Types of Waves

Have you ever observed water in a lake or pond? The pattern of waves
that generate after a disturbance occurs in the water body, what do you
call it? In this case, water waves are in the visible form; however,
there are sound waves, radio waves, etc., which aren’t visible but they
exist! Yes, waves are always around us and are present in a variety of
forms. Hence, in ​order​ to understand the importance and the types of
waves, the following content is quite resourceful. Let us scroll down. 

​Origin of Waves

Apart from sound waves, there are strong waves, visible light waves,
microwaves, stadium waves, ​earthquake​ waves, sine waves, cosine
waves etc; which we encounter in our daily lives. Do remember that
all waves are produced through disturbance. Let us take an example,
when you throw a rock in the water there is an active generation of
water pattern. These water waves hold two main parts which are the
trough and crest.

Hence, whenever a wave travels from one ​location​ to other, every

crest is chased up by a second crest and the pattern continues.
Moreover, these crests are divided by a trough, which leads to the
generation of crests & troughs pattern. According to ​physics​, we can
define waves as a periodical disturbance that propagates in a particular
medium.

Browse more Topics under Waves

● Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
● Displacement Relationship in a Progressive Wave
● Reflection of Sound Waves
● Doppler Effect
● Beats
● Reflection of String Waves
● The Principle of Superposition of Waves
● The Speed of a Traveling Wave

Types of Waves

Waves take up different forms, and hence it is vital to learn about the
types of waves​. Below mentioned are the three categories of waves
which are discussed with their sub-segments:

Mechanical Wave
Mechanical Waves behave as a propagation of a particular disturbance
traveling through a material medium as a result of the constant
periodic motion of particles. Under this, the disturbance is transferred
from one particle to the next.

To be more specific, ​energy​ and ​momentum​ transmit by the motion of

particles in the medium. Mass transfer isn’t possible in this case. One
must note that mechanical waves cannot propagate through the
vacuum. The different examples of mechanical waves are the
vibration of a string, the surface wave generated on the surface of a
liquid and solid, tsunami waves, ultrasounds, earthquake P-waves,
oscillations​ in spring, and waves in slink, etc.

There are two types of mechanical waves:

1. Transverse Wave
2. Longitudinal Wave

Learn about ​Transverse and Longitudinal Wave in more detail here

Electromagnetic Waves

Under electromagnetic waves, the presence of medium isn’t actually

necessary for propagation. In these types of waves, the periodic
changes occur in electric and ​magnetic fields​; therefore, it is termed as
Electromagnetic Wave.

Properties of Electromagnetic Waves:

● In a vacuum, electromagnetic waves travel with the speed of
light.
● These waves can be polarized.
● They tend to have a transverse nature.
● There is no need for a medium to propagate E.M waves.
● Momentum is present in E.M waves.

Examples: Light waves, Radio waves, thermal radiation, etc.

Matter Waves

Matter waves are also termed as De Broglie waves. This is because

they depict a similar wave nature of all matter, that is, that forms
atoms, our body, etc. There are different equations termed as De
Broglie equations that basically indicate the dual ​nature​ of matter. It is
vital to remember that, the frequency of such waves directly relies on
their kinetic energy.

Learn about ​Sound Waves here​.

Solved Question For You

Q. What are the various types of E.M waves?

Ans: The EM spectrum comprises of different types of waves having

varied wavelengths and frequencies. Do keep a note that, the
wavelength, as well as ​frequency​ of the wave, tend to be inversely
proportional in context to one another. Below mentioned are the
different types of E.M waves present in the spectrum. Micro Waves,
Radio Waves, Infrared Rays, Ultraviolet, Visible Light, Gamma Rays
and X rays, are the prime E.M wave varieties.
Q. When Motorboat sails in water, what type of waves are produced?

Learn ​Principle of Superposition of Waves​ to know the answer.

Transverse Wave and Longitudinal Wave

Have you ever seen the movement of waves in a rope? This movement
is that of a Transverse wave. What about the movement of sound
waves? What kind of waves are they? They are classified as a
Longitudinal wave. But what are these waves? Let us know more
about Transverse and Longitudinal wave.

What is a wave?

A wave is a movement caused in a medium from one point to another

when an ​object​ comes in contact with it. For an example consider this:
when you throw a stone in a river, there are patterns caused in a
circular motion​ across the point where the stone hit the water. Here
stone is the object and water is the medium and the patterns that are
caused on the ​surface​ of the water are what we call waves.

When we look at these waves, it seems like they are traveling from
one point to another. In the above example, it will seem like they are
traveling from the center, outwards. Try another experiment, throw a
cork in the already disturbed river. You will notice that the cork,
which is porous and thus has lighter mass than ​water​ will keep
floating up and down. Even though the waves are seemingly moving
in the outward direction the cork stays put. This demonstrates that the
waves, in fact, are not moving. These are just disturbances caused by
the pebble.

Browse more Topics Under Waves

● Types of Waves
● Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
● Displacement Relationship in a Progressive Wave
● Reflection of Sound Waves
● Doppler Effect
● Beats
● Reflection of String Waves
● The Principle of Superposition of Waves
● The Speed of a Traveling Wave

Types of Waves

The scientific analysis of waves has been dated back to the

seventeenth century, although the concept of waves was around for
much longer. There are several types and sub-types of waves that one
can study as we delve deeper into the topic of waves. One of the ways
of studying waves is to determine the direction of the movement of
particles​ in the medium. Categorising waves on this basis we get two
kinds of waves, they are:

1. Transverse Waves
2. Longitudinal Waves

Transverse Waves

This is a wave wherein the particles of the medium move in the

direction that is perpendicular to that of the wave. For example
consider this: when a rope is laid out horizontally in a room and a
motion is introduced on the left end of the rope, then the ​energy​ that
moves in the rope will move from left to right causing a simultaneous
upward and downward movement in the rope. This type of wave
created is a transverse wave. Characteristic of a transverse wave is that
the motion of the particle is perpendicular to the motion of the wave.

Longitudinal Wave

As the name suggests, a longitudinal wave is the one that moves

parallel to the ​direction​ of waves of particles in motion. That is a
straight parallel line above the particle. For instance in the same rope
kept horizontally, if one introduces a pulse on the left and the right
end, the energy flows from both ends trapping the movements in a
parallel motion. These are longitudinal waves.

A better example of understanding a longitudinal wave will be by

using a tuning fork. Take a tuning fork and hit it against a hollow pipe.
The air inside this pipe, which is the medium for the wave, will move
in a parallel motion. Sound waves normally travel in longitudinal
waves.

Generally, waves moving through a solid medium can either be

longitudinal or transverse but the waves which travel through fluid
mediums such as liquid or gas are always longitudinal waves. For
transverse waves to occur, we will require a very concrete or rigid
medium.

Example

When the energy is transferred in a transverse wave, one particle

moves and is supposed to exert a pull on the nearest particles. This is
key for transverse waves, but where a medium is not rigid enough,
such as liquid or ​gas​, the particles will simply slide past one another.
This is why, the disturbances caused in the ocean is usually
longitudinal waves, but the ones caused during an earthquake can be
transverse and longitudinal waves, depending upon where the
epicenter of the event falls. As seismologists started studying more on
waves, they realized that longitudinal waves can travel to the core of
the ​earth​, perhaps this is why the core of the earth has molten ore.
Learn about ​Sound Waves in detail here​.

Question For You

Q. Longitudinal wave cannot travel through:

a. Liquids b. Gases

c. Vaccum d. Solid

Sol: c. Vaccum

Longitudinal wave (like sound waves) required a material medium

(e.g. air) for their transmission hence cannot pass through the vacuum.

If a ringing bell with a hammer is placed in an airtight container, the

sound of the bell will be heard. The sound will decrease until all air
from the container is removed. When there is a vacuum inside the
container sound of the bell will not be heard even hammer is striking
the bell. This proves longitudinal waves (like sound waves) cannot
pass through the vacuum.
Displacement Relation In a Progressive
Wave

The waves of ​water​ or waves on a string travel in a particular

direction​. But, have you ever imagined how is this direction decided?
What is the influence of this movement? In order to understand this
concept in-depth, it is important to learn about progressive wave and
its ​displacement​ aspect.

Progressive Wave

A progressive wave is a term given to a wave that travels from a

specific point A in the medium to another point B. In simple terms, a
wave that continuously travels in a medium in the same direction
minus the changes is known as a traveling wave or progressive wave.
Furthermore, a progressive wave is of two types; namely, transverse
wave and longitudinal wave.
 ● Transverse Waves: These are waves in which the particle
displacement in the medium is measured perpendicular to the
wave direction or direction of wave travel.
● Longitudinal Waves: With Longitudinal Waves, the ​particle
displacement remains in the same direction to the wave travel.

Learn more about transverse and longitudinal waves ​here​.

Plane Progressive Harmonic Wave

During the ​transmission​ of a wave via a medium, the particles present

in the medium tend to vibrate harmonically about their mean
positions; in this case, the wave is tagged as a plane progressive
harmonic wave.

Browse more Topics under Waves

● Types of Waves
● Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
● Reflection of Sound Waves
● Doppler Effect
● Beats
● Reflection of String Waves
 ● The Principle of Superposition of Waves
● The Speed of a Traveling Wave

Simple Harmonic Progressive Wave

This waveform continuously travels in a specific direction without any

transition in form. Furthermore, the particles of the medium tend to
move harmonically about their mean position carrying the same
amplitude​ and period.

Characteristics of SHM Wave

● Note that, all particles or ​components​ of medium exhibit SHM
while the wave passes through a medium.
● The same amplitude is maintained by all particles as they
vibrate.
● Energy is conducted through the medium.
● The total number of particles vibrate with a similar ​frequency​.

Plane Progressive Harmonic Wave: Displacement

Relation
Considering a plane progressive harmonic wave, the displacement of a
sinusoidal wave traveling in the x-direction (positive) is mentioned
below:

y = a sin(kx – ωt + φ)

Here, ‘a’ denotes the amplitude of the wave, angular wave number is
denoted by ‘k’, whereas ‘ω’ is the angular frequency. The phase is
mentioned as (kx – ωt + φ), and φ signifies the phase angle or phase
constant.

Furthermore, the sine function, as well as the time-dependent phase

(wave), resemble the ​oscillation​ of a string component, whereas the
amplitude of wave defines the extremes of the component’s
displacement. It is important to remember that, the constant ‘ϕ’ is
termed as initial phase angle.

Wavelength of Progressive Wave

The wavelength ‘λ’ for a progressive wave is basically the distance

measured between two succeeding points of the same phase at a
particular time. Considering a stationary wave, this is twice the
distance measured between two successive nodes or antinodes. The
propagation constant is defined as ‘k’. The SI unit is calculated in
radian per meter or rad m​-1​.

k=2π/λ

Frequency and Period of Progressive Wave

The time period ‘T’ of wave oscillation is the duration taken by any
component of the medium takes to travel over one complete
oscillation. This is related to ‘ω’ or angular frequency through the
following relation:

ω =2π/T

In this, wave frequency ‘v’ is mentioned as 1/T and is also related to

angular frequency as:

v=ω/2π

It can also be defined as the number of oscillations/unit time prepared

in a string element while the wave passes through it. This is usually
calculated in Hertz.
Question For You

Q. Write down the equation for a transverse wave propagation along a

stretched string. Given that amplitude= 3m, frequency = 30Hz and
wavelength = 40 m.

Ans: In order to find the equation of the wave, let us try to recall the
equation of progressive wave in the form:

y= a sin 2π(vt – x/λ)

Therefore, y= 3 sin 2π(30t – x/40) m. This is the desired wave

equation.
Waves

Reflection of Sound Waves

We are surrounded by a variety of sounds that generate from different

sources. But, have you ever thought how sound waves travel? It is
surprising how we can listen to cloud thunder which happens far away
in the stratosphere. If we look closely, we can surely notice small
activities that prove the existence of reflection of sound.

Take two tubes and place them alongside a wall. Now, put a speaker
or some sound source close to one end of the tube. You will observe
that sound can be heard at the other end of the tube. With the help of
this activity, it is proven that ​surface​ of the wall does reflect the sound
waves. Therefore, we will now try to learn in-depth about the
reflection of sound waves and its applications. 

​What is Sound?

Before we directly land on the topic let us understand what is the

reflection of sound, let us clear our concept of what does sound
exactly signify. It can be defined as auditory sensation or ​oscillations
induced by oscillations in ​velocity​ or particle ​displacement​. Do
remember that, this displacement is broadcasted in a medium
containing internal ​force​. Hence, sound ​transmits​ as a mechanical
wave via medium like air or water.

Browse more Topics under Waves

● Types of Waves
● Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
● Displacement Relationship in a Progressive Wave
● Doppler Effect
● Beats
● Reflection of String Waves
● The Principle of Superposition of Waves
● The Speed of a Traveling Wave

Reflection of Sound

In simple terms, the reflection of sound is actually similar to the

reflection of light. How? It also abides different laws of reflection, in
which the angle of incidence does prove equal to the angle of
reflection. In addition, sound rebounds from the surface of either solid
or liquid similar to a billiard ball. For successfully experiencing the
reflection of sound, it is important that the surface should be polished
or rough, and that too of a considerably large size.

The two laws concerned with sound reflection are as follows:

● The incidence angle will always be equal to the reflection

angle.
● Moreover, the incident sound waves, the normal at incidence
point and reflected wave, all rest in a common plane.

Applications Justifying Sound Reflection

Echo

It is the sound heard when reflections occur from a firm surface, for
example, a wall or cliff. Echo is the repetition of sound even after the
source has stopped vibrating. This is used by bats as well as dolphins
for the detection of obstacles or navigation. Interestingly, SONAR
follows the same principle for sound navigation. In SONAR,
ultrasonic sound waves are transmitted in all directions through the
ship and the signals received are later examined.

Sound Board

These are basically curved surfaces which are placed in a manner so

that the sound source stays at the focus. In a soundboard, the sound
waves are uniformly reflected. It can happen in an auditorium or hall,
thus improving their quality.

Hearing Aid

A hearing aid is useful for is people who face difficulty in hearing. In

this device, the sound waves are established and reflected into a
slimmer area directed to the ear.

Megaphone

These are horn-shaped tubes which prevent the extension of sound

waves through successive reflections. This is achieved through the
confinement of sound ​waves​ that happen in the tube.
Stethoscope

You might have seen a stethoscope hanging around your doctor’s

neck. This device is used to hear sounds generated from internal
organs​ in the human body. A stethoscope functions on the laws of
sound ​reflection​. The sound is received through the chest piece and
delivered to the earpieces via multiple reflections occurring through a
long tube. By listening to the sound with the help of stethoscope,
doctors analyze the situation of an organ.

Question For You

Q. What are the conditions for an echo to be heard?

Ans.​ One wouldn’t easily experience echo in a small room. However,

this doesn’t mean that sound isn’t reflected in that room, but certain
conditions for echo generation aren’t satisfied.

Do remember that, any sound sticks at an individual’s brain for 0.1

seconds. Hence, echo can be heard only if the same sound strikes the
individual’s ear after a duration of 0.1 seconds. Therefore, the
reflection of sound should reach the brain after a gap of 0.1 seconds.
Doppler Effect

Whenever a train waiting on the station, it blows its whistle, but

listeners nearby notice nothing unusual. Although here what happens
is that there’s an increase in the degree of intensity—between the
sound heard by someone on the platform, and the sound of the train as
heard by someone standing behind the main engine. Why does this
happen? This happens because of Doppler Effect. What is it? Let us
study more about it in-depth to ensure that you have a better clarity on
the subject. 

We are surrounded by scientific events that occur every minute, every

second. Do you actually try to put a question in your mind after
hearing different sounds in your vicinity? Ever noticed when sounds
transform their pitch while ​travelling​ close by? Supposedly, you are
sitting near a stoplight, managing your work and suddenly you hear
the sound of an ambulance.

At this moment, the siren screams a high pitch almost half a mile from
the nearby road. Now, you wait for the approaching vehicle as the
ambulance rushes through the crossing. As it passes, one can note that
the siren sound is now different. Here, it has a lower pitch as
compared to what it was before. The question is, why did the siren
sound change?

In order to decode this mystery, one must get familiar with the concept
of Doppler Effect. Through this, we can gain an explanation on how
people observe variations in sound when the prime sound source is
moving. Although the ambulance siren didn’t change pitch, it does
transform as the vehicle rushes past us.

Apparent Vs Actual Frequency

When we discuss details about how a spectator recognizes waves, it is

crucial to learn about apparent and actual ​frequencies​.

● Talking about actual frequency, it is the true frequency,

irrespective of any external factor. Under this, the position of
the observer doesn’t disturb the actual wave frequency.
 ● Apparent frequency is termed as that frequency which is
processed by an external observer. There are chances that it
might or might not be similar to the actual frequency.

Based on this concept, we can say that the apparent downward or

upward change in frequency as a result of ​movement​ of wave source
is called as Doppler Effect.

Calculation of Doppler Effect in Sound

Let us try to understand the proper formulation and terms to logically

define Doppler Effect. Let us assume the ​motion​ is leaning in a line
lying between source S and listener L. Here the track from the listener
towards the source is taken as the positive ​direction​. Further,
velocities​ v​S​ and v​L​ are the velocities concerned with the source and
listener relative to air or wave medium. Also, the speed of the sound
wave (v), is at all times measured positive.

Once we apply these motions (leaving aside all the chaotic

derivations), we receive the frequency which is heard by f​L ​or listener,
in the form of f​S ​or frequency of the source:
 f​L ​= [(v + v​L​)/(v + v​S​)] f​S

In case, the listener stays stationery, then v​L​ = 0. In case, the source
stays stationery, then v​S​ = 0.

● Hence, if neither the listener nor the source is moving, in this

situation f​L​ = f​S​.
● Suppose the listener starts to walk toward the source, here v​L​ >
0, however, if it starts to move different from the source, at that
point​ v​L​ < 0.
● Consecutively, if the movement of the source is towards the
listener and motion is measured in the negative direction, then
v​S​ < 0. However, if the source travels away from the listener,
here v​S​ > 0.

Doppler Effect Types

There are two basic Doppler Effect versions. So, let us now learn
about these two basic Doppler Effect versions which are also
necessary to be understood by you.

Symmetrical
Under this, the Doppler shift stays similar when the light source
travels​ towards or away from a resting observer. In the other case, the
spectator travels with the same velocity either towards or away from
the resting stationary.

Asymmetrical

It is believed that apparent shift in frequency is altered when the sound

source travels towards or away from the resting observer. This effect
can be further observed when the observer travels with similar ​speed
towards or away from the resting source.

Solved Example For You

Question:​ Suppose a bus is heading towards Sean at 1.5 × 108 m/s. If

the bus flashes the headlight on Sean at a frequency of 4200 Hz. What
is the frequency of ​light​ Sean with receive?

Solution: Given that,​ the observer velocity (v) = c, source velocity (v​s​)
= 1.5 × 108 m/s; that is 0.5 c, & the frequency (ν) = 4200 Hz

The light frequency received by Sean is:

ν’ = ν/(1 ± v​s​/v)

ν’ = 4200/1 – 0.5 c/ c; ν’ = 2100 Hz. (Answer)

Hence, the light frequency that Sean obtains is 2100 Hz.

Beats

What do you understand by the term ‘beats’? Most of us might hold an

image of a stereo or an amplifier throwing out heavy thumping.
However, when it comes to ​physics​ everything has a perfect
explanation! Therefore, let us try to get a better idea about ‘beats’ as a
concept. 

​Introduction to Beats

When two different ​objects​ vibrate at different frequencies, there is a

fluctuating sound, this sensation is known as beats. In other ​words​,
when two sound waves having slightly different ​frequencies​ reach
your ear, then you are able to hear fluctuating sound (alternate soft and
loud sound). It is important to note that, the loud sensation of sound is
produced by the constructive interference. On the other hand, the soft
sound is instigated due to destructive interference.

Constructive Interference

An interference is called constructive if two waves holding the same

frequency reach a point in a way that the first wave crest meets the
crest of the other wave. Considering a sound wave, when this happens
then the amplitude of sound waves gets added. Hence, the resultant
sound is quite louder as compared to the original sound.

Destructive Interference

This form of interference is termed as destructive when two waves

holding the same frequency encounter in a manner where the crest of a
particular wave meets the trough of the other. In the case of two sound
waves, this ​phenomenon​ causes the amplitude of the specific sound
waves to get subtracted. Hence, the resultant sound appears to be
much weaker as compared to the original sound.

Beats Frequency

When two sound waves having different frequencies encounter each

other, then the amplitude of sound waves is added & subtracted
alternatively through a given period. Hence, the subsequent sound
intensity swings (grows louder and softer) through the given period.

Let us consider two different sound ​waves​, A and B of varying

frequencies but having a similar ​amplitude​ propagating in the same
medium. When these two sound waves encounter, a fluctuating sound
can be heard. Do note that, for a certain time, the crest of A meets the
crest of B. Hence, this causes constructive interference. Therefore, the
sound intensity rises for this certain period. However, after a point of
time, the crest of B meets the trough of A. In this scenario, destructive
interference is experienced; this causes the intensity of sound to fall
for a certain period.

Observations
● The intensity of sound increases and decreases continuously
with time.
● Dissimilar to the original sound wave, the resultant sound wave
has an amplitude which isn’t constant; it differs with ​respect​ to
time.
● Also, whenever the sound intensity rises to maximum, it is
called as waxing of sound. Conversely, when the sound
 intensity falls to a minimum, it is termed as the waning of
sound.
● Overall phenomenon of periodic waxing & waning of sound,
where two sound waves holding almost equal frequencies
encounter each other is called beats.

Beat Frequency can be called as the number of beats generated per

second, which is equivalent to the variance in frequencies of two
sound waves. This has been converted into an ​equation​ for gaining a
better understanding.

f​b​ = |f​1​ – f​2​|

Where,

● f​1​ = sound wave 1 frequency

● f​2​ = sound wave 2 frequency
● |f​1​ – f​2​| = Difference (positive value)
● f​b​ = beats frequency
Question For You

Q. Evaluate the beat frequency when two wave frequencies are 750Hz
and 390Hz respectively?

Ans: Given details include, f​1​ = 750 Hz and f​2​ = 390 Hz

Therefore, the beat frequency can be calculated to be,

f​b​ = |f​1​ – f​2​|

f​b​ = |390−750|= 380Hz

Reflection of String Waves

Have you ever done skipping? Have you seen how the rope moves-
this movement of the rope can be used as an example to help you
understand the wave movement. But what’s the reason behind such
movement of the rope? It’s because of the standing wave. But what is
a standing wave? Here in the section below, we’ll help you understand
the concept of standing ​wave​ for you gather better clarity on the same.

Reflection of String Waves

What happens to an object, supposedly, a ball when it is thrown

against a hard wall? Yes, bounces back. This can be termed as
“​reflection​” experienced by the object. As physics, this ​aspect​ can be
measured in terms of energy and ​momentum conservation​. In another
case, if the collision involving the ball and wall is effortlessly elastic,
then, in this case, the incident energy, as well as momentum, is
returned. In simple terms, the object or ball will bounce back at the
same speed. Furthermore, if the ​collision​ tends to be inelastic, the wall
(or ball) would absorb a share of the momentum and incident energy.
Therefore, the ball wouldn’t bounce back at the same speed.
It is important to note that, ​waves​ also carry energy and momentum.
Hence, whenever a wave bumps into an obstacle, there is a tendency
to reflect after the collision. Some of the well-known wave
phenomena​ such as echoes are a result of reflection of waves.
Furthermore, the generation of standing wave is also a result of this
wave reflection. Do string waves reflect? Let us know about this.

Wave Pulse Propagation on a String

Under this ​situation​, a wave pulse is traveling on a string. Here, the

speed is denoted by ‘c’; it is the pace with which the wave pulse
propagates along the string based on the elastic restoring force
(tension, T) as well as inertia (mass per unit length, μ). The equation is
determined as:
 c = √(T/μ)

Rigid Boundary Reflection of String Wave

Here, the wave pulse over a string propagates from left to right
reaching the end where it is rigidly clamped. The moment the wave
pulse reaches the fixed destination, the internal restoring forces would
permit the wave to broadcast an upward force on the terminal of the
string. However, since the terminal is clamped, there is no chance it
can move.

Hence, based on Newton’s third law, the rigid wall might be applying
an equal downward force toward the string end. As a result of this new
force, a wave pulse is generated that transmits from right to left. It
carries amplitude and its speed is similar to the incident wave but
holds opposite ​polarity​.

Soft Boundary Reflection of String Wave

As per this condition, the string propagates from left to right directed
towards the end of the string that is free to move upright or vertically.
Further, the net vertical force present at the free end should be zero.
Also, the slope of the string-displacement needs to be zero,
specifically, at the free end for proving this boundary condition
mathematically.

Hence, the reflected pulse wave propagates in the direction right to

left, having the same speed & amplitude like the incident wave. The
polarity, in this case, remains the same.

Resonance & Standing Wave

The concept of resonance can be linked to wave phenomena. In a

wave medium, resonance (such as on a string) is standing wave. In
simple words, they are equivalent to the resonant oscillation of a
spring and mass. Furthermore, a stretched string can comprise of
many frequencies, unlike the spring and mass that holds only a single
resonant frequency. These diverse frequencies are termed as harmonic
series; and are accountable for the generation of tones in a guitar,
piano etc.

Whenever energy is transferred to the strings present in these

instruments, they tend to oscillate at the unusual frequencies from the
harmonic series. If you watch the movement of the string while
vibrating at one of the specific frequencies from the harmonic series,
you can analyze a standing wave pattern. This is different for every
frequency mentioned under the harmonic series.

Question For You

Q. What do you understand by Standing Wave?

Ans: A standing wave is a particular type of wave that can only be

formed when a wave’s motion is controlled by a fixed region. In order
to understand this, let’s think about a vibrating guitar string. The
motion of the guitar string is confined on both terminals of the string,
where it actually associates to the guitar’s body. Hence, whenever you
pluck the string, the wave reflects from each of these defined
boundaries.

In a standing wave, the incident wave and reflected wave meet, where
both waves hold zero amplitude. Hence, as the waves proceed to move
past each other, they tend to interfere either constructively or
destructively.
Principle of Superposition of Waves

Waves surround us and their presence works to channelize a number

of ​phenomena​. Imagine you are in a boat and hear the siren of a ship.
In this case, you’ll be able to receive sound wave directly from the
ship siren, as well as the sound wave that gets reflected by the
seawater. In order to understand this concept, let us put our focus on
the core concept of Superposition of Waves, together with the in-depth
knowledge related to superposition theorem. 

​Introduction to Superposition of Waves

Let us take the example of a string wave to define the principle of

superposition of wave that is based on the superposition theorem. And
according to this, the net ​displacement​ of any ​component​ on the string
for a given time is equal to the algebraic totality of the displacements
caused due to each wave. Hence, this method of adding up individual
waveforms for the evaluation of net waveform is termed as the
principle of superposition.
The principle of superposition is expressed by affirming that
overlapping waves add algebraically to create a resultant wave. Based
on the principle, the overlapping waves (with the frequencies
f​1​,f​2​….,f​n​) do not hamper the motion or travel of each other.
Therefore, the wave function (y) labeling the disturbance in the
medium can be denoted as:

Hence, the superposition of waves can lead to the following three

effects:
 1. Whenever two ​waves​ having the same f​ requency​ travel with
the same speed along the same ​direction​ in a specific medium,
then they superpose and create an effect known as the
interference of waves.
2. In a situation where two waves having similar frequencies
move with the same speed along opposite directions in a
specific medium, then they superpose to produce stationary
waves.
3. Finally, when two waves having slightly varying frequencies
travel with the same speed along the same direction in a
specific medium, they superpose to produce beats.

Browse more Topics under Waves

● Types of Waves
● Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
● Displacement Relationship in a Progressive Wave
● Reflection of Sound Waves
● Doppler Effect
● Beats
● Reflection of String Waves
 ● The Speed of a Traveling Wave

Learn more about ​Transverse and Longitudinal Wave​ here.

Constructive & Destructive Interference

It is when two waves (similar wavelength, amplitude, and frequency)

move in a specific or same direction. According to the superposition
principle, the subsequent wave displacement can be written as:

y(x,t) = y m sin(kx-ωt) + y m sin(kx-ωt+ϕ) = 2 y m cos(ϕ/2)

sin(kx-ωt+ϕ/2)

This wave has an ​amplitude​ that depends on the phase (ϕ). Hence,
when the two waves are believed to be in-phase (ϕ=0), then they
interfere constructively. Furthermore, the resultant wave holds twice
the amplitude as compared to the individual waves. On the other hand,
when two waves possess opposite-phase (ϕ=180), then they interfere
destructively; canceling each other out.

Two Sine Waves Moving in Opposite Directions (Standing Wave)

Do remember that, a traveling wave propagates from one place to

another, however, a standing wave looks as if its still. Suppose two
waves (having the same amplitude, wavelength, and frequency) move
in opposite directions. Based on the principle of superposition, the
final wave amplitude can be written as:

y ( x , t ) = y m sin (kx-ωt) + y m sin (kx+ωt) = 2 y m sin (kx) cos (ωt)

As per the superposition theorem, this wave is no longer termed as a

traveling wave since the position and time dependency has been
separated. In this, the wave amplitude as a ​function​ of point or
location is 2ymsin(kx). To be precise, this amplitude wouldn’t travel
but will stand and oscillate up and down based on cos(ωt).

Learn about ​the Reflection of Sound Waves here​.

Questions For You

Q1. For destructive interference, what should be the path difference?

Ans: In case of destructive interference, the path difference is an odd

number of half wavelengths.

Q2. What type of wave is produced when a motorboat sails in water?

Ans: The answer is Transverse Waves; these are produced on the
water surface.
The Speed of a Traveling Wave

Have you ever noticed how fast sound travels? Sound and light form
traveling waves. Can the velocity of a traveling wave be measured? If
yes, on what factors does the velocity of a traveling wave depend?
You know about light waves, ​sound​ waves and more! How fast are
these waves? Let us find out the speed of a traveling wave. 

​The Speed of a Traveling wave

A traveling wave is a wave that moves in ​space​. So, what do we mean

by a wave ​velocity​ or ​speed​? A wave can be represented graphically
as shown below. Consider a wave that is traveling in the positive
direction​ of X-axis. We can represent this wave by the equation y = A
sin (kx – ωt) or the wave equation. Here, A is the amplitude, and k is
the propagation constant.

Browse more Topics Under Waves

 ● Types of Waves
● Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
● Displacement Relationship in a Progressive Wave
● Reflection of Sound Waves
● Doppler Effect
● Beats
● Reflection of String Waves
● The Principle of Superposition of Waves
● The Speed of a Traveling Wave

Wave velocity or Phase Velocity

The ​distance​ covered by a wave in the direction of its propagation per

unit​ time is called the wave velocity. Let us try and find it for a wave
traveling in the positive X direction. Suppose, y = A sin (kx – ωt)
represents our traveling wave. Let us say that this wave does not
change its form while traveling through any medium. In other words,
it maintains its form.
On the waveform, it retains its displacement as it moves. For a fixed
point on the waveform, we must have a constant argument. Hence, we
have

Therefore, differentiating, both side w.r.t., time t, we get

But dx/dt = wave velocity – v, therefore

This represents the wave velocity or the phase velocity of a traveling

wave​. Let us see some special cases now.

Speed of a Transverse Wave on Stretched String

The speed of transverse waves on a string depends on two main
factors

● The linear mass density or mass per unit length, μ (say)

● The tension ​T ​of the string.

Let us look at these terms in a little more detail.

The linear mass density or μ

It is defined as the mass ​m ​of the string divided by its length ​l.​
Therefore, its dimension is [ML​-1​]. The tension T has the dimension
of force — namely, [M L T​-2​]. Our goal is to combine μ and ​T i​ n such
a way as to generate ​v [​ dimension (L T​-2​)]. Therefore, if v depends
only on T and μ, the relation between them must be:

Here, C is a dimensionless constant. Hence, the speed of transverse

waves on a stretched string is given by:
Hence, the speed of a wave along a stretched ideal string depends only
on the tension and the linear mass density of the string. It is
independent of the frequency of the wave.

Speed of a Longitudinal Wave Speed of Sound

In a longitudinal wave, the constituents of the medium oscillate back

and forth in the direction of propagation of the wave. We know that
the sound waves ​travel​ in the form of compression and rarefactions of
the small volume element of the medium. Therefore, the property that
determines the extent to which the volume of an element of a medium
change when the pressure on it changes, is the bulk modulus ​B​, given
by:

Here, ∆V/V is the fractional change in volume produced by a change

in pressure ∆P. The SI unit for pressure is N m​-2​ or pascal (Pa). The
dimension of density is [ML​-3​]. Hence, the dimension of the ratio B/ρ
is [L​2 ​T​-2​]. Therefore, based on dimensional analysis, the most
appropriate expression for the speed of longitudinal waves in a
medium is:

where ​C​ is a dimensionless constant and can be shown to be unity.

Hence, the speed of longitudinal waves in a medium is given by:

The speed of propagation of a longitudinal wave in a fluid,

therefore, depends only on the bulk modulus and the density of the
medium. It can be shown that the speed of a longitudinal wave in the
bar is given by,

The relation between pressure P and volume V is:

​ T
PV = NkB ​

Where N is the number of molecules in volume V, k​B​ is the

Boltzmann constant and T the temperature of the gas (in Kelvin).
Therefore, for an isothermal change, it follows from above equation
that:

Hence, substituting in the equation of the speed of longitudinal wave,

we get

This relation was first given by Newton and therefore it is known as

Newton’s formula for the speed of sound.

Solved Examples For You

Q 1: Sound velocity is maximum in:

A) H​2 B) N​2 C) He D) O​2

Solution: A) As we can see from Newton’s formula for the speed of

sound, the speed is inversely proportional to the density of the
medium. Therefore, from the given options, the molecular mass of
Hydrogen is smallest and hence it will have the least density for an
equal volume of all the gases. Hence, the speed of sound will be
maximum in H​2​.