24)

Group theory. (3)

Ehe
Consider
yrometries ofsquare
&

21234) 2((B)(24)

I
I -

E
- ->
4
I 2

->
woup ente
->
eflections
R
-

Ry(12) (34)

↳a
④ (**)
G
[6,(1234),(13)(34),(1432), (12) (-4), (14)(23),
=

I
(12) -

(24)
(But
Much Better
longer
notation

for this

(a iY) )?" i)
I

One rotation 2 rotation

multiply the
How To

C ·ii) (
L
= = 4) s

(4 S
I 3

a
2
E

What about reverse

54) ('s C
i

i
I

C : a

=(ii)
2
Same

Abschian

group
 1,860
I
(123)
· -A.
↓is

a*e (321)

· ⑪

Ees
#
In both
cases there is a

group
generator!
For
square just therotations
farmer
Check!
subgroup:
&
 Consider a
(Set is
of
a

group
elements)

0(G) m
=

How subsets & oes it have

many
an(Ys =

4
+
+ -.

M]
+

↑ ↑
luol
fut
↓

Set

the subsets,
If o form a

any then it's a

group
(H)
subgroupLet
0 =
m

then
m k Some
=

into
C ge
K

proof.
Led
[H]= m

Consider
9: $H. fixed i

9,H=left cost
of
H

Question what is nH=?

git
Let
g,
nH I Null
I set

and some hu
I that
=>

9k such
-

gibs= ha for ~ ome

↳

gienuke
~
En
=>

contradictions
 This
proves
nH ↳
I, H
=

No and H.
take $9.4
g;
wo

9. It is another
left cost

with mo
&H
elements

know iH b
giH
We =

wok at about

&it ngjH=?
Let Id
GiH n9;H

g,har=2;hq for ~ ou
->

hor -

h
q

9i 9j hghot
->

g;
ajoutwa
=>

dictions,
on

gj=g, long
2
I; D

Contra
&iction
 (Another partitioning)
Conjugary classes
-
groupG
Consider a under

Two elements G
a,b
conjugate
= -e

to each ther 7
if G
·

8;

Ija G, b
=

8 iEG
(similarity relation)
is
By definition if a

=>
conjugate to
b

-
8
b is
conjugate
a

is to Is and
conjugate
a is

1 t a
conjugate
- one
is

(Symmetric
9:99 b
=

=
Ipb 9,
a

8, 19; ag (I, = c

[I 9;) a
18,8i)" a
=

is
conjugate
- a
to a

(Transitive)

element itself.
Every conjugate
is to

(Reflexive)
relation: These relations
Equivalence distinct
provide
a
partitioning of set

-
<group).
let's define [a]
conjugacy
class a
of
⑧ o2

Cdg
 Let and Lan] be two
[a]
different conjugacy
classes

az ad not
a,
= >
t

conjugate to each other

I such that
=> No
gi2G
I: *, 9, as
=

what is
But
i
[9.] 1
[a2]=?
Let [a,] n [ar]
say,
=

I exist 2G.
In
=>
some
Jan

Yos", Fr=P
On 92 Gm=p= fr*. Ir

='Gm*2 InGr= a,

gigm is finInY"= as

=> to an
as is
conjugate
classes abolian
tion:
Conjugacy I
an
of
growp

SEY, GAY, 5B3,...

itself.
only conjugate to

element
Every to
only
is
conjugate
itself.
 Example of square-
2x909
Consider motation
by

->
# ·(13) (24)

Let's
find, its
conjugacy class
v ↳ i
(13)
(1234) (24)
(ro a

Cit is a!)
-

To
find (1432) (13) (24) (1432)-

) (n i4
3

C
12

(i2* C
4
-

3 I

(Chack & eNCOSE

as
well)
-

( )(s i ) (nI S
-(s - I gi eis

Four both
ways g:ag.=I:")a g
Let's
tay oreflections
with

Rx :(14) (23)
what RI
is

(4* 34) (34)

=(!2=I)
-

iii) Isf
(i".) (s 2 to R

s -)
3

=):
12 to L

C S
I 2 3 4

3 I R
4

So it is Sance
 the
brings
treatment
This to
us
perma-
tation
group
G
G9,,821. Int
=

Rick b
I;
=

nG Shg,..hEnt
=

In.Ins--
=>

Enw In:=49:
i ki
=>

'n' clements,
Basically
a

permutation of
Pr=
(n. In
3.

no
in
[Iso morphism) between
To
pol or
map sym I
and
-
gon permutation group

"an)
Po= ab EG

Jas
c
=

(8, r)
-

4-

Pa. Bb
--a?) Li. i
(ai
E
I

as

-) (a.)
b I

=Lap,
e

aDe

=(ab wa)
 i
Using
->
abi
Eri h8;
=

Sap:=a(1bi)
-

a(bqi)
=>

Gb) 9:
=

=
cI;

Ic;
-

Hence throne a
map.
is

consider the
subgroup
H
Gi
of
It
satisfies
Al= HA F ASG.

At
=>

* H

for high.
every
=>

Ahi A also EH

Ther [hi] <H

-

Subses

Now
pick his$[hid
But as his at 2 H.

Thus H= U [hi]
↳ 2H
 What about converse

statement

Let H = W [Li]
his t

ahia
=>
SH * a G

h. EH

AH
=>

At= H is a soon al

subgroup

eg. EE,3
R
-

Another round
subgroup: SGRY

Example
iso
of morphism

SE, R, R3, R37 -

ED, i,-1
-

aBy
Examples Somorphism
of GE, a,

55, a, ay =

G8,2295]
ay Ga, a zY
SG,
=

a
a,

592,83,8,4
=

(k,a,ay [8,,9x,8,]
a =
 I
Question
-

is
q;aq Same CS

8:ag!?
Let
they be
different
gia gi = k, 2 G

9:a gi =

K2 & G

a
gik.g,
=

and
a
g,'ki
=

->
9:k, 9' 9.*2 =

88
k, =
:g k2 I
8:
we

I 2
*
91

conjugate to
-> kn
K, is

wk,
by a is

=>
a is vk2
-
Thus
Rough 9:29; and
9, ag,"
not
they
are
same,

to
belong
same

conjugacy class
 & vestion

Is ot
conjugacy
ins same class of

a?
at
Let
g;a g,":
for
- ome

Ii
-> I a g gag =

=
[qagtj" [a 1-
-

=>

2:ag?--a
=>

I?a mg? =

Homomormist
(many map
Groop ->
(7, R2, Rx, RA [E, Rx)
Es 13 -> E

Rx Ry - Roc

At Az An A

Bi B2 Br B

[2 En C
21

iBj=
# CK
i,j,K
AB
=> G
=
Centralizer
ofgroupi
Ca(a) [ggG;
=

ag qa]
=

if 9,a a8, =

and
9, = 992.

q,8,a g,a92
-

"Ga[y()
=

a
q,92
=>

, 2glas
~

2,829(G(a)
=>

-> closure.

as e a -> er(a(a).
->
=

g "=[G()
Does

ga ag
=

ggag g-agg-
t =

ag' ga g- a(a(a)
= ->

Associativity follows from group

definition
 Consider 2x2 matrices

5
(i)
=

6
=

(ii)
GE =
GG, i Foams

group
a

what about

(: )
-

(ii)
=
=

6 =

&=E &E.} Forms a

gwoup

G =

(ai) -
(d-i)
=

what about 55,6,62,657

form
they
a
Do
group?
No!

6. =2 =

(26) (: - 6
:
(!In)=6s
=

-6
(i i) (i)
=

(88)
= = -s
 But the is too
process
laborious

Use the relation

2 I
S -
i, 6j7 =

Sij

[6i6j] 2iEijk
=

K.

6182 -
626, 2i6e
=

5,62
-

- 662 = ↑63

626, -
= 963

6253 i4, =

636r -
= i6)

i
635, -
we

66z -
=
i62

So the set E

E E
↑
,
, Ge 63, iG, Ii*3

I +16.
I
-? E
=
(Present)

(ii) = -
E(add)-

Si i 2:=
i t (add)
- (-i6i) - iE
=
SII, G, 62, 53, Ii I, I is: I

Any thing left

(iI) i 6i =
=
6i

add
-

[I I, I
Si, IiS, ilY
Paul whose
group
generators6i
-

It
generate
· another -> is
I
group
continuous!