWT’s is the Savonius design, which is a modified drag-style
rotor, with higher efficiency than a simple drag rotor. 30% maximum conversion efficiency is
possible with a Savonius rotor in wind tunnel tests. However, in practice, Savonius turbines have
conversion efficiencies of less than 15%.

VAWT vs. HAWT: HAWT’s are the most widely utilized style of wind turbine currently employed
for power production. HAWT designs have the best conversion efficiency in utilizing the lift effect,
due to the constant angle of attack of the rotor blades with respect to the wind direction. Because of
the relatively constant and centrifugal forces on the rotor, HAWT’s are also the most reliable in using
a lift rotor. HAWT designs are more complex than VAWT’s, due to the need for the turbine to yaw
when the wind direction changes so that the rotor maintains the same relative position with respect to
the wind. Also, lift-style HAWT’s must employ a governing mechanism to prevent the rotor from
spinning too fast in high winds. Because of the sensitivity to wind direction the performance of lift-
style HAWT’s is significantly affected by turbulence. Several, established, recognized small wind
manufacturers offer HAWT’s.
VAWT’s can use lift or drag rotors. Their main advantage is that the design can be simpler, as the
rotor is omni-directional (no yaw). Because of this VAWT’s are less sensitive to turbulence than
HAWT’s. Also, VAWT’s are inherently self-governing (no over speed control required). A VAWT
rotor always has one half going downwind and one-half returning upwind, which limits the rotational
speed (and efficiency). This same attribute, however, also results in differential stresses applied to the
rotor each revolution, which affects rotor reliability. This is especially true for lift-style VAWT’s,
which operate at higher speeds and typically have vertical airfoil blades mounted at the end of support
struts. The blade support struts often experience failure after extended operation. Also, VAWT’s are
typically supported only from the bottom. The rotational force of the rotor combined with the

Prepared by Mahmood Alam (MED, IU Lko)

 Lecture Notes on Wind Energy

leveraging force of the wind can apply severe stresses to the generator bearings. There are many wind
turbine manufacturers that offer VAWT’s. None, in our opinion, are as yet recognized, established,
and known to offer reliable products.

Turbine Mass: A heavy wind turbine can be an indicator of stout construction and a sufficiently
sized alternator (more copper windings are heavy) for good power production.

Basics of Induction and synchronous machines:

What is an Induction Motor?
An induction motor (also known as an asynchronous motor) is a commonly used AC electric motor.
In an induction motor, the electric current in the rotor needed to produce torque is obtained via
electromagnetic induction from the rotating magnetic field of the stator winding. The rotor of an
induction motor can be a squirrel cage rotor or wound type rotor. Induction motors are referred to as
‘asynchronous motors’ because they operate at a speed less than their synchronous speed. So the first
thing to understand is – what is synchronous speed?
Synchronous Speed
Synchronous speed is the speed of rotation of the magnetic field in a rotary machine, and it depends
upon the frequency and number poles of the machine. The induction motor always runs at speed less
than its synchronous speed. The rotating magnetic field produced in the stator will create flux in the
rotor, hence causing the rotor to rotate. Due to the lag between the flux current in the rotor and the
flux current in the stator, the rotor will never reach its rotating magnetic field speed (i.e. the
synchronous speed). There are basically two types of induction motor. The types of induction motor
depend upon the input supply. There are single phase induction motors and three phase induction
motors. Single phase induction motors arenot a self-starting motor, and three phase induction motor
are a self-starting motor
.
Synchronous Machine:
Synchronous Machine constitutes of both synchronous motors as well as synchronous generators. An
AC system has some advantages over a DC system. Therefore, the AC system is exclusively used for
the generation, transmission, and distribution of electric power. The machine which converts
mechanical power into AC electrical power is called a Synchronous Generator or Alternator.
However, if the same machine can be operated as a motor is known as Synchronous Motor.
Synchronous machine is an AC machine whose satisfactory operation depends upon the maintenance
of the following relationship.
synchronous-machine-eq-1

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 Lecture Notes on Wind Energy

Where,

Ns is the synchronous speed in revolution per minute (r.p.m)

f is the supply frequency

P is the number of poles of the machine.

When connected to an electric power system, a synchronous machine always maintains the above
relationship shown in equation (1). If the synchronous machine working as a motor fails to maintain
the average speed (Ns) the machine will not develop sufficient torque to maintain its rotation and will
stop. Then the motor is said to be Pulled Out of Step. In case, when the synchronous machine is
operating as a generator, it has to run at a fixed speed called Synchronous speed to generate the power
at a particular frequency. As all the appliances or machines are designed to operate at this frequency.
In some countries, the value of the frequency is 50 hertz.

Basic Principles of Synchronous Machine

A synchronous machine is just an electromechanical transducer that converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy or vice versa. The fundamental phenomenon or law which makes these conversions
possible is known as the Law of Electromagnetic Induction and Law of interaction.

Law of Electro-Magnetic Induction

This law is also called Faraday’s First Law of Electromagnetic Induction. This law relates to the
production of emf, i.e.; emf is induced in a conductor whenever it cuts across the magnetic field as
shown below:

Prepared by Mahmood Alam (MED, IU Lko)