UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ME 431 – Theory of Elasticity I

Lecture Notes on the

Principle of Virtual Work
for 2021/2022 Session
(Part II)

Lecturer:
Howard O. NJOKU PhD

February 2, 2023
Contents
1.1.4 Statically indeterminate pin-jointed frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2 Application of the principle of virtual work to beams . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.2.1 Deflections of statically determinate beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.2.2 Deflections of statically indeterminate beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

16
1.1.4 Statically indeterminate pin-jointed frames

A statically indeterminate frame is one for which forces in its members cannot be com-
pletely obtained using the equations of statics. The number of members, n, and the
number of joints, j, of statically indeterminate frames are such that,

n ̸= 2j − 3 (14)

The principle of virtual work in the form of the unit-load method is useful for solving
problems of statically indeterminate frames. Consider the loaded statically indeterminate
frame of Fig 13. The redundant member AD may be replaced with equal and opposite
forces R at A and D so that resultant forces in the remaining members can be obtained
in terms of R and the external loads.

Figure 13: A statically indeterminate truss bearing two external loads

Let δAR be the displacement of joint A in the direction of R due to this modified
state of loading. If equal and opposite unit loads are imposed on joints A and D in the
absence of the external loads, and the resultant forces in the members are Pu , then by
the unit-load method,
X
1 × δAR = Pu e (15)
m

An extension eR would be produced in the redundant member AD if the tensile force

R was applied on it separately. By the strain compatibility condition at joint A,

eR = −δAR

so that
X
eR + Pu e = 0 (16)
m

17
Figure 14: The redundant member in the statically indeterminate truss replaced with
equal and opposite forces of magnitude R

If an initial lack of fit existed in member AD (due to a temperature rise or drop, e.g.,)
and suppose it was longer by λ than required for an exact fit in the unloaded frame. By
the strain compatibility condition,

eR + λ = −δAR (17)

so that
X
(eR + λ) + Pu e = 0 (18)
m

Example 6
The frame of Fig. 17 is loaded as shown. All members have the same axial rigidity and
have no initial lacks-of-fit. Calculate the force in member AC.
Solution:
The solution is presented in Table 6. Firstly, one member is chosen to be the redundant
member, in this case, member AC. This member is replaced with equal and opposite forces
of magnitude R. The forces in all other members are then obtained in terms of R. These
are presented in column 3 of Table 6. The extensions in the members due to these forces
are obtained next and presented in column 4.
Thereafter, all external loads are removed, and equal and opposite virtual unit loads
are imposed on joints A and C, and the resultant virtual forces Pu in the members
determined. These are presented in column 5. Finally, the products, Pu ×e, are computed
and presented in column 6.

18
Figure 15: (a) Original state of loading on a statically indeterminate truss. (b) The
redundant member replaced with equal and opposite forces of unit magnitude.

Table 6: Solution table for Example 5

Pl
Member l P e= Pu Pu × e
EA
R R L 1 R L
AB L W−√ (W − √ ) −√ −(W − √ ) √
2 2 EA 2 2 2EA
R R L 1 R L
BC L W−√ (W − √ ) −√ −(W − √ ) √
2 2 EA 2 2 2EA
R R L 1 RL
CD L −√ (− √ ) −√
2 2 EA 2 2EA
R R L 1 RL
DA L −√ (− √ ) −√
2 2 EA
√ 2 √2EA
√ R 2L 2RL
AC 2L R 1
EA √ EA √
√ √ √ 2L √ 2L
BD 2L R − W 2 (R − W 2) 1 (R − W 2)
EA EA

By equation (16),
√ √
2RL R L RL √ 2L
− 2(W − √ ) √ +2 + (R − W 2) = 0
EA 2 2EA 2EA EA
√ 
√

2L R R
R − (W − √ ) + √ + (R − W 2) = 0
EA 2 2

19
 √
 
R R
R+ √ + √ +R −W −W 2 = 0
2 2
√
 
2R
2R + √ − W (1 + 2) = 0
2
√ √
R(2 + 2) = W (1 + 2)
√
(1 + 2)
R = W √
(2 + 2)

It may be shown finally that,

W
R= √
2

Example 7
The plane frame of Fig. 16 bears a load P at joint C as shown. All members are linearly
elastic, have equal area A, have the same axial rigidity, and have no initial lacks-of-fit.
Determine the forces and the extensions in the members of the frame.

Figure 16: Example 7.

Figure 17: (a) The redundant member replaced with equal and opposite forces of mag-
nitude R. (b) The redundant member replaced with equal and opposite forces of unit
magnitude.

20
 Solution:
The solution is presented in Table 7. Firstly, one member is chosen to be the redundant
member, in this case, member BC. This member is replaced with equal and opposite
forces of magnitude R (Fig. ??(a)). The forces in all other members are then obtained in
terms of R. These are presented in column 3 of Table 7. The extensions in the members
due to these forces are obtained next and presented in column 4.
Table 7: Solution table for Example 5
Member Length, l Force, W Extension, e = W l/AE Unit load force, Wu × e
Wu
P −R (P − R)l 1 (R − P )l
AC l √ √ −√
3 3AE 3 3AE
Rl Rl
BC l R 1
AE AE
2l 2(P − R) 4(P − R)l 2 8(R − P )l
CD √ √ −√ √
3 3 3AE 3 3 3AE

Thereafter, all external loads are removed, and equal and opposite virtual unit loads
are imposed on joints B and C (Fig. ??(b)). The resultant virtual forces Pu in the
members due to the unit load are determined. These are presented in column 5. Finally,
the products, Pu × e, are computed and presented in column 6.
By the strain compatibility condition,
X
eR + Wu = 0
m
Rl (R − P )l 8(R − P )l
∴ + + √ = 0
AE 3AE 3 3AE
R 8 P 8P
R+ + √ = + √
3 3 3 3 3 3
   
4 8 1 8
R + √ = P + √
3 3 3 3 3 3
√ √ !
3+8 13 3 3
⇒R= √ P ≡ − P
4 3+8 4 2

! √
P −R P 3+8
WAC = √ =√ − √ P
3 3 12 + 8 3
√ !
2(P − R) 2P 2 3 + 16
WCD = √ =√ − √ P
3 3 12 + 8 3
√
(P − R)l Pl ( 3 + 8)P l
eAC = √ =√ − √ )
3AE 3AE (12 + 8 3)AE
√
Rl ( 3 + 8)P l
eBC = = √
AE (4 3 + 8)AE

21
 √
4(P − R)l 4P l (4 3 + 32)P l
eCD = √ = − √
3AE 3AE (12 3 + 24)AE

Sample Problem III

√
a) Confirm that R in Example 6 is given by R = W/ 2. For a similar truss shown in
Fig. 18 calculate the force in member AC and also find the horizontal displacement
of joint B.

b) If an initial lack of fit λ = αl/EA exists in AC, determine the force in AC in the
absence of any gross distortions to its geometry.

Figure 18: Sample Problem III

Sample Problem IV
If the members of the frame of Sample Problem III are made of a non-linear material
whose extension is given by
e = aP − bP 2 ,

determine the force in member AC in the absence of any initial lacks-of-fit. Also, find the
vertical displacement of joint B.

Sample Problem V
For the planar frame of linearly elastic members shown in Fig. 19, find the force in bar
AC due to the 30 kN horizontal force at C. For member AC, let L/(AE) = 0.5, and for

22
all other members, unity. What is the horizontal displacement of joint C due to this state
of loading?

Figure 19: Sample Problem V

1.2 Application of the principle of virtual work to beams

The derivation of the unit load method expression of the principle of virtual work for
obtaining deflections at any point on a beam is similar to the derivation for pin-jointed
frames. The procedure is as follows:

i) Obtain the expressions for bending moments, M at different sections of the beam,
due to the real loads on the beam.

ii) Obtain the expressions for the displacements, dθ, due to these bending moments.
For beams of linearly elastic materials,

M dx
dθ = (19)
EI

iii) Next, a fictitious unit load corresponding to the desired deflection is imposed on
the beam at the point where the deflection is desired and expressions for bending
moments, Mu , due to this virtual load, are obtained for different sections of the
beam,

iv) The displacements due to the real loads are then imposed as virtual displacements
on the equilibrium system resulting from the unit load (step iii). If the desired

23
 deflection is δ, then the unit load method expression for an elastic beam of length
L is Z L
M dx
1×δ = Mu (20)
0 EI

The application of the unit load method for determining deflections in both stati-
cally determinate and indeterminate beams is illustrated with examples in the following
sections.

1.2.1 Deflections of statically determinate beams

Example 8
The cantilever AB of Fig. 20 bears a uniformly distributed load of intensity w as shown.
Determine the deflection at its mid-point.

Figure 20: A cantilever bearing a uniformly distributed load

Solution:
For the uniformly loaded cantilever, the bending moment M at any section at a dis-
ω
tance x from the support is given by − (L − x)2 . Using Equation 19, the deflection at
2
ω 2
any distance x will be − (L − x) dx.
2EI
When the unit load is imposed on midpoint C (Fig. 21), two sections of the beam,
AC and CB, are evident. Whereas
 at 
any point within section AC, the bending moment
L
due to the unit load Mu is − − x , it is zero within section CB. These deductions
2
are summarized in Table 8.

Table 8: Solution table for Example 6

M dx
Section M dθ = Mu
EI  
ω ω L
AC − (L − x)2 − (L − x)2 dx − −x
2 2EI 2
ω ω
CB − (L − x)2 − (L − x)2 dx 0
2 2EI

24
 Figure 21: Imposition of unit load at midpoint of the cantilever

The vertical displacement of point C, δV C , is obtained with equation 20 as

Z L
M
δV C = Mu dx
0 EI
Z L/2     Z L h
L ω 2 2 ω i
= − −x ×− (L − 2Lx + x ) dx + 0×− (L − x)2 dx
0 2 2EI L/2 2EI
Z L/2  3
2L2 x Lx2

ω L
= − + − L2 x + 2Lx2 − x3 dx
2EI 0 2 2 2
Z L/2  3
5Lx2

ω L 2 3
= − 2L x + − x dx
2EI 0 2 2
L/2
ω L3 x 2L2 x2 5Lx3 x4

= − + −
2EI 2 2 2×3 4 0
 4 4 4 4
ωL4 17 17
  
ω L 2L 5L L
= − + − = −
2EI 4 8 48 64 2EI 48 64

17ωL4
δV C =
384EI

Example 9
The thin semi-circular ring shown Fig. 22 has radius R and flexural stiffness EI. The ring
is loaded at its ends as shown. Determine the decrease in distance between the loaded
ends.
Solution:
It is assumed that the radius is sufficiently large compared to the thickness of the rings
so that equations for straight beams may be applied. Hence, at any point on the ring,
the bending moment due to the loads is

M = −W R sin θ

25
Figure 22: (a) A thin semi-circular ring loaded at its ends. (b) The thin semi-circular
ring with unit loads at its ends.

the unit load equation can be written as

Z L Z π
M M
δ= Mu ds = Mu Rdθ
0 EI 0 EI

where ds = Rdθ is a differential element of the ring.

Next, unit loads are imposed on the ends of the ring (Fig. 22(b)). At any point on
the ring, the bending moment due to the unit loads, Mu , is

Mu = −R sin θ (21)

Substituting into the unit load equation, we have that

Z π  
W R sin θ
δ = (−R sin θ) − Rdθ
0 EI
W R3 π 2
Z
= sin θdθ
EI 0
π
W R3 θ sin 2θ

= − (NB : sin2 θ = 21 (1 − cos 2θ))
EI 2 4 0
3
πW R
δ =
2EI

26
1.2.2 Deflections of statically indeterminate beams

Example 10
The cantilever AB of Fig. 23 is hinged at A and supported at B on a roller. It bears a uni-
formly distributed load of intensity w. Determine the value of the statically indeterminate
reaction at the support B and hence the deflection at its midpoint.

Figure 23: A uniformly loaded statically indeterminate cantilever

Solution:
Let the indeterminate reaction at B be RB (Fig. 24), then the bending moment at
any section of the beam due to this loading will be

ω
M = − (L − x)2 + RB (L − x)
2

Figure 24: Reaction of the statically indeterminate cantilever is replaced with a force Rb
at its free end

If a virtual unit load is imposed at B as shown in Fig. 25, then the bending moment
at any section due to the unit load will be

Mu = −1 × (L − x)

27
Figure 25: Imposition of unit load on the free end of the statically indeterminate cantilever

Substituting into equation 20, we obtain

L
− ω2 (L − x)2 + RB (L − x)
Z  
1 × δV B = −(L − x) dx
0 EI
Z L
1 hω i
= (L − x) (L2 − 2Lx + x2 ) − RB L + RB x dx
EI 0 2
Z Lh
1 ω 3
= (L − 2L2 x + Lx2 ) − RB L2 + RB Lx−
EI 0 2
ω 2 2 3 2
i
(L x − 2Lx + x ) + RB Lx − RB x dx
2
1 hω 3
= (L x − L2 x2 + 31 Lx3 ) − RB L2 x + 21 RB Lx2 −
EI 2
ω 1 2 2 2 3 1 4 1 2 1 3
iL
( L x − 3 Lx + 4 x ) + 2 RB Lx − 3 RB x
2 2 0
2 2 4
L
RB x3
  
1 ω 3 3L x 3 x 2 2
= L x− + Lx − − RB L x + RB Lx −
EI 2 2 4 3 0
4 4 3
   
1 ω 3L L RB L
δV B = L4 − + L4 − − RB L3 + RB L3 −
EI 2 2 4 3
4 3
   4 3

1 ωL RB L 1 ωL RB L
= − = − (22)
EI 2 4 3 EI 8 3

But the vertical displacement of point B, δV B = 0. (A roller support permits motion

in the horizontal direction only). Hence,

ωL4 RB L3
 
1
− =0
EI 8 3

RB L3 ωL4
=
3 8
3ωL
⇒ RB =
8
If a unit load is imposed at the midpoint of the beam (Fig. 26), then the bending
moments in the two sections of the beam, Mu , due to the unit load, may be expressed as

28
Figure 26: Imposition of unit load on the midpoint of the statically indeterminate can-
tilever

Mu = −(L/2 − x) for 0 ≤ x ≤ L/2

(23)
Mu = 0 for L/2 ≤ x ≤ L
If the desired displacement at the midpoint is δV C , substituting the expressions for Mu
into equation 20, we obtain

L/2
− ω2 (L − x)2 + RB (L − x)
Z
δV C = −(L/2 − x) dx
0 EI
− ω2 (L − x)2 + RB (L − x)
Z L
+ 0× dx
L/2 EI
Z L/2
1
(L/2 − x) ω2 (L2 − 2Lx + x2 ) − RB L + RB x dx
 
=
EI 0
Z L/2   3
RB L2 3RB Lx
 
1 ω L 2 5 2 3 2
= − 2L x + Lx − x − + − RB x dx
EI 0 2 2 2 2 2
L/2
1 ω L3 x 5 3 x4 RB L2 x 3RB Lx2 RB x3
  
2 2
= − L x + Lx − − + −
EI 2 2 6 4 2 4 3 0
  4 4 4 4
 3 3 3

1 ω L L 5L L RB L 3RB L RB L
= − + − − + −
EI 2 4 4 48 64 4 16 24
4 3
 
1 17ωL 5RB L
= −
EI 384 48

3ωL
But RB =
8
1 17ωL4 15ωL4
 
∴ δV C = −
EI 384 384
ωL4
⇒ δV C =
192EI

29