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 LIBRARY
OF THE
UNIVERSITY
OF ILLINOIS

629. 13
Un 325tn
no . 4571-4580

ENGINEERING CONF. ROOM

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sponsible for its return on or before the
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University of Illinois LibriEERING
CONFERENCE ROOM
NOV 2 # 1968

MAR 61969

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 In325th ineering
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NASA TECHNICAL NOTE NASA TN D - 4571

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U.S.A.
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D-IN571

THE LIBRARY OF THE

JUN $ 1968
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

MANAGEMENT OF CRYOGENIC PROPELLANTS

IN A FULL -SCALE ORBITING SPACE VEHICLE

by Raymond F. Lacovic, Frederick C. Yeh,

Steven V. Szabo, Jr., R. J. Brun ,
AndrewJ. Stofan, andJames A. Berns
Lewis Research Center
Cleveland, Ohio

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION WASHINGTON , D. C. MAY 1968

 NASA TN D- 4571

MANAGEMENT OF CRYOGENIC PROPELLANTS IN A FULL- SCALE

ORBITING SPACE VEHICLE

By Raymond F. Lacovic , Frederick C. Yeh , Steven V. Szabo , Jr.,

R. J. Brun , Andrew J. Stofan , and James A. Berns

Lewis Research Center

Cleveland , Ohio

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

For sale by the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information
Springfield , Virginia 22151 - CFSTI price $ 3.00
62913
ku325tn ENGINEERING LIBRARY
19.457-4585 CONTENTS
72

Page
SUMMARY . 1

INTRODUCTION 2

SYMBOLS . 3

oso
PROPELLANT MANAGEMENT 4

on
AC - 4 Propellant Management Problems • 5

AC - 8 Propellant Management . . 5

Energy Inputs to Propellant . . . 6

Volute bleed line flow . . 6

Recirculation line flow 8

Pressurization gas flow impingement on liquid surfaces 8

Propellant sloshing . 9

Other energy sources 12

Intermediate bulkhead springback 12
Propellant line surge . 13
Thermal convective current 13
Propellant Heating and Tank Venting . 13
AC - 8 thermal energy input . .
14
Propellant tank vent system 15
AC - 8 coast phase vent system 15

CONCLUSIONS . .. 16

APPENDIXES
A - INSTRUMENTATION FOR PROPELLANT MANAGEMENT 18

B VOLUTE BLEED ENERGY DISSIPATOR CALCULATIONS FOR AC - 8 22

C - AC - 8 PROPELLANT SLOSHING DURING THE PROPELLANT
- -

RETENTION PHASE . 25
D - CALCULATION OF CENTAUR LIQUID HYDROGEN TANK PRESSURE
-

RISE RATE AND VENTED QUANTITY . 28

REFERENCES 32

iii
 MANAGEMENT OF CRYOGENIC PROPELLANTS IN A FULL- SCALE
ORBITING SPACE VEHICLE

by Raymond F. Lacovic, Frederick C. Yeh , Steven V. Szabo, Jr..

R. J. Brun, Andrew J. Stofan, and James A. Berns
Lewis Research Center

SUMMARY

Some lunar and deep space missions require a space vehicle that can restart its en
gines after a coast period in space . An orbiting space vehicle using cryogenic propel
lants requires that the propellants be positioned in the tank to ensure gaseous venting and
liquid feed to the engine for restart.
The fourth and eighth Atlas - Centaur vehicles (AC - 4 and AC - 8) were launched to study
-

cryogenic propellant management during coast. The AC - 4 flight showed that propellant
management cannot be defined solely by the Bond number (ratio of acceleration to surface
tension forces). Energies imparted to the propellants at engine cutoff, during coast, and
at engine restart must be considered. On the AC - 4 flight, kinetic energies imparted to
the liquid hydrogen at first engine cutoff caused liquid motion within the hydrogen tank
resulting in subsequent venting of liquid hydrogen rather than gaseous hydrogen . The
vented liquid impinged on the vehicle causing it eventually to tumble out of control. The
AC - 8 vehicle was modified to reduce and /or control the energies transmitted to the pro
pellant. Energy dissipators were installed on the hydrogen tank pressurization line and
boost pump return flow lines. A balanced thrust hydrogen vent system was installed to
reduce vehicle disturbances. A slosh baffle was installed in the hydrogen tank and a
thrust schedule (with thrust levels increased over AC - 4) for propellant settling and re
tention was established. These modifications reduced the total kinetic energy at first
engine cutoff from 200 foot - pounds (270 J) on AC - 4 to less than 50 foot- pounds ( 68 J) on
AC - 8 . An additional 8400 foot - pounds ( 1140 J) of energy theoretically could have been
transmitted to the liquid hydrogen on AC - 4 during the coast and engine restart periods if
the mission had been successful. This was reduced to approximately 20 foot-pounds
(27 J) on AC - 8 .
In addition to verifying propellant management, the AC - 8 flight provided data on the
thermal environment of the hydrogen tank during the coast period. The information ob
tained on heat inputs to the tank was used to establish the capability of the hydrogen vent
system. Also, a thermal survey was made of the hydrogen tank ullage ; this survey pro
vided information on temperature stratification of the ullage gas . The flight of AC - 8 dem
onstrated a practical method for control of a cryogenic propellant in a full - scale orbiting
space vehicle. The method of propellant control established for the Centaur vehicle is ap
plicable to any space vehicle having short- term storage of cryogenic propellants in space.
 INTRODUCTION

In 1958 the United States initiated the Centaur project as a high - energy liquid propel
lant launch vehicle for space missions . The vehicle was conceived as consisting of a
modified Atlas ICBM and a Centaur second stage . Its intended use was for high-altitude
satellites , space probes to the Moon and to Venus and Mars , and other deep space flights .
To maximize the payload capability of the vehicle , the high - energy combination of liquid
hydrogen as the fuel and liquid oxygen as the oxidizer were selected . The prime mission
of the Atlas - Centaur vehicle was to launch the Surveyor spacecraft. Other missions be
ing planned include unmanned exploration of the planets in the solar system . The general
configuration of an Atlas - Centaur vehicle , including a mass model of the Surveyor space
craft is shown in figure 1 .
For lunar as well as other missions the need often arises for a vehicle to possess a
1
" two -burn " capability, that is , the engines should be able to restart after a coasting pe
riod in space . In the case of the lunar mission , the lighting conditions on the Moon limit
the available launch opportunities for a direct ascent to only certain months of the year .
The launch opportunities can be extended by the use of a two - burn parking orbit ascent in
which the vehicle is first inserted into a predetermined orbit around the Earth , before
being placed in the trajectory for lunar intercept . A Surveyor two -burn flight plan in
volving a coasting period is shown in figure 2 .
During the coasting period, the propellants in the tank are essentially in a weightless
state (zero gravity) unless external forces , such as drag, are acting on the vehicle . For
cryogenic propellants , weightlessness creates a unique problem in propellant manage
ment. The absorption of thermal energy causes the cryogens to evaporate, which results
in an increase in the tank pressures . The boiloff gas must be vented periodically in or
der to maintain the tank pressure within allowable structural limits . If the propellant is
scattered randomly throughout the tank or is located at the vent exit, tank venting may
release liquid along with the boiloff gases. Also, a scheduled engine restart is not cer
ta in unless liquid is retained at the engine inlet .
Many methods of propellant retention and control have been considered in the litera
ture (refs . 1 to 3 ) , such as , capillary systems , which utilize surface tension to retain
and position propellants; positive expulsion devices (bladders and diaphragms); super
critical storage (no defined liquid - vapor interface ); thixotropic propellants in which the
addition of colloidal solid particles causes the propellants to form a gel ; dielectro
phoresis , which utilizes a nonuniform electric field to separate liquid and vapor; and in
ertial systems , which provides acceleration fields for liquid - vapor separation . With the
exception of the inertial system , all the methods mentioned previously have serious
drawbacks at their current state of development for propellant retention and control on a

2
vehicle such as the Centaur .

The purpose of this report is to define the problems of propellant management that
are encountered in a full - scale vehicle, and to present concepts and practical methods
for their solution as demonstrated by the flights of the Atlas - Centaur AC - 4 and AC - 8 ve
-

hicles . The vehicles were launched by General Dynamics / Convair under the direction of
the Lewis Research Center for the purpose of demonstrating launch vehicle capability and
of studying propellant management during the coasting period. The concepts and methods
used for propellant management and the results of the flights are discussed herein.

SYMBOLS

A area , ft? (m²)

a acceleration, ft/ sec? (m /sec )
D diameter , ft (m)
g a /gc
&c gravitational acceleration at Earth's surface, 32. 174 ft/sec2 (9.8 m/sec )
>

H height , ft (m)
h enthalpy , Btu / lbm ( J /kg)
M
mass, lbm (kg)
mass flow rate, lbm / sec (kg/ sec)
'

M magnification factor
P pump power , hp (W)
Q thermal energy , Btu (J)
9. heat flux, Btu /(hr)(ft?); (W /m2)
r radius, ft (m)
t time, sec
U internal energy, Btu / lbm (J/kg)
V velocity, ft/ sec ( m / sec)
X distance, ft (m)
X quality of mixture
α absorptance
E thermal emittance

3
 3
ν
specific volume, ftº/1bm (mº / kg)
o
surface tension, lbp/ ft (N/m)
T period , sec
р density, lb /ftº (kg/m3)
Subscripts :

b boiloff

e exit
-

f final, force
60

g gas

i initial

L centerline

l liquid
m mixture, mass
S solar absorbtance of tank

t thermal absorbtance of tank

V vented gas

PROPELLANT MANAGEMENT

Considerable work had been done in the area of near- zero- gravity or low -gravity
fluid mechanics in drop tower facilities, airplane flights , and small sounding rockets .
A summary of this work is presented in reference 1. The studies generally indicate that
the criteria for propellant retention and control is dependent on the Bond number, an ex
pression involving the ratio of acceleration force to capillary force . The minimum ac
celeration required is determined by the critical Bond number , a value that can be de
termined both analytically and experimentally . A plot of minimum vehicle acceleration
required as a function of tank diameter for ethyl alcohol is shown in figure 3. Since the
surface tension to density ratio of ethyl alcohol closely approximates that for liquid
hydrogen, figure 3 is also applicable for liquid hydrogen. For the Centaur vehicle , a
minimum vehicle acceleration of 10-6 g was considered necessary for propellant control

4
(fig. 3) . Propellant settling and retention through the application of an artificial gravi
tational field was the method chosen for Centaur.

AC - 4 Propellant Management Problems

The AC - 4 Centaur vehicle was launched to verify the adequacy of the Bond number
provided for propellant control. AC - 4 utilized a gravitational field created by two 2
pound ( 9 - N) thrust propellant settling engines pointing aft. The settling engines were
mounted on the aft end of the vehicle, as shown in figure 4 , with the thrust vector ap
plied through the expected vehicle center of gravity to minimize vehicle rotational torque.
These engines , acting continuously throughout the coast period, provided a gravitational
.4
field of 3x10 ^ g, which is two orders of magnitude greater than the predicted minimum
requirement based on figure 3. The thrust from these engines, less the vehicle drag,
provided a Bond number of about 240 for the hydrogen tank . This thrust appeared to be
more than sufficient to retain the propellants at the bottom of the tanks . On the AC - 4
flight, the 4 -pound ( 18- N) thrust level proved to be insufficient to control the propellant
disturbances created at main engine cutoff, resulting in liquid entrainment in the hydro
>

gen vent flow. The impingement of the liquid - vapor mixture on the forward bulkhead of
the vehicle in turn caused an unbalanced torque on the vehicle beyond the corrective ca
pabilities of the control system, and the vehicle tumbled out of control.
Failure of the AC - 4 flight to accomplish the coast phase portion of the mission
clearly illustrated that low - gravity propellant management requires consideration of ki
netic energies imparted to the liquid as well as the Bond number. The acceleration
level used on AC - 4 was not sufficient to suppress propellant disturbances.

AC -8 Propellant Management

Propellant management during the coast period requires the ability to control the
propellant in a position which allows gas venting and supports a main engine restart.
Successful management of the propellants during the coast phase depends upon the fol
lowing :
( 1) Identifying the source and determining the magnitude of energy imparted to the
residual propellant in the tank at main engine shutdown and during the coasting
period
(2) Providing means for dissipating the energy rapidly

5
 (3 ) Retention of liquid in a location to allow venting of boiloff gas and liquid feed to
the engine for restart
Analysis of AC - 4 data indicate that energy may be imparted to the propellants during the
boost phase, main engine cutoff, coast phase, or engine restart and may consist of any
of the following :
( 1) Pump backflow and return flow
(2 ) Pressurization gas flow impingement on liquid surfaces
( 3 ) Propellant sloshing
(4) Propellant convective currents
( 5) Unbalanced gas venting
( 6) Attitude control engine firings
(7) Structural relaxation upon thrust termination
These energies in the liquid hydrogen tank are shown pictorially in figure 5. Energy
dissipation can be accomplished with baffles and energy dissipators. Proper retention
of liquid to allow venting can be accomplished by a series of properly selected thrust
schedules to accomplish propellant suppression and retention during the coast period .
In the subsequent sections of the report, each kinetic energy source is treated sepa
rately. An analysis of each problem area, the problem disposition and a discussion of
the successful AC - 8 flight results are presented.

Energy Inputs to Propellant

The use of a pump to discharge cryogenic fluids from a space vehicle tank could in
troduce a large kinetic energy input to the fluid . The energy input results from pump
bleed flow requirements to permit the pump to operate at zero discharge flow without 1
cavitation . Also energy inputs can result from return flows designed to remove gases
trapped in the propellant ducts downstream of the pump. 1

Volute bleed line flow . - In the Centaur hydrogen tank , a boost pump is used to dis
charge hydrogen from the tank and provide Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH ) for the
main engine turbopumps. This pump is provided with a volute bleed line ( fig. 6) , which
bleeds fluid from the pump and allows it to operate at zero discharge flow without cavi 1
tation. The fluid is returned to the tank through a 2.0- inch- diameter (0.05 - m - diam )
line and is directed toward the forward end of the vehicle .
At engine shutdown, the power supply to the turbine drive is terminated, but the
pump and turbine continue to rotate because of their own inertia. During the period in
which pump speed decays from full speed to zero , fluid is continuously being returned to
the tank . On AC - 4 , the volute bleed flow at main engine cutoff impinged on the forward
bulkhead about 18 feet ( 5. 5 m) away. A portion of this liquid was trapped in the hydroger

6
tank vent exit, partially accounting for the liquid venting and subsequent vehicle tumbling
(ref. 4) .
Another effect associated with the liquid hydrogen boost pump volute bleed flow was
also noted on AC - 4 at the attempted second main engine start. Prior to main engine ig
nition, the boost pump was required to attain full speed in a zero discharge flow mode of
operation . The volute bleed sprayed into the forward end of the tank, resulting in cool
ing of the ullage gas and subsequent reduction in ullage pressure . This reduction in ul
lage pressure decreased the available net positive suction head below the minimum re
quired for satisfactory boost pump operation . The kinetic energy level of the liquid hy
drogen boost pump volute bleed flow on the AC - 4 flight was estimated to be 102 foot
pounds ( 139 J) (ref. 4) .
To reduce the kinetic energy and prevent liquid spray into the ullage , an energy dis
sipator was designed and installed on this line on the AC - 8 vehicle,
The design concept of the dissipator was to cause the fluid to undergo a constant en
thalpy process in order to convert the kinetic energy into heat. This process is shown
on a temperature - entropy diagram in figure 7. The line from A to B represents the
pressure increase (work done on the fluid) through the boost pump, while the line from
B to C to D represents the flow through the energy dissipator ending at some quality
mixture entering the tank . This two - phase mixture results in a lower effective density,
and when combined with the increased exit area of the energy dissipator, results in a
reduced exit velocity.
Design and installation details of the volute bleed energy dissipator are shown in
figures 8(a) to ( c) . The cross - sectional area of the 'dissipator was made elliptical be
cause of installation and clearance requirements . The perforated plates were installed
to dissipate the kinetic energy in a short distance and to maintain full flow in the dissi
pator. Data for head loss coefficients for orifices in constant area ducts were used in
selecting the perforated plates.. These data were applied by treating each hole in the
plate as an orifice unaffected by the neighboring orifices . For the final plate design of
63 percent open area, the loss coefficient was 0.21.
Coincident with the design and installation of the volute bleed energy dissipator, two
extensive ground test programs were initiated to reduce ( 1 ) the volute bleed flow rate to
a minimum acceptable value and (2 ) the liquid hydrogen boost pump speed in response to
decreased Centaur main engine turbopump net positive suction head requirements.
These two programs resulted in reducing the liquid hydrogen volute bleed flow rate dur
ing steady - state operation from 340 gallons per minute (2. 1x10-2 m3/sec)
m on AC-4 to
65 gallons per minute (4. 1x10-3 m3/sec) on AC- 8.
The calculated energy level of the total fluid discharged from the volute bleed line
energy dissipator after first main engine cutoff was 0.32 foot -pound ( 0.43 J) on AC - 8
compared to 102 foot -pounds ( 139 J) on AC - 4.

7
 Figure 9 compares the predicted spray heights with data from the AC - 8 flight. The
spray height was calculated for a flow rate of 65 gallons per minute (4. 1x10-3 m3/sec).
(See appendix B for assumptions and detailed calculations . ) The flight data were ob
tained from tank skin temperature sensors and in - tank liquid -vapor sensors . (Instru
mentation is discussed in appendix A. ) A good correlation exists between the predicted
spray height and flight data.
AC - 8 flight data verified the design concept of the volute bleed line energy dissi
pator. Figure 10 shows a comparison of AC - 4 and AC - 8 hydrogen tank ullage pressures
prior to main engine restart . On AC - 4 , the pressure dropped very rapidly from the
cooling effect of the volute bleed flow . On AC - 8, no pressure drop was experienced with
liquid hydrogen boost pump net positive suction head requirements being adequately met.
Recirculation lineflow. - In the Centaur vehicle , a liquid hydrogen duct recircula
-

tion line, also shown in figure 6 , is used to remove gas trapped at a high point in the
hydrogen feed duct prior to main engine start. This recirculation ensures that the fuel
ducts are chilled and filled with liquid , prior to main engine start.
Similar to the volute bleed line , the recirculation line also returns fluid to the tank
during the period after main engine cutoff when the pump speed is decaying from full
speed to zero. This also occurs prior to second main engine start while the pump is op
erating at zero discharge flow . The return line enters the tank at a point about 3 feet
(0.9 m) directly above the volute bleed line, which is also below the liquid level at first
main engine cutoff. The flow from this line is directed laterally across the tank . On
the AC - 4 flight, this flow probably also contributed to the decrease in ullage pressure at
the attempted second engine start. At this time, the liquid level had decreased to a
point below the recirculation line inlet to the tank , and the liquid flowed directly into the
ullage.
The energy level of the flow from the hydrogen duct recirculation line on the AC - 4
flight was estimated to be 35 foot -pounds (47 J) . For the AC - 8 flight, this level was re
duced to a calculated value of 0.45 foot- pound (0.61 J) by installation of the energy dis
sipator shown in figures 8(a) , (b) , and (d) . The design concept used here is the same as
that of the volute bleed energy dissipator . The fluid is caused to undergo a constant en
thalpy process and kinetic energy is converted to heat. The perforated plate hole sizes
were selected by again applying data for orifice loss coefficients in constant area ducts .
The operation of the energy dissipator on the AC - 8 flight was assumed to have been
satisfactory, since no liquid disturbances were noted by the instrumentation on the tank
wall opposite the return line.
Pressurization gas flow impingement on liquid surfaces . Many space vehicles re
quire gas pressurization to provide adequate net positive suction head for pump opera
tion. If introduced into the tank improperly, the pressurizing stream can create large
cavities in the liquid surface and cause splashing into the ullage (ref. 5) . Splashing

8
could cause a drop in tank pressure by cooling the ullage, resulting in a loss in net posi
tive suction head and possible boost pump cavitation prior to engine start . In the Centaur
propellant tanks, pressurization is accomplished by injection of helium into the ullage.
Calculations for AC - 4 hydrogen tank helium pressurization configuration ( see fig.
11(a)) showed that the kinetic energy of the incoming gas into the hydrogen tank was
8. 2x10 foot -pounds (11x103 J) . In order to preclude the transfer of this energy to the
liquid hydrogen in the form of splashing or sloshing , an energy dissipator was designed
and installed on AC - 8. The energy dissipator reduced the kinetic energy of the incoming
pressurization gas to about 15 foot - pounds (20 J) at the dissipator exit.
The installation and design of the energy dissipator is shown in figure 11(b) . The
dissipator was required to reduce the kinetic energy of the flow so that splashing of the
liquid surface would not occur. Two principal problem areas had to be overcome to
maintain full flow in the dissipator. The first was that the flow area increase had to be
in the order of 350 to 1 and had to be accomplished in a short distance . The second was
that sonic velocities could exist in the pressurization line leading to the dissipator . To
solve the first problem, perforated plates were used to dissipate the kinetic energy.
These were chosen by applying loss coefficients for orifices in constant area ducts. The
plates were formed to a 6- inch ( 0. 15 - m) spherical radius to provide structural strength.
The second problem was solved by providing a small plenum with a high - pressure drop
at the dissipator inlet. This partially relieved the area increase problem since an in
crease of about 10 to 1 was achieved here. Finally,, the cone and plates were designed to
have a small pressure loss (+1
~ psia or 7x10' N /m2) and an area increase of about34
to 1 .

Satisfactory operation of the energy dissipator on AC - 8 was evidenced by the tank

ullage pressure and internal tank instrumentation (see fig . 10) .
-

Propellant sloshing. - Propellant sloshing is defined as back and forth and rotational
wave motions of the free surface of a fluid in a partially filled tank . The wave height of
the sloshing mass depends upon tank geometry , propellant properties , depth of propel
lant in the tank , acceleration field, and the magnitude and extent of coupling of the ener
gies imparted to the fluid . The slosh wave height must be controlled in order to assure
that no liquid reaches the tank vent exits . The slosh damping , or control, must account
for the following :
( 1) The energy in the liquid due to sloshing initiated during the boost phase of the
flight
(2) The energy imparted to the liquid due to main engine cutoff transients
(3 ) The energy imparted to the liquid from attitude stabilization control pulses, un
balanced tank vent forces , and thermal convective currents
In the transition from high to low vehicle acceleration that occurs at main engine
cutoff, the amplitude of a residual slosh wave may be increased. The maximum in

9
crease , or magnification, of the slosh wave amplitude will occur when the transition
from high to low acceleration coincides with the time of maximum kinetic energy in the
fluid (maximum wave velocity) . The magnification factor M can be written

m High acceleration level 1/

2 ani 1/2
Low acceleration level 210

The AC - 4 magnification factor from main engine cutoff (2. 44 g's) to the coast phase
(3.0x10-4 g) was 90. Vehicle and propellant dynamic analyses have indicated that a
slosh wave amplitude of 0.4 foot ( 0. 12 m) prior to main engine cutoff represented the
worst expected liquid hydrogen disturbance . With the magnification factor of 90 for
AC - 4, this disturbance could result in a slosh wave amplitude of approximately 36 feet
( 11 m). A slosh wave of this magnitude would completely encircle the liquid hydrogen
tank since the top of the tank is about 14 feet (4 m) above the liquid level at first main
engine cutoff. The slosh wave would also persist for the entire coast period since the
slosh period at 3x10-4 g is approximately 120 seconds long and no means of slosh damp
ing exists in the liquid hydrogen tank other than the tank itself.
In order to control the propellant disturbances at first main engine cutoff and to re
tain the propellants at the rear of the tanks throughout the coast period, the following
approach for propellant control was established for the Centaur vehicle:
( 1) A propellant settling period, provided by a short- term high - level thrust, was
applied after first main engine cutoff to reduce the large magnification factor.
(2) A slosh baffle was added to the liquid hydrogen tank to dampen any slosh waves
developed during the high- level thrust period when the slosh period will be of short dur
ation.
(3 ) At the termination of the propellant settling period, a long- term low - level thrust
was applied to the vehicle large enough to retain the propellants at the rear of the tanks .
(4) Another short - term high- level thrust was applied to the vehicle prior to second
main engine start in order to suppress any disturbances associated with the second main
engine start sequence .
For AC - 8 , a propellant settling phase of 100 -pound (450- N) thrust, which resulted
in an acceleration field of 7.5* 10-3 g, was provided for 100 seconds after main engine
cutoff.. The 100 - pound (450- N) thrust level was chosen to reduce the slosh wave height
magnification factor to 18 at first main engine cutoff . This factor would result in a
1
maximum slosh wave height subsequent to main engine cutoff of less than 8 feet (2.4 m) ,
which is approximately 6 feet ( 1. 8 m) below the tank vent exits.
At the termination of the 100 - pound ( 450- N) thrust, a 6 - pound (27 - N) propellant re
tention thrust was applied during the coasting period until 46 seconds prior to second

10
main engine start. The 6 - pound (27 - N) thrust provided a vehicle acceleration of
4. 5x10-4 g and a vehicle Bond number of 360. The Bond number of 360 was shown by
scale -model testing (ref . 1 ) to be more than sufficient to retain the propellants at the
rear of the tank and to maintain a flat liquid - vapor interface.
Forty - six seconds prior to the second main engine start, the 100 -pound (450 - N)
thrust was again applied in order to suppress propellant disturbances (such as the volute
bleed flow and pressurization gas impingement) associated with the second main engine
start sequence. The complete AC - 8 coast phase thrust schedule is shown in figure 12 .
The location of the propellant suppression and retention engines is shown in figure 13 .
The magnification factor for the transition from the propellant settling phase to the
6 -pound (27 -N) thrust (4.5*10-4 -g) propellant retention phase is 4. If the 8 -foot (2.4-m)
-

slosh wave should persist through the propellant settling phase , a 32 -foot (9. 8 - m ) slosh
wave would result in the propellant retention phase. Hence , the slosh waves resulting
from the propellant disturbances that occur at main engine cutoff must be damped by a
slosh baffle during the propellant settling phase to assure that the slosh wave amplitude
is sufficiently small to prevent liquid from entering the vent exits at the transition to the
propellant retention phase. Once the transition to the propellant retention phase is ac
complished , the 6 - pound ( 27 - N) thrust will be sufficient to retain the liquid hydrogen at
the rear of the tank .
For the liquid oxygen tank, no slosh baffle was added since the internal hardware in
herent in the design of the Centaur vehicle served as effective baffles to dampen out pro
pellant disturbances. Experimental investigation performed on a scale -model Centaur
liquid oxygen tank verified that adequate damping was provided by the internal structures
(ref . 6 ) .
The slosh baffle configuration chosen for the Centaur liquid hydrogen tank is shown
in figure 14. The baffle consists of a channeled ring, 12 vertical antiswirl baffles, and
3 bracket supports. The baffle was located just below the probable liquid level at first
main engine cutoff. Prior to the launch of AC - 8 , slosh tests were performed in a scale
>

model Centaur liquid hydrogen tank (ref. 7 ) . Scaling parameters used in the test were
.

chosen so that the ratio of the gravitational to inertial forces (Froude number ) was the
same as for the full - size Centaur. The damping afforded by the slosh baffle was shown
to be more than an order of magnitude greater than the damping afforded by an unbaffled
tank configuration . A comparison between the baffle damping and the damping provided
by the unbaffled tank on the maximum slosh wave height is shown in figure 15. The two
curves for the baffled tank represent the maximum and minimum damping limits which
are dependent on the liquid level at first main engine cutoff. As shown by these curves
the maximum slosh wave amplitude subsequent to the termination of the propellant set
tling phase is about 3 feet (0.9 m ) for the baffled tank (based on scale -model testing,
ref. 7) . This height compares with a maximum slosh wave of about 27 feet (8 m ) (wave

11
height at propellant settling phase termination multiplied by the magnification factor of 4)
for the unbaffled tank configuration . For AC - 8 , the effectiveness of the slosh baffle in
damping propellant disturbances is indicated by the decreasing wave height values.
In AC - 8 , the slosh baffle , together with the 100 -pound (450 - N) propellant settling
thrust , significantly reduced the liquid hydrogen disturbances . The instrumentation used
in evaluating the propellant behavior during coast is discussed in appendix A. At first
main engine cutoff, the liquid hydrogen tank was filled to a depth ratio ( liquid depth / tank
diameter ) of approximately 0.67 (ref . 8 ) . The liquid level was approximately 4 inches
(0.1 m ) above the slosh baffle . The location of the liquid level with respect to the slosh
baffle and the level of the sensing elements of the liquid - vapor sensors is shown in fig
ure 16. As indicated by this schematic , the liquid hydrogen can undergo oscillations of
approximately 1 foot (0.3 m ) without the liquid surface activating the level sensing in
strumentation . On AC - 8 , the disturbances and reduction in acceleration that occurred
at the termination of the propellant settling phase ( 100 -pound (450 -N) thrust termination )
did not result in a slosh wave of sufficient magnitude to activate the liquid level sensing
instrumentation .
From the 100 -pound (450 - N) thrust termination until 817 seconds into the propellant
retention phase , the two 3 -pound ( 13 -N) thrust settling engines provided an acceleration
of 4.5x10-4 g to maintain the liquid hydrogen at the rear of the tank. During this period
no liquid motion was indicated by the level sensing instrumentation . At 817 seconds into
the propellant retention phase, two of the settling engines no longer responded to the
firing commands and failed to provide the proper settling thrust . In order to maintain
vehicle attitude , the 50 -pound (220 - N) thrust engines were again commanded to fire in
termittently by the autopilot. The reduction in acceleration resulting from the settling
engine failure, together with the disturbances of the 50 - pound (220 - N) thrust engine fir
ings, created a propellant sloshing condition which persisted throughout the remainder
of the coast . During the remainder of the propellant retention phase, four distinct slosh
waves were detected by the liquid - vapor sensors . A discussion and analysis of the four
slosh waves is presented in appendix C. The wave profiles of the four slosh waves, at
the times of various liquid - vapor sensor activations, are presented in figures 31 to 34 .
The analysis indicates that the slosh baffle was primarily responsible for preventing the
slosh wave amplitudes from reaching the tank vent exits and further demonstrates the ef
fectiveness of the AC - 8 slosh baffle in controlling propellant sloshing disturbances.
Other energy sources . - In the general treatment of propellant management, some
sources of energy cannot be treated directly in the same manner as the volute bleed flow
energy or the pressurization gas energy . These energies must be evaluated and , if
found significant, an attempt made to dissipate the kinetic energy . This section deals
with three energy sources evaluated in the Centaur vehicle .
Intermediate bulkhead springback: During powered flight, the intermediate bulkhead

12
is deflected by propellant loads in response to the increasing acceleration field in a
manner analogous to a spring being compressed . The deflection stores strain energy in
the bulkhead . Upon thrust termination at main engine cutoff, the structure returns to its
undeflected position , transmitting the stored energy to the liquid. The energy level on
AC -4 was calculated to be 0. 12 foot - pound (0.17 J) (ref . 4) , which was less than a tenth
of a percent of the total kinetic energy input to the fluid on AC - 4 .
Propellant line surge : During main engine firing, propellant is transported to the
engines through the feed lines at a high velocity and at a pressure level higher than the
tank pressures . At main engine cutoff, the propellant flow to the engines is terminated
by rapid closing of the main engine inlet valves. The fluid momentum causes the propel
lant flow to reverse direction and surge back into the tank . The energy level from pump
back flow on AC - 4 was calculated from ground test data (ref . 4) to be 35 foot - pounds
(47 J) which was less than 17 percent of the total kinetic energy input to the fluid on
AC - 4 .
Thermal convective current: During powered flight, thermal convective currents
are established in the boundary layer of the fluid because of absorption of thermal energy .
At main engine cutoff, the vehicle acceleration is suddenly reduced . Calculations show
that the boundary layer would continue to move forward in the tank . The energy level on
AC - 4 was calculated to be 1.1 foot - pounds ( 1.5 J) (ref . 4) , which was less than 1 percent
of the total kinetic energy input to the fluid on AC - 4 .
Since the energies involved from the intermediate bulkhead springback, propellant
line surge, and thermal convective currents are small and difficult to treat directly, the
slosh baffle and thrust schedule discussed previously were designed to dissipate the sum
of these three propellant energies in addition to the energy from slosh caused by exter
nal vehicle forces .
An examination of AC - 8 flight data verified the design concept of the baffle, thrust
schedule , and energy dissipators. The disturbances induced at first main engine cutoff
were quickly dissipated by the slosh baffle . The height of the volute spray was kept well
below the vent exits such that venting of the hydrogen tank was satisfactorily accom
plished . The tank pressure in the hydrogen tank stayed near the predicted values, sup
plying the net positive suction head required by the boost pump for second main engine
start .

Propellant Heating and Tank Venting

In addition to an accounting of the kinetic energy, the proper management of a cryo

genic fluid in a coast pha se also requires an accounting of the thermal energy imparted
to the fluid . The thermal energy absorbed by a cryogenic fluid will result in liquid boil

13
off and a subsequent rise in tank pressure .
Thermal energy from the space environment consists of solar energy, reflected
solar energy from the Earth -atmosphere system (albedo ), long wavelength energy radi
ated from the Earth -atmosphere system by virtue of its temperature (Earth -thermal ra
diation ), and free molecular aerodynamic heating . In order to establish the adequacy of
>

preflight thermal analyses of the amount of boiloff and tank pressure rise expected to
occur during coast, a liquid hydrogen tank internal and external thermal survey was
performed on AC - 8 .
AC - 8 thermal energy input. - The external space energy fluxes (solar, a lbedo,
Earth thermal , and aerodynamic ) were determined by banks of selectively absorbing
calorimeters . Five calorimeter banks were employed on AC - 8 . The locations of these
calorimeter banks, with respect to the Centaur liquid hydrogen tank, are shown in fig
ure 17. A discussion of the calorimeters , together with the measurements of the indi
vidual energy fluxes, is presented in appendix D.
The thermal heat flux to the Centaur liquid hydrogen tank during the coast phase is
plotted in figures 18 and 19. The arithmetic average heat flux is represented by the
da shed line. The curves reflect the vehicle motion experienced during coast. The
coa st phase of AC - 8 was completed in the Earth's shadow ( solar radiation and Earth
albedo were not present) ; hence , the heat fluxes shown in figures 18 and 19 are repre
sentative of minimum space heating for coast flight at this altitude .
The thermal history of the interior of the Centaur liquid hydrogen tank was provided
by a system of tank temperature sensors , located as shown in figure 20. The operation
#
and design of these sensors are discussed in appendix A. The tank ullage temperature
profiles indicated by the sensors are presented in figure 21. As indicated by these pro
files , the heating of the liquid hydrogen tank ullage resulted in the formation of strati
fied layers. These layers were established by the forward movement of mass and heat
in a convective layer on the inner surface of the tank skin . No satisfactory analytical
prediction of their formation has been established . On AC - 8,, temperatures varied from
40° R (22° K) at the liquid surface to 140° R (78° K) at the forward end of the tank. The 1

temperature sensors showed that there were no significant radial and circumferential 1
temperature gradients .
1
To complete the thermal survey of the liquid hydrogen tank on the AC - 8 mission,
the liquid hydrogen tank skin, was instrumented with 45 external tank skin temperature
sensors . The sensors were symmetrically located on the tank as shown in figure 22 .
The skin temperatures enabled the determination of the amount of heat that is reradiated
from the tank .

The thermal energy absorbed by the cryogenic fluid can be determined when the
tank skin temperatures, the liquid and gas temperatures , and the external heat fluxes
are known. The heating rates to the Centaur liquid hydrogen, and to the tank ullage,

14
are presented in figures 23 and 24. On the basis of these heating rates , the amount of
liquid hydrogen boiloff, the tank ullage temperature increase , and the tank pressure rise
rate were calculated for the AC - 8 mission ( appendix D) .
Propellant tank vent system . - In order to maintain the tank pressures within struc
tural limits , gaseous hydrogen must be discharged from the tank.
The AC -4 coast phase hydrogen vent system is shown in figure 25. The system con
sisted of a standpipe, venturi flow meter , two parallel vent valves, and a plenum with
opposing exits in the vehicle pitch plane. Gaseous hydrogen flow from the tank through
the standpipe was measured by the venturi . Hydrogen tank pressure was regulated by
the lower range vent valve (20.5 psia or 1.4x100 N/m2)) during coast , with the upper
range valve (26.5 psia or 1. 8x105 N/m2) acting only in the safety relief mode. During
boost, vent flow was directed through a vent stack located on the nose fairing as shown .
At nose fairing jettison , the ducting from the plenum to the vent stack and a cap on the
opposing side were disconnected , allowing venting through the plenum exits . With nor
mal gaseous flow the unbalanced torques produced by gas impingement on the forward end
of the tank were within the vehicle attitude control capability. However , the propellant
disturbances at main engine cutoff resulted in the entrainment of liquid hydrogen which
impinged on the vehicle and produced a torque in excess of the control capability of the
attitude control engines. As a result, the vehicle tumbled causing further liquid venting.
Venting should therefore be accomplished in either a nonpropulsive (thrust cancelling)
mode or with the vent gases directed symmetrically in the aft direction . The nonpropul
sive method has been chosen for Centaur.
AC - 8 coast phase vent system . - In conjunction with the installation of the energy
dissipators and baffle in the AC - 8 hydrogen tank , a new balanced thrust vent system was
designed and installed . The AC - 8 vent system design is shown in figure 26. The pri
mary design objective of the AC - 8 vent system was to provide nonpropulsive , nonim
pingement gas venting during the coast phase .
The liquid hydrogen boiloff gases were vented out of the top of the tank through the
valves and into a torus assembly. The flow was then discharged radially in opposite di
rections . Convergent nozzles were installed at the duct exits , which were located as far
outboard as practical, to provide flow limiting control and to act as a flowmetering de
vice . A deflector plate was inserted below the duct inlet to prevent liquid from sloshing
directly into the vent line. The torus was designed symmetrically to minimize any un
equal flow splitting at the vent valve discharge and to provide pressure equalization at
the exit nozzles for thrust cancellation .
Balanced thrust performance of the vent system was verified by extensive ground
testing. For maximum steady - state gas venting conditions of 0.6 pound per second
(0.3 kg / sec) encountered in Centaur, the thrust unbalance was 0.15 pound (0.67 N) . This
was well within the attitude control capability.

15
 Vent system thrust unbalance during the coast phase depends upon the amount of the
liquid hydrogen boiloff . The AC - 8 coast phase took place in the Earth's shadow and re
sulted in a very low heat flux to the liquid hydrogen tank . The vehicle disturbances re
sulting from the venting cycles were very minor requiring no detectable attitude control
correction .

The measured vent flow indicated that a total of approximately 5.2 pounds (2.4 kg)
of gaseous hydrogen was vented during the coast period . A calculation of the vented gas
quantity from the absorbed thermal energy yields 5.1 pounds (2.3 kg) of gaseous hydro
gen as the vented quantity (appendix D ) . The calculated liquid hydrogen tank pressure
rise rate of 0.46 pound per square inch per minute (53 N /(m2)(sec)) compared favorably
with the actual pressure rise rate of 0.48 pound per square inch per minute
(55 N/(m2) (sec)) . These comparisons indicated that a satisfactory accounting of the
thermal energies had been accomplished for the Centaur vehicle .

CONCLUSIONS

For lunar and deep space missions , a versatile space vehicle should posses the ca
pability to restart the engines after a coasting period in space . In order to fulfill this
requirement for an orbiting space vehicle , the propellant behavior must be defined and
the method of control must be established . The flight of the fourth Atlas - Centaur (AC -4)
vehicle indicated that the propellant behavior in a full - scale space vehicle cannot be
properly defined solely by the consideration of the Bond number . The definition of the
propellant behavior requires a complete accounting of the energy inputs to the fluid as
well . For a cryogenic fluid in a space vehicle , the energy inputs may consist of one or
more of the following sources:
(1 ) Pump backflow and return flow
(2 ) Pressurization gas flow impingement on the liquid surface
( 3) Residual propellant sloshing
(4 ) Propellant convective currents
(5 ) Unbalanced thrust from gas venting
(6 ) Attitude control engine firings
(7) Structural relaxation at the time of thrust termination
All of these energy sources are present in the Centaur vehicle .
Various methods, developed for the control of the kinetic energy inputs , were em
ployed during the flight of the eighth Atlas - Centaur vehicle . As a result of the flight ,
the following conclusions concerning the management of a cryogenic fluid in a full - scale
orbiting space vehicle were obtained :
1. The kinetic energy imparted to the propellant by the pump volute bleed flow , duct

16
recirculation line return flow , and the tank pressurization gas flow were reduced to ac
ceptable levels by employing energy dissipation devices .
2. The propellant disturbances that occur at thrust termination were greatly re
duced by a controlled schedule of thrust levels when combined with the addition of a
slosh baffle in the tank .
3. The vent system should be designed to minimize venting disturbance torques on
the vehicle . The propellants in the tanks must also be properly positioned to assure
that liquid is not vented overboard . Venting of liquid may not only deplete the propel
lants but it may also produce large unbalanced torques on the vehicle .
The flight of the eighth Atlas - Centaur vehicle clearly demonstrated a method for
control of a cryogenic fluid in a full -scale orbiting space vehicle. The method of propel
lant control established for the Atlas - Centaur is applicable to any space vehicle that en
tails the short - term storage and use of cryogenic propellants .

Lewis Research Center ,

National Aeronautics and Space Administration ,
Cleveland , Ohio, September 7 , 1967 ,
891-01-00-06-22 .

17
 APPENDIX A

INSTRUMENTATION FOR PROPELLANT MANAGEMENT

The eighth Atlas - Centaur (AC - 8) vehicle was extensively instrumented to observe
propellant behavior during the coast period. The instrumentation is enumerated as fol
lows:
( 1) Thirty -two liquid - vapor sensors to detect liquid slosh motion and other liquid
disturbances in the hydrogen tank
( 2) Sixteen temperature sensors to determine the temperature distribution in the hy
drogen tank ullage
( 3) Forty - five temperature sensors to measure the hydrogen tank skin temperature
(The temperature sensors also act as detectors of liquid slosh motion at the
tank wall . )
(4) An absolute pressure transducer and a vent gas temperature sensor in each of
the two balanced vent nozzle inlets to allow calculation of the quantity of hydro
gen vented during the coast phase ; also, a differential pressure transducer to
measure any pressure difference across the nozzle inlets to determine any
thrust unbalance due to unequal pressures at the nozzle inlets
( 5) Five calorimeters in the forward area of the vehicle to measure incident heat
flux to the vehicle during the coast period
(6) Two low -gravity accelerometers to measure vehicle axial accelerations as a re
sult of the propellant settling and retention thrusts ( Accelerations perpendicular
to the vehicle axes were also measured to detect vehicle disturbances in these
directions . )
( 7) Four pressure transducers to monitor both liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen
tank pressure histories throughout the coast period
The liquid oxygen tank was instrumented with 4 tank skin temperature sensors and 4 ul
lage temperature sensors . Instrumentation in the oxygen tank was less extensive be
cause the area of primary concern was the hydrogen tank .

Liquid-Vapor Sensors

The liquid - vapor sensors were distributed in the hydrogen tank as shown in figure 20.
The liquid - vapor sensor, shown in figure 27 , consists of a conical tip, in which a germa
nium temperature sensing element is located, and a cylindrical body. Within the cylin
drical body is housed a heater (0.3 W) , a current limiting resistor , and associated wir
ing and insulation . When the sensor is immersed in liquid , heat generated by the heater
18
is conducted away from the tip by the liquid, causing the resistance sensor to indicate
approximate liquid temperature. The signal produced by this condition is interpreted as
the presence of liquid . When the sensor is in vapor, heat generated by the sensor is not
conducted away as rapidly , thereby causing the temperature of the sensing tip to rise .
The increase in temperature causes a decrease in the germanium sensor resistance
which is interpreted as the absence of liquid .
The liquid -vapor sensor used in AC - 8 was specifically designed for a wetting liquid
(contact angle less than 90 %) in a low - gravity environment. Because of its extremely
low surface tension , liquid hydrogen possesses a zero -degree contact angle on all known
solid surfaces. In a low -gravity field , liquid hydrogen will tend to spread over solid
surfaces to satisfy the condition of minimum total energy . Sensors designed for normal
gravity operation are generally inoperative in low - gravity environment because they al
ways tend to indicate liquid. Studies and tests conducted at the Lewis Research Center
have shown that surface tension will cause a wetting liquid on a conical surface to move
in the direction of increasing radius (i.e. , the base of the cone) in a low - gravity environ
ment (ref . 9) . The liquid motion due to surface tension is utilized in the liquid - vapor
sensor to uncover the sensing element located at the conical tip .
The response characteristics of a typical liquid -vapor sensor from the AC - 8 flight
as compared with ground test response characteristics are shown in figure 28. The
ground test characteristics were obtained from tests performed by the National Bureau
of Standards at Boulder , Colorado . The flight data compared favorably with the ground
test results . The time response of the sensors is adequate for the application for which
they are intended . During the coast phase , the slosh period in the AC - 8 hydrogen tank
was about 23 seconds for the propellant settling period and 100 seconds for the propel
lant retention period.

Ullage Temperature Sensors

The ullage temperature sensor assembly shown in figure 29 consists basically of a

conical germanium or platinum temperature sensor and an insulating body which , in this
instance , is conically shaped . This sensor is a resistance -type sensor with either plat
inum or germanium as the sensing element. The germanium sensor has a temperature
range of 40° to 120° R (22 ° to 67° K ), while the platinum sensor has a temperature
>

range of 40° to 190° R (22 ° to 1060 K ). The heater assembly used in the liquid-vapor
sensor is not incorporated into the temperature sensor . As with the liquid - vapor sen
sors , the sensing element is located near the conical tip in order to utilize the effect of
surface tension to clear the surface of any residual liquid when the sensor is in vapor
environment.

19
 The location of the temperature sensors is shown in figure 20. The sensors are
generally located above the expected liquid level during the coast period in order to mea
sure the radial and axial temperature distribution in the ullage. The temperature sen
sors also serve as liquid detectors by showing a sudden drop in temperature when liquid
is splashed into the warm ullage.
A comparison of sensor response time between flight data and ground test results
performed by the National Bureau of Standards is shown in figure 30. The flight data
agreed well with the ground test curve .

Tank Skin Temperature Sensors

The location of the external tank skin temperature sensors on the hydrogen tank is
shown in figure 22. They were resistance - type sensors used extensively in industry .
As with the internally mounted temperature sensors , the tank skin sensors were either
of germanium or platinum element, depending on the range of temperature measured .
The tank skin sensors also serve to detect the presence of liquid by showing a sud
den temperature drop as the warm tank skin comes in contact with the liquid .

Low -Gravity Accelerometer

A low - gravity accelerometer capable of measurement down to the order of 10-5 8

was used to measure the vehicle acceleration during the coast phase of the flight. The
accelerometer is a single - axis , pendulum , force rebalance instrument. The instrument,
which consists primarily of a pendulum supported by two thin springs, is shown sche
matically in the following sketch :

Support springs
1

1000 boo Mounting

1000 poo base
1000 Proof mass poo
1000 boo
(pendulum )
boo
Capacitance 1000 poo
Magnetic field
rings

Force
coils Sensing
axis

20
The pendulum is located in a magnetic field developed by a permanent magnet. The
main mass of the pendulum contains the force coil and the center plate of a capacitance
pickoff. The pickoff operates in a bridge circuit which provides an output proportional
to the pendulum deflection . The bridge output is amplified, detected , and applied as d -c
current to the force coil ( located on the pendulum in the field of the permanent magnet)
to electrically constrain the pendulum . Through the servo action , the force resulting
from the current in the force coil balances the acceleration forces acting on the pendu
lum . The force coil current is then proportional to the applied acceleration . The cur

rent is measured by inserting a precision resistor in series with the force coil and mea
suring the voltage developed across the resistor .
The accelerometer was generally successful in measuring acceleration levels as
low as 2.2x10-4 g experienced by the AC -8 vehicle .

21
 APPENDIX B

VOLUTE BLEED ENERGY DISSIPATOR CALCULATIONS FOR AC -8

To determine the height to which the return flow from the liquid hydrogen boost
pump volute bleed would spray into the tank at first engine shutdown, it was necessary to
determine the velocity of the liquid stream as it left the liquid surface . Interaction be
tween the volute bleed spray and the recirculation line flow was neglected . From refer
ence 11 , the velocity at any point in a submerged jet can be calculated from the following
empirical equation :

‫اد‬XIA
‫د‬
= 6.4 (B1)
)
where

Ve velocity of stream as it breaks liquid surface

Ve velocity of stream at dissipator exit

x distance from dissipator exit to liquid surface
D diameter of circle with area equivalent to dissipator elliptical exit

After the liquid hydrogen leaves the boost pump , it is returned to the pressure in the
tank. Therefore , the energy acquired from the pump is dissipated by vaporization of a
portion of the liquid flow . If it is assumed that all power from the pump is converted
into heat, then the heat generated per pound of liquid hydrogen is
Alis

Heat P
(B2 )
Pound fluid M

where

P pump power
Ń volute bleed mass flow rate
The amount of fluid vaporized then is

P
X = (B3)
Mh

22
where

h heat of vaporization of hydrogen

X quality or percent vaporized
The specific volume of a two -phase mixture can be calculated from

( B4 )
m = x (vg -ve) + ve
where

V specific volume of mixture

m

g
specific volume of saturated gas

ve specific volume of saturated liquid

Substituting x from equation (B3) into equation (B4) gives

Plug - ves (B5 )

m
Mh
+ ve

Since the density of the two - phase mixture pom is

1
р =
(B6 )
m um

the velocity of the stream at the dissipator exit V e can be calculated from the continuity
equation as follows :

ve Ñ 4M
=

(B7 )
11

е
PM A 2
me πρ D
m

Substituting equation (B7) into equation (B1) yields

4M 25.6 M
V.
ve = 6.4
=
(B8 )
l

100) m
D TIP mDX

Equations (B6) and (B8) now enable calculation of the velocity of the stream as it breaks
the liquid surface VVe For AC -88 , the values are as follows :

23
Pump power , P , hp (w ) .. 11 (8.2x103)
Mass flow rate , À , lbmm
/sec (kg / sec) ..0.6 (0.3)
Enthalpy , h ,, Btu/1bm
lb (W/kg) . 194 (4.5x105)
3 3
Specific volume of saturated gas , v g ' ftº / lb m (m °/kg) 7.6 (0.48)
3 3
Specific volume of saturated liquid , ver ftº/1bm m
(m °/kg) 0.24 (0.15)
Diameter , D , ft (m ) . 0.56 (0.17)
Distance , X , ft ( m ) .
51.5 ( 1. 31 )

Substitution of these values into equations (B6) and (B8) , in proper units, yields a value
for Ve of 1.5 feet per second . The height of a particle in the stream after it leaves the
liquid surface can be calculated from the equations of rectilinear motion and is shown in
figure 9 .

24
 APPENDIX C

AC - 8 PROPELLANT SLOSHING DURING THE PROPELLANT RETENTION PHASE

Irregularities in two of the four 3 -pound ( 13 - N) thrust propellant retention engines

were noted at 917 seconds after first main engine cutoff (ref . 8) . These engines failed
to respond to the firing commands . Analysis of the flight data indicated that the en
gine failure resulted from a hydrogen peroxide propellant leak. As a result of this
failure , the 50 -pound (220 - N ) thrust engines were activated in an attitude control mode .
At 955 seconds after first main engine cutoff , a liquid vapor sensor , ( 1 foot (0.3 m )
above the liquid surface) was activated , indicating the presence of a slosh wave . This
slosh wave continued throughout the remainder of the coast period .
From 917 seconds to 1449 seconds into the propellant retention phase , four cyclic
slosh waves were noted . These four slosh waves are presented in figures 31 to 34. The
location of the liquid - vapor sensing instrumentation is presented in each figure to aid in
correlating the actual data with the sloshing waves shown . Actual sensor activation data
are presented in figure 35 , together with an aft view schematic of the instrumentation
arms at a liquid depth ratio of 0.75 and 0.50 . The 50 -pound (220 -N) thrust engine firing
times are also presented in this figure.
The first slosh wave , shown in figure 31 , persisted for approximately 143 seconds .
The probable wave profiles at the times of various liquid - vapor sensor activations are
also presented in this figure. At 995 seconds after first main engine cutoff, the two re
maining 3 - pound ( 13 - N ) thrust retention engines were commanded to fire in order to pro
vide attitude control. These engines fired sporadically for the remainder of the coast ,
resulting in alternating periods of 3 -pound (13 -N) thrust and the thrust provided by at
mospheric drag. The acceleration levels experienced by the vehicle during the propel
lant retention phase are presented in figure 36. The average acceleration level was de
termined by the equation

a dt
a(average) = ? S
The average acceleration level during the first slosh wave was 7.4x10-5 g. The average
wave velocity (distance between sensors divided by the time between sensor activations)
of the first slosh wave was about 0. 3 inch per second (8x10-3 m/sec) .
The second slosh wave began at about 1063 seconds after first main engine cutoff
and persisted for approximately 129 seconds . The probable wave profiles at three
liquid -vapor sensor activations are shown in figure 32. Both sensors at the 0.75 depth
ratio quadrant IV arm were activated at nearly the same time , indicating a relatively

25
flat wave profile in this quadrant . The average vehicle acceleration level during the
second slosh wave was about 1. 1x10-4 g. The average wave velocity was about 0.5 inch
per second ( 1x10-2 m /sec ) .
The third slosh wave began at about 1193 seconds after first main engine cutoff and
persisted for approximately 122 seconds . The probable wave profiles at the two liquid
vapor sensor activation times are shown in figure 33. The inner sensor on the 0.75
depth ratio quadrant IV arm did not activate , indicating that the amplitude of the third
slosh wave was not as large as the amplitude of the two previous slosh waves . The
average acceleration level for the third slosh wave was about 8.9x10-5 g. The average
wave velocity was approximately 0.3 inch per second (8x10-3 m/sec) .
The fourth slosh wave began at about 1316 seconds after first main engine cutoff and
persisted for approximately 133 seconds . The probable wave profiles at the times of
three liquid - vapor sensor activations are shown in figure 34. The sensor on the longi
tudinal axis at the 0.538 depth ratio was activated briefly resulting in the break in slope
shown for the wave profile at 1300 seconds into the propellant retention phase . The av
erage acceleration level during the fourth slosh wave was about 1.2x10-4 g. The aver
age wave velocity was about 0.4 inch per second (1x10-2 m/sec)
m .
The pertinent aspects of the four slosh waves are presented in the following table

Slosh Actual Average wave Average Calculated Bond

wave slosh velocity acceleration slosh number ,
period , level , period , pr’a/ o
sec
in./sec m / sec sec
g

1 143 0.3 8x10-3 7. 4x10-5 240 64

2 129 5 1x10-2 1. 1x 10-4 193 99
3 122 .3 8x 10 8.9x10-5 219 76
4 133 4 1x 10-2 1. 2x 10-4 186 103

The calculated slosh period is determined from the equation

1/2
T = 1.66
6-(3)
a

(ref . 7) , which is valid for Bond numbers greater than 50. The difference between the
actual and the calculated slosh period is attributed to the slosh waves being initiated and
continuously modified by the continued application of attitude control pulses .
The quadrant I and IV 50 -pound (220 -N) thrust engines fired 13 times each during
the propellant retention phase . Analysis of the data presented shows that there is cor
relation of these firing times to the four sloshing waves . It appears likely that the 50
pound (220 -N) thrust engine firings are responsible for initiating and sustaining the
26
sloshing condition , while correcting the attitude errors due to the peroxide leak . If it is
assumed that the 50 -pound (220 - N) thrust engines initiated the sloshing, then an analysis
can be made to determine if sufficient energy could be imparted to the fluid that would
create slosh waves of the magnitudes observed in flight .
From the scale - model Centaur liquid hydrogen tank sloshing tests , mentioned pre
viously , the quantities necessary to describe the sloshing as a pendulum analogy were
obtained (ref . 7) . These quantities were used to determine the energy imparted to the
sloshing mass from the firing of the 50 -pound (220 -N) thrust engines . The firings im
parted a lateral excitation of about 0. 12 inch ( 3. 1x10-3 m ) to the sloshing mass , result -
ing in a kinetic energy input of 12 foot -pounds ( 14 J) . Assuming that all of the energy
went into producing liquid motion , the kinetic energy would produce a wave velocity of
2 inches per second (0.05 m /sec ) . The actual wave velocities varied from 0.3 to 0.5
inch per second (8x10-3 to 1x10-2 m/sec) . The kinetic energy input to the liquid due to
the 50 -pound (220 -N) thrust engine firings is more than sufficient to create the slosh
wave magnitudes that occurred after the propellant retention engine failure . The major
ity of the difference between the calculated and the actual wave velocities can be attri
buted to the removal of kinetic energy from the liquid by the slosh baffle . The difference
also indicates that the slosh baffle prevented the slosh wave from reaching the forward
end of the liquid hydrogen tank.
From the analysis of the propellant retention phase sloshing that occurred on AC - 8 ,
the following conclusions were made :
(1 ) The sloshing condition was initiated by the 50 -pound (220 - N) thrust engine firings .
These firings were necessitated by the failure of two propellant retention engines .
(2 ) Four , major slosh waves occurred during the propellant retention phase .
( 3) The slosh waves were sustained and the wave shapes were modified by the 50
pound (220 -N) thrust engine firings.
(4 ) The slosh baffle prevented a large wave velocity and a corresponding large wave
amplitude which would have resulted in the slosh wave reaching the top of the liquid hy S

drogen tank .

27
 APPENDIX D

CALCULATION OF CENTAUR LIQUID HYDROGEN TANK PRESSURE RISE

RATE AND VENTED QUANTITY

In order to establish the heat inputs to the Centaur liquid hydrogen tank necessary
for the determination of the boiloff rates and tank pressure rise rates, five calorimeter
banks were employed on AC - 8 as shown in figure 17. Each calorimeter bank consisted
of three asymptotic calorimeters . Each asymptotic calorimeter consists basically of a
thin Constantan foil suspended over a cavity in a copper heat sink . The foil is thermally
and electrically attached to the heat sink at the periphery of the cavity . A differential
thermocouple is formed with the hot and cold junctions at the foil center and periphery ,
respectively . The temperature difference between the center and periphery of the foil
is directly proportional to the heat flux over the surface of the foil.
The surface finish of each of the three asymptotic calorimeters was predominantly
sensitive to thermal radiation in a different selected spectral region . The three surface
finishes were black colloidal graphite , gold electroplate , and white enamel . The ab
sorptance and emittance of each surface were established by ground tests as a function
of the calorimeter temperature .
The calorimeter output was calibrated to the heat flux by ground tests in solar radi
ation simulators at both General Dynamics/ Convair and the Lewis Research Center . By
having three calorimeters with three different surfaces and , hence , three different out
puts , three equations in four unknowns may be written at any given time in the coast
phase for each calorimeter bank . Each equation will be of the following form :

yields
Calorimeter signal net heat flux (qnet)

9net as(9solar + Yalbedo) + Qt4thermal + qaero - Eqreradiation (D1 )

The last term , the reradiation correction , was incorporated into the calorimeter
calibration . A fourth equation results from knowledge of the vehicle orientation where
at least one of the heat fluxes will be zero . The resulting series of four equations are
then solved simultaneously to determine the four individual heat fluxes .
Since the AC - 8 mission was completed in the Earth's shadow , only the Earth thermal
radiation and aerodynamic heat fluxes were of significance. The Earth thermal radiation
fluxes recorded by the four outward facing calorimeter banks during the coast period are
presented in figure 37. The heat fluxes, as shown , provide a graphical representation
28
of the Centaur vehicle roll during coast . As the surface of a given calorimeter bank is
rotated to face the Earth , the Earth thermal radiation recorded by the calorimeter bank
increases from zero to a maximum of about 80 Btu per hour per square foot (250 WW/mm ) .
The maximum predicted Earth thermal heat flux was 76 Btu per hour per square foot
m ).
(240 W/m2
The free molecular aerodynamic heat flux recorded by the outward facing calorim
eter bank varied from zero to 10 Btu per hour per square foot (315 W/m2)
m with an aver
age aerodynamic heat flux of 4.4 Btu per hour per square foot (13.9 W/m2 ) .
At the forward end of the Centaur liquid hydrogen tank, the aerodynamic heat flux
provided the major source of space environmental heating. The free molecular aerody -
namic heat flux , as well as the thermal radiation heat flux, recorded by the forward
facing calorimeter bank are presented in figure 38. The maximum recorded aerodynamic
heat flux was 57 Btu per hour per square foot ( 180 W/m2) . The predicted aerodynamic
heat flux for the Centaur vehicle at its coast phase altitude of 90 nautical miles
(1.67x105 m) was 66 Btu per hour per square foot (208 W/m? ) . The free molecular
aerodynamic heat flux decrease reflects the Centaur vehicle increase in altitude from
90 to 108 nautical miles during the coast period. The Earth thermal heat flux decrease
reflects the roll of the Centaur vehicle during the coast period .
Once the individual space energy fluxes are known , the environmental heat flux for a
given area of the Centaur liquid hydrogen tank in line with the calorimeters can be de
termined . The following equation may be used to define the heat flux to the stainless
steel Centaur liquid hydrogen tank side wall :

Anet(tank wall) = qg(tank wall) (qalbedo + 4solar) + Qț(tank wall)ąthermal

Q
S
+

+ qaero - Preradiation (D2)

The absorptance and emittance for the stainless - steel tank were established as functions
of temperature by ground testing.
The reradiation term was negligible because of the low ( 97 ° R or 54 ° K) tank skin
temperature experienced during the coast phase . The heat flux into the Centaur liquid
hydrogen tank side walls at four longitudinal sections is shown in figure 18 .
The heat flux into a given quadrant of the forward bulkhead of the liquid hydrogen
tank was determined by averaging the energy fluxes measured by each of the outward
facing calorimeter banks with the energy flux measured by the forward facing calorim
eter bank . These fluxes, together with the appropriate radiation parameters for the
bulkhead , were substituted into equation (D2 ) . The resulting equation was then solved
for the heat flux. The environmental heat fluxes into four longitudinal sections of the

29
forward bulkhead of the Centaur liquid hydrogen tank and their arithmetic average are
presented in figure 19 .
In addition to the space environment energy sources , the Centaur liquid hydrogen
tank receives heat from two other major sources ; they are the following:
( 1 ) Radiation and conduction to the tank ullage from electronic components and pay
load adapter of 1100 Btu per hour (280 W)
(2 ) Conduction from liquid hydrogen boost pumps and feed lines and heat transfer
through the intermediate bulkhead to the liquid hydrogen of 1200 Btu per hour
( 350 W) .
These two heat inputs, together with the environmental energy inputs, constitute the
total heat input to the Centaur liquid hydrogen tank during the coast period .
The heat rates to the liquid hydrogen are presented in figure 23. These rates rep
resent the sum of the environmental heat flux to the tank side wall area in contact with
the liquid , and the heat rate from the intermediate bulkhead and feed lines. The inte
gration of these heat rates over the entire venting period yields 690 Btu (7.3x10 ° J) as
the net heat input to the liquid hydrogen . This heat input would result in the vaporization
of 3.6 pounds ( 1.7 kg) of liquid hydrogen .
A summary of the individual heat input rates to the Centaur hydrogen tank during the
venting period are presented in figure 39. As shown , the environmental heating rates
A ' and C ' are not entirely transmitted to the ullage . A small quantity of their heat in
put results in the heating of the tank wall mass , and a small quantity of their heat is re
radiated from the tank as a result of the tank wall temperature increase . During the
venting period, the average tank skin temperature remained constant at about 970 R
(54 ° K) . At this temperature , the amount of heat reradiated from the tank wall was neg
ligible . The heat rate to the Centaur hydrogen tank ullage are presented in figure 24 .
The integration of these heat rates over the entire venting period yields 1400 Btu
J) as the net heat input to the tank ullage .
(1.5x106 )
At the initiation of the venting period (605 sec after first main engine cutoff) , the
average bulk temperature of the tank ullage was 54° R (30° K) . This average increased
to 550 R (31° K) by the end of the venting period. The total venting time was 51 seconds .
These averages were obtained from the tank ullage temperature data previously pre
sented .
The energy balance for the tank ullage during the venting period is given by the ex
pression

Q = MeUp - M;V; + M ,hy - Mob (D3)

Calculation of the quantity vented from the energy balance yields 5.1 pounds mass
(2.3 kg) as the amount vented . This compares very favorably with the measured quantit

30
of 5.2 pounds mass (2.4 kg) vented for the 850 seconds of the venting period of the coast
phase .
The heat rates to the ullage prior to venting are shown in figure 24. During this
period , the vent valves were closed and the tank pressure instrumentation indicated a
2
pressure rise rate of 0.48 pound per square inch absolute per minute (55 N/(m²) (sec)) .
The internal tank temperature sensors indicated an average ullage bulk temperature of
42 ° R (23° K) at the initiation of the coast period . With the heat rates presented , the
calculated pressure rise rate and the calculated temperature rise for the period in which
the vent valves are closed can be calculated from equation (D3) , with M V, and Mb
Up : The calculated pressure rise
equal to zero and Mi equal to Me, by solving for Vf.
rate is 0. 46 pound per square inch per minute (53 N /(m2)(sec)), and the calculated tem
perature at the time of first venting is 54° R (30° K ). The temperature measured by the
temperature sensors was also 540 R (30° K) . The comparison between the calculated
and the measured pressure rise rate , temperature , and vented quantity indicates the
accuracy of the thermal surveys performed on the AC - 8 mission .

31
 REFERENCES

1. Hastings , G. A .; Hill , D. W .; Satterlee , H. M .; and Seebold , J. G .: The Litera

ture of Low G Propellant Behavior . Rep No. LMSC - A835805 (NASA CR -65539) ,
Lockheed Missiles and Space Co. , Sept. 27 , 1966 .
2. Chipchak , D. ; Brady , V .; Warner , P .; Wallace , J .; Fejer , G. ; Schmidt , C .; and
Vecchies , L .: Development of Expulsion and Orientation Systems for Advanced
Liquid Rocket Propulsion Systems. ( A FRTD -TDR -63-1048) , Bell Aerosystems
Co. , July 1963 .

3. Ring , Elliot : Rocket Propellant and Pressurization Systems . Prentice Hall , Inc. ,
1964 .

4. Szabo , Steven V. , Jr .; Groesbeck , William A .; Baud , Kenneth W .; Stofan , Andrew

.

J .; Porada , Theodore W .; and Yeh , Frederick C .: Atlas - Centaur Flight AC - 4

Coast -Phase Propellant and Vehicle Behavior . NASA TM X - 1189 , 1965 .

5. Banks , Robert B .; and Chandrasekhara , D. V .: Experimental Investigation of the

Penetration of a High - Velocity Gas Jet Through a Liquid Surface . J. Fluid Mech . ,
vol . 15 , pt . 1 , Jan. 1963 , pp . 13-34 .
6. Sumner , Irving E. ; Stofan , Andrew J .; and Shramo , Daniel J.: Experimental
Sloshing Characteristics and a Mechanical Analogy of Liquid Sloshing in a Scale
Model Centaur Liquid Oxygen Tank . NASA TM X - 999 , 1964 .
7. Sumner , Irving E .; Lacovic , Raymond F .; and Stofan , Andrew J .: An Experimen
tal Investigation of Liquid Sloshing in a Scale -Model Centaur Liquid -Hydrogen
Tank . NASA TM X - 1313 , 1966 .

8. Staff of the Lewis Research Center : Postflight Evaluation of Atlas - Centaur AC - 8

(Launched April 7 , 1966 ) . NASA TM X - 1343 , 1967 .
9. Berns , James A. ; Yeh , Frederick C .; and Nussle, Ralph C .: Photographic Inves
tigation of Liquid Behavior on Temperature and Liquid - Vapor Sensors Used in
Low -Gravity Environment . NASA TM X- 1438 , 1967 .
10. Chelton , Dudley B .; and Mann , Douglas B .: Cryogenic Data Book . (WADC TR 59-8
DDC No. AD - 208155 ), National Bureau of Standards , Cryogenic Eng . Lab . , Mar.
1959 .

11. Forstall , Walton ; and Gaylord , E. W .: Momentum and Mass Transfer in a Sub
merged Water Jet . J. Appl . Mech . , vol . 77 , no . 2 , June 1955 , pp . 161-164 .

32
 Nose fairing

Surveyor mass model

- Centaur liquid
hydrogen tank
Insulation panels

Centaur liquid
Intermediate oxygen tank
bulkhead

Interstage
adapter
Centaur main
engines

Atlas oxidizer tank

-- Atlas fuel tank

Atlas main engines

CD-9228

Figure 1. - Atlas- Centaur - Surveyor configuration.

33
34
Centaur
burn
second Spacecraft
Propellant
retention separation
Centaur
First
main
engine
78
(T+5sec
)cutoff
Spacecra
7 ft
Centaur
First Centaur
main
engine burn
first
sec
).(T+40
2start

main
Second
start
engine
030
)(T+2sec retromaneuver
and
around
turn
Centaur
L-Centaur
Propellant Propellant mission
settling suppression complete
CAtlas
- entaur )(100
sec 6
)(4sec
separation
phase

fair
Jettison
nose
sec
)(T+04
2ing
Atlas insula
Jettison
sustainer sec
)1T+( 77
panels
tion
phase

cut
engine
Booster
43
(T+1sec
)off

Atlas
booster
phase 414
-9CD

Liftoff
)0s(T-ec
flight
sequence
.two
Centaur
2.
-bFigure
urn
 100

10-1
acceleration

10-2
Critical

Acceleration
100- Foot ( 33- m ) drop tower
g, 's

10-3 400 - Foot ( 165- m) drop tower

1
10-4
Sounding rocket
1
10-5

10-6 Centaur

10-7
.1 1 10 100 1000
Diameter, in.

1
.25 2.5 25 250 2500
Diameter, cm

Figure 3. - Minimum acceleration requirements

as function of tank diameter.

35
 Liquid Center
hydrogen of
tank gravity

Liquid A A
oxygen
tank

Thrust vector
applied through
center of gravity
S engines
JP
ALLA

Quad Quad
rant IV rant I

Centaur
main enginest S
Quad
Quad
rant II

Engine Thrust Function

designation ID N
A 1.5 | 6.5 Attitude control
Р 3 13 Attitude control
S 2 9 Propellant settling
Figure 4. - Location of AC - 4 attitude control
and propellant settling engines.

36
 Liquid hydrogen tank Pressurization
gas flow Hydrogen gas
venting

Forward motion due to

bulkhead springback Liquid sloshing
8
M

Volute bleed
line spray

--Liquid level at
Thermal convec engine cutoff
tive currents

Depressed bulkhead
during powered flight
Liquid oxygen tank Boost pump volute
bleed line
L - Propellant
line surge - Hydrogen duct
recirculation line

--Hydrogen
Attitude
control boost pump
engine
firing
CD -9221
To engines -

Figure 5. - Energy inputs to AC -4 liquid hydrogen tank.

-
37
 Liquid hydrogen tank

Volute
Liquid hydrogen
bleed line
duct recircula
tion line
Vehicle
centerline

Liquid oxygen tank

Liquid hydrogen
boost pump-

Liquid hydro
gen duct

CD -9415
Engine inlet valve

Figure 6. - AC -4 Centaur liquid hydrogen supply system .

38
 Density = constant
Enthalpy - constant
Pressure - constant
Quality - constant
Temperature

Entropy
Figure 7. - Energy dissipation process on temperature- entropy diagram .

39
40
liquid
of
edge
Lower
baffle
tank
hydrogen Liquid
hydrogen
line
recirculation
dissipator
energy

volute
pump
Boost
bleed
energy
dissipator

-67-3268
C

recirculation
and
as bleed
AC
inolute
dissipator
energy
(a)Viquid
-8lline
tank
hydrogen
.installed
dissipators
energy
.line
recirculation
and
bleed
- olute
8.
VFigure
 Liquid hydrogen tank
1 - Inch - diameter
Vehicle
centerline 12.5x10-2 -m
diam . ) tube
Hydrogen duct recircula
tion line energy dissipator

Boost pump volute bleed

line energy dissipator 7 Flow

Intermediate bulkhead
- 2- Inch -diameter
(5.0x10-2 - m
diam . ) tube

Liquid oxygen tank

Liquid hydrogen
boost pump

CD-9416
( b ) Installation details of volute and recirculation line flow energy dissipator; AC -8.
Figure 8. - Continued.

41
 Flow
4.50
( 11.4x10-2_ Exit plane

10
( 25.4x10-2
Perforated sheets
( 63 percent open )
12.25
(31.1x10-2

Open
Cruciform
baffle--

(c ) Design details of volute bleed energy dissipator. (All dimensions in inches (meters ).)

Perforated sheet
(63 percent open )
Perforated sheets
( 51 percent open )
Tank wall

-Foam insulation

11
4.08
( 10.4x10-2
il

-4.13 (10.5x10-2

Flow
CD -9417
( d ) Design details of recirculation line energy dissipator. ( All dimensions in inches (meters ) .)
Figure 8. - Concluded.

42
 Sensors at this
level remained dry
-Predicted
spray height

Sensors at this
level indicated wet

-Centerline
Liquid hydro of spray
100 gen tank
(2.54)

120
(3.04)
Liquid level at
Slosh baffle
first engine cutoff

Volute bleed
energy dissipator

Intermediate
bulkhead Liquid oxygen tank

Hydrogen
boost pump
CD -9418

Figure 9. - Predicted spray height for volute bleed spray at first engine cutoff and
flight data; AC-8. ( All dimensions in inches (meters ) .)

30
20x10-4 Second main engine
start ( AC - 8)
Start boost pump
Hydrogen
pressure
Hydrogen
,N/mpressure

ullage

18 ) 26
ullage

AC - 8
,psia
2

Start boost pump

16
22
14 !
12

18
AC - 4 Second main engine
start ( AC - 4)
101
14 Begin tank
pressurization
8

10
40

0 10 20 30 50 60 70
Time from start pressurization, sec
Figure 10. - AC-4 and AC-8 hydrogen tank pressures at second engine start

43
 Station 162
Station 179
Gas flow ( high velocity)
Deflector plate

Hydrogen tank

Liquid level at second engine start station 330

( a ) AC -4

Plenum
Top of hydro
gen tank

-Screens Liquid hydrogen

Helium
Dissipator
Forward
-Splitter
Centerline
of vehicle Screens

Screens formed Cone Liquid oxygen

to spherical radius

30 °
( 0.524 rad )
-10.5 in . (0.267 m)
( b ) AC -8 . CD -9419

Figure 11. - Hydrogen tank helium pressurization configuration .

44
 444 100 7.5x10-3

g,Acceleration
's
Thrust
Thrust

Propellant Propellant
settling suppression
l, b
,N

phase phase

27 4. 5x10-4
Propellant retention phase

-100 sec
of 1350 sec fa 46 sec –
First main Second main
engine cutoff engine start
Figure 12. - AC -8 coast phase thrust schedule.

VA
SA / O Centaur SI

Main
engine
Quadrant IV Quadrant I
Quadrant III Quadrant II

Centaur
о

Main 152
о

engine 12

DIJA
Р
View looking forward
Engine Thrust Function
designation IbN
A 3.5 15 Attitude control
V 50 220 Propellant settling,
attitude control ,
and retromaneuver
Р 6 27 Attitude control
S 3 13 Propellant retention
and attitude control
Figure 13. - Location of AC -8 attitude control and
propellant settling engines.

45
46
rd
Forwa

baffle
antiswirl
Vertical

baffle
tank
hydrogen
Liquid

-67-3269
C
-8l(a)Iiquid
AC
.in
tank
hydrogen
nstalled
hydrogen
baffle
slosh
.-8lFigure
Aiquid
14.
C
 Typical baffle Typical antiswirl
stiffeners, S baffle, B
7.95 7.95 7.95 0.50
1.97 (0.20) (0.20 ) (0.20) (0.013)
(0.049 )_00090 poo 210.051) -0.75
Si S2 7.5
(0.019)
(0.19)
Bio - Holes ( 1 in . diam ,
Lower baffle (0.026 m diam . ) )
support (3 places) ✓ Top -mounted Tank wall
baffle support
| struts 0.5 Ratio of distance
(0.013 from tank bottom
SUBSBN Tank wall to diameter ( depth
6.7 ratio) , HID
B

Sil
71
* (0.17)
-0.63
y
B 5,
s

B 16
$ 12SBSz ( 0.41 )
.36 ( Top
of dome)
Antislosh baffle at
depth ratio of 0.63 0
Lower baffle
support
CD - 8643

( b ) Slosh baffle details and dimensions . ( All dimensions in inches ( meters) . )

Figure 14. - Concluded.

47
 9.0 30

-
HT

+
-

-
-

+
-
1
maximum
maximum

Envelope
Envelope
3.0 10 - Unbaffled tank

height
Propellant
height
Baffled tank,

f,wave
wave

settling phase minimum damping

oft
of
,m

Baffled tank,

8
2.4 maximum dampi ng

-
+
-
1

=
1.8
Propellant re
tention phase

1.2

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time from main engine cutoff, sec
Figure 15. - Comparison of baffled and unbaffled hydrogen tank damping extrapolated from scale-model
data ( ref. 7 ).

Tank skin
Liquid hydrogen tank
Ratio of distance
from tank bottom
to diameter,
HID
Liquid vapor sensor level
0.75

Liquid level at first main engine cutoff

.66
&

-Slosh baffle- .63

Liquid - vapor sensor level

. 50

.36
Intermediate bulkhead

Liquid oxygen tank 0

Figure 16. - Schematic of liquid hydrogen tank during coast; AC - 8.

-

48
 View

Liquid
hydrogen
tank

0.91 rad

-Liquid
Quadrant IV oxygen tank

0.55 rad

Quadrant I

Quadrant II Quadrant III

0.53 rad

-Liquid hydrogen
tank forward
bulkhead

0.67 rad
See de
tail A

Aft view

Calorimeter
Forward
Forward
Calorimeters
0.26 rad

Outboard Minimum 6 in .
(1.5x10 m) Outboard

Equipment
shelf Equipment shelf +

Section C - C

Black colloidal
L Section B - graphite surface
B
White enamel
surface

Gold electro CD - 9420

plate surface
Detail A

Figure 17. - AC-8 calorimeter locations.

49
 20
60 Quadrant

50 16

40
12
BHeat
Heat

1)(h/,flux
,flux

42rtu
2

II
)
m/W

30

-
-
8

20 IV

10 III

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

Time from first main engine cutoff, sec
-

Figure 18. - Environmental heat flux to Centaur liquid hydrogen tank side wall.

200

60
-Arithmetic average

50
150
heat
flux
Net
/mW, 2

Quadrant
40
Heat
1flux tu
))(/hB, r42

100
30 IV

III

20
50

10
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Time from first main engine cutoff, sec
Figure 19. - Environmental heat flux into forward end of Centaur hydrogen tank.

50
 B
D = 120 in . ( 3.05 m )
Ratio of distance
from tank bottom
to diameter , H/ D

1.67

1.50

Liquid hydrogen
1.25

1.00

.75

.50

í Liquid oxygen -0

Liquid -vapor sensor

Temperature sensor
CD - 9421

Figure 20. - Liquid - vapor and ullage gas temperature instrumentation ; AC -8.

51
52
ratio
Depth
100 2.02
1.95
160 1.87
1.74
80

120
THAN 1.54
1.22

80
40

Temperature, °K
Temperature, OR
20 40
First
liquid Il

hydrogen coast
intervals
vent
phase
tank
hydrogen
Liquid
tank
venting
0 100 200 300 400 500
600 1100
1000
900
800
700 1200 1300 1400 1500
Time
from
first
main
engine
cutoff
,sec
hydrogen
-Liquid
21.
Figure
temperature
ullage
.tank
profile
 II
Quadrant IV
-Quadrant Quadrant
IV --Quadrant
II

Forward
area

Quadrant
III I
Quadran t

skin
Tank
temperature -Tank
skin
temperature
sensors -Tank
skin
sensors temperature
sensors
m)0in
10 .( .25 in
.(0.25
)m10

0=H
/D .47

-Liquid
hydrogen
boost
pump
-
Centaur
main
engines LL-iquid
oxygen
boost
pump
9CD
- 222

.(a)ront
Fview .(b)Back
view

22.
Figure
-Cotated
°fbrVtank entaur
instrumentation
temperature
skin iew
(a).180
view
rom

53
 hydrogen
1.0

liquid
1000

s/Heat
rate
tu
hydrogen

,Bec
to
liquid
Heat
rate
to
,W

900

800

700

Venting period
6
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
600
Time from first main engine cutoff, sec
Figure 23. - Heat rate to Centaur liquid hydrogen during coast.

2.2

2200

2.0

2000

1.8
/sHeat
rate
,Btuec
Heat
rate

1800
,W

First liquid hydrogen

tank vent in coast
1600

1.4
1400

1.2
1200

1.01
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time from first main engine cutoff, sec
-

Figure 24. - Heat rate to liquid hydrogen tank ullage.

54
 fairin
Nose g
valves
-Vent

stack
vent
To

hydro
of
Top
tank
gen
Vent
stack

M
MIMT
P
- lenum TE

Disconne
at
nose ct V.-enturi
separati
fairing on

tank
hydrogen
Liquid

-9223
CD

cFigure
-4A25.
oast
C
hydrogen
phase
vent
.system

55
 Payload adapter --

a --Vent valve 1

- Torus assembly
OD

-Equipment
shelf

Nozzle 7

Vent valve 2-- +

Forward bulkhead of
hydrogen tank

Figure 26. - AC -8 balanced thrust hydrogen vent system .

56
 C- urrent
, tain
sBody limiting Germanium
-
steel
less resistor
ರಂದು element tip
Sensing

Heater
Filled
with ,
housing
Heater
foam copper
in
.( .12
0m)4.8

-9422
CD

iquid
vLFigure
apor
sensor
assembly
.-27.

57
 100

Dry to wet

Percent
80

scale
full
Flight data

of
60 Dry to wet
Wet to dry
National Bureau of
40 Standards

20

7
Wet to dry
NO

0 2 6 8 10 12
Time, sec

Figure 28. - Liquid - vapor sensor response.

1.0 in . (2.5x10-2 m )

Thermal insulating body

Sensing
element

Sensing tip

Signal leads

2.2 in . (5.6x10-2 m )

CD - 9423

Figure 29. - Ullage temperature sensor assembly.

58
 100
Dry to wet Flight data
Dry to wet
Percent

80
scale

National Bureau of
full
of

Standards
60

Wet to dry

20

0 2 6 8 10 12 14
Time, sec

Figure 30. - Ullage temperature sensor response ( platinum) .

59
60
)min
.(3D-120
.04
distance
of
Ratio
bottom
tank
from
,H/D
diameter
to

1.67
Qзо Qзо Qzo
Q2 -1.50
040 QAO QAC

Q3 Q3 93
QA QA QA -1.25

001 001 O
Q1
Ozo Озо Q30 02
QA Q2 02 -1.00

-
QA
Qa
QA Q2 QA 02 .75
191
Q3 03 Q1 23

02 .50
QA 02 Q4

QA

QQ1
,I uadrant
II
QQ2
, uadrant
III
Q,Q3uadrant
IV
Q, uadrant
Q4
SOensor
dry
.,9(a)T55
seconds
ime .,9(b)T95
seconds
ime .,1(c)T060
seconds
ime
Sensor
wet
-9224
CD
Airst
31.
F-8pFigure
period
retention
propellant
during
.sloshing
cutoff
engine
main
first
after
seconds
1062
to
919
wave
slosh
ropellant
C
 9
secon
,. 95 ds
Sensor
wel (C) ime
.T Seconds
1060

>1062
Isla-

m(. .04
-in
13)-D 20
distance
of
Ratio
bottom
tank
from
diameter
/D,Hto

aza -1.67
Q30 aza
Q2 Q2 02 -1.50
QAO Qgo QAO

Q3 QO3 Q3
QA Q4 QA .25
1-
001 Q1
0 ola
Oza Q30 r
Oza
Q2 -1.00

-
QA
Q49 QAO
102
QA Q2 QA Q2 QA
.75

Q1 03 Q1 P3
03 0 02 Q2
.50
Q2
QA QA

IQ, uadrant
Q1
II
Q,Q2uadrant
III
Q,Q3uadrant
QA IV
Quadrant
O
Sensor
dry
.,1(a)T075
seconds
ime .seconds
ime
1,(b)T098 1seconds
ime
.,(c)T192
wet
Sensor
225
-9CD

-Second
32.
.Figure
cutoff
engine
main
first
after
seconds
1192
to
1063
wave
slosh

61
 -D - 120 in . ( 3.04 m) Ratio of distance
from tank bottom
to diameter, H/ D

02 02 -1.67
Q3 o
Q3
QAO 1.50
DAO

Q3 Q3
QA QA -1.25

Q 0 Q1
Q3 Qзо
1.00
QAG Q2 Q2
QA

QA 02 .75

å az
QA
Q1 03
23

.50
QA 02
QA

Q1, Quadrant I
Q2 : Quadrant II
Q3, Quadrant III
Q4, Quadrant IV

o Sensor dry
( a ) Time, 1205 seconds . Sensor wet ( b ) Time 1235 seconds . CD - 9226

Figure 33. - Third slosh wave 1193 to 1315 seconds after first main engine cutoff.
62
 13D
-.(in20
) .04
m
Ratio
of
distance
bottom
tank
from
,H/D
diameter
to

Q2 Q2 Q2 1.67
Q3 Q3 Q3
-1.50
Q4 04 Q40

23 0 Q3
QA QA Q4 1- .25

93
Qo1 001 001
Q3c Q3 Oza
1.00
QA Q2 Q2
OS

Ö
QA
Q( 21 QA 02
Q2 .75
QA Q1
Q3 Q3 Q1 Q3 Q1
Q2 02
.
02 .50
QA

QA QA

Q,IQ1uadrant
Q,IIuadrant
Q2
uadrant
,III
QQ3
Sensor
O
dry QQ4
,IVuadrant
seconds
.,1(a)T351
ime .,1(b)T366
seconds
ime wet
Sensor .,1(c)T400
seconds
ime
9CD
- 227
-Fourth
34.
.Figure
cutoff
engine
main
first
after
seconds
1449
to
1316
wave
slosh

63
 Sensor location
50 - Pound ( 222- N )
thrust engine
Depth ratio 0.75
V3 (N2 Depth ratio 0.50
Quadrant III
8

Quadrant II

5
1
6

2
Quadrant IV
Quadrant I
VA Vi

Forward view of first two sensor arms

-Denotes firing

Vi 1 NI 1 1 | | 1
VA 1 11 1 1 1 1 |

900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500

50 - pound (222-N) thrust engine firing data (V2 and V3 did not fire during this period)
Measure
ment
number
1

4 B 目
5 圖
6

925 1025 1125 1225 1325 1425 1525

Time from first main engine cutoff, sec
Liquid -vapor sensor data ( solid areas indicate presence of liquid )
Figure 35. - AC -8 liquid- vapor sensor locations and coast phase data.

64
 28x10-4
4.
M
ப IL 1. 4x10-4
-2 . 4x10-4
1-2
JUU பப்
பயப
nu பாய
்பாாம
யா
l< x10 -5 l< x10

Axial acceleration, g's

825 925 1025 1125 1225 1325 1425 1525
from
main
engine
first
cutoff
,sTime
ec
Centaur
Axial
36.
Figure
of
acceleration
for
period
retention
propellant
-8.during
AC

65
 100
300
Quadrant
I

thermal
250 80

Earth
heat
1flux
ion

tu
/m,W2 al

)(h/B, 12
r
radiat
Therm

200
60

150

40 II

100

20 III
50

IV
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time from first main engine cutoff, sec
Figure 37. - AC - 8 Centaur vehicle side wall environmental heat flux.

200

60

Free molecular aero

dynamic heating
50
150

40
Heat
fBflux
Heat

?)(h/, ttur
flux
/mW, 2

100
30
Earth thermal radiation

20

50

10

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time from first main engine cutoff, sec
Figure 38. - AC - 8 Centaur vehicle forward environmental heating.

66
 A'

B'

'
C
Liquid
hydrogen
tank

--Liquid level
during coast

E
D'

-Intermediate
bulkhead

Liquid
oxygen
tank

Input Description Heat rate

Btu /sec W
A' Net environmental heat rate to liquid hydrogen 0.70 750
tank forward end unshadowed area
B ' Radiation and conduction from electronic com .28 290
ponents, payload adapter, and payload to
hydrogen ullage
C' Net environmental heat rate to liquid hydrogen .67 700
tank ullage side walls; area, 288 square feet
( 26.7 m2)
D' Net environmental heat rate to liquid hydrogen ; .48 500
area, 209 square feet ( 19.4 m2)
E Conduction from intermediate bulkhead and .33 350
boost pump feed lines to liquid hydrogen
Figure 39. - Summary of heat rates to AC - 8 Centaur hydrogen tank
during coast period.

NASA - Langley, 1968 28 67

E - 3730
1
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TION

西。

CODING SCHEMES FOR

RUN -LENGTH INFORMATION
BASED ON POISSON DISTRIBUTION

spec by W. W. Happ
$
Electronics Research Center
Cambridge, Mass.
ION NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION WASHINGTON , D. C. JUNE 1968
 NASA TN D - 4572

CODING SCHEMES

FOR RUN - LENGTH INFORMATION

BASED ON

POISSON DISTRIBUTION

By W. W. Happ
Electronics Research Center
Cambridge , Mass .

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

For sale by the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information
Springfield , Virginia 22151 - CFSTI price $ 3.00
 CODING SCHEMES FOR RUN - LENGTH INFORMATION
BASED ON
POISSION DISTRIBUTION

By W. W. Happ
NASA Electronics Research Center

SUMMARY

The Shannon - Fano - Huffman Redundancy Reduction Procedure is extended to one

parameter and two -parameter Poisson distribution resulting from run - length informa
tion streams. Figures -of - merit are established to compare Huffman coding to fixed
word - length binary coding on the basis of (1) average number of coding digits per
message , ( 2) signal - to -noise ratio in analog - to -digital conversion due to bit errors ,
and (3) design criteria primarily of interest to the system designer and not readily
amenable to quantitative analysis . To ascertain whether or not Huffman coding leads
to a unique and optimum code , other equally good optimum solutions were obtained.
Optimization and uniqueness criteria are examined and applications to data compres
sion are discussed .

INTRODUCTION

The need for data compression or " compaction ' is particularly acute when statisti
cal information from deep space probes is transmitted . A series of important recent
investigations (ref. 1) examined criteria for transmitting a small number of sample
quantile, often referred to as percentage points , instead of all sample values . An
alternative approach is proposed . The approach here presented has several disadvantages
compared to the quantile system, specifically:

1. The code has variable length , with the inherent changes of errors in trans
mission wrecking the frame .
2. The code assumes " a priori" information on the statistical distribution,
an assumption which is frequently not justified in practice .

3. The proposed approach has not been justified experimentally.

Despite these shortcomings, there are some significant similarities in the objectives ,
as well as in the statistically oriented features of these two investigations. For
practical applications, the method described herein does not presently warrant
comparison with that reported earlier, but should be regarded rather as a potential
stepping stone for future investigations.
 REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORK

Huffman ( refs . 2 and 3 ) defines a Minimum Redundancy Code as an ensemble or

alphabet consisting of N members or letters with the following properties :

1. Each letter has a preassigned probability of occurrence P (i) where i = 1 ,

2 , 3 , ... N subject to normalization condition S ( i = 0 , N ) P ( i) = 1 , where
-
the summation S( i = 0 , N , ) sums i from 1 to N.
.
2

Each letter is to consist of a number or length of coding digits L ( i ) , which

are usually, but not necessarily , binary . The average message length
-
D = S( i = 0 , N) P ( i) L( i) is to be a minimum .

3. Subject to the normalization condition ( 1 ) and the minimization constraint ( 2)

above , coding digits are to be assigned to generate N distinguishable letters ,
such that addition (or subtraction) of a digit from the end of a letter does not
generate a new letter of the alphabet.

The Huffman procedure of constructing Minimum Redundancy Codes , is shown in

part (a) of Table I for an alphabet with N = 25 and assigned values of P ( i ) . A figure
=
of- merit is D = 4 , 24 , the sum of P ( i) L( i) , that is , the average word length to assess the
saving obtained by Huffman coding . This value must be compared with D = 5 , for aa
25 S 2D letter conventional alphabet.

STATISTICAL PROPERTIES OF RUN - LENGTHS

A run of variable length r is defined if no event occurs during interval 1 , 2, 3 ,

r - 1 followed by an event during interval r . Redundancy reduction uses information
contained in the assumed or implied probability of occurrence of run of length r . The
Poisson distribution describes a wide range of physical phenomena and Operations
Research models . The simplest model is based on a single parameter, namely m E ( r) ,
the mean occurrence or expected value of the run . It is assumed that r is always a non
negative integer , but m may or may not be an integer . The probability that exactly
r events occur per run is denoted by
r - m
p (r, m) = m e "// r !

Assuming an expected value of run m = 0.5 and m = 3 , representative values for par , m )
are listed in Table II.In evaluating experimental data , it is useful to obtain p (r , m )
experimentally and to calculate m using the following properties of the distribution :

2
 TABLE I.
MINIMUM REDUNDANCY CODE

Input Data (a) Minimum Code (b ) Quasi - Minimum Code

P (i)
i N (i) % 8 7 6 5 44 3 2 11 D Code L ( i) N ( i) W ( i) | P ( i) L (i) Code

E 13 N .39 111 1111

1 N. 4 4 .52
T 10 N1.30 110 1110

N
CMO

1 4 4 .40
ZA

ZN
ZN

A 7 N . 28
. 1011 1101
N
Z

. 28 1010 1100
z /NZ O

му . 28 1001 1011
N . 28 1000 1010
R . 28 0111 1001
S ZN . 28 0110 1000
UABNE

6 NV Z 4 24 1.68
H 4 NYZ .16 0101 0111
1 4 4 16
NZ

с 3 NYZ .15
. 01001 01101
Z

D . 15 01000 01100
F . 15 00111 01010
L ZN . 15
0 00110 01010
M . 15 00101 01001
NyZ
Z
nZ 1

00100
U . 15
. 01000
6 5 12 .90
B 2 N .10 00011 00111
G .12 000101 00110
P
NYZ
Z
/NYZ
Z
.

.12
. 000100 00101
W N .12 000011 00100
SOXN

Y ZN .12 000010 00011

5 Z 5 10 .50
ZN

K .5 .035 / 0000011 000101

J Z NY .035 0000010
. 000100
Q IN Z .04 00000011
. 000011
V ZINY .04 00000010
. 000010
х 04 100000001 000001
N Z
Z Z .04 00000000 000000
6 6 6 . 18

3
 TABLE II i
PROBABILITY pér , m ) FOR RUNS OF LENGTH r AND
EXPECTED VALUE m

Binary Huffman p(r, 1.3) d (r, 0.5) p(r , 3 ) s (r , 3)

000 0 .60 .60 .05 .05

.

001 10 .30 .60 .15 .30

010 110 . 075 .22 22 .66
.

011 1110 .012

. .05 .22 .88
100 11110 .002 .01 .16 .80
101 111110 .0002
. .002 .09 .54
110 1111110 .00002 .0002
. .06 . 42
.

111 11111110 .000001

. .00001
. .03
. .24

1. A maximum of pír , m ) occurs for r = m * , where m* is an integer equal to

or next below m . If m is an integer, pēm , m) = p /m - 1 , m ) .
1/2
2. The standard deviation S (r ) = m

3. The mean deviation is D(r ) = 2m p (m * , m ) .

=
>

Since p (m * , m ) is frequently substantially greater than other values of pír , m ) , it is

often convenient to measure m by computing D (r) rather than S(r ) .

TRUNCATED RUN- LENGTH DISTRIBUTIONS

A Poisson distribution can be filtered or truncated at either end of the probability

frequency spectrum , if runs below a given length or above a given length are eliminated .
For example ; the two - parameter probability density distribution

pír , m , n) = 0 if ( > r > n

= pír , m) / G (n , m ) if nsr
-

3
is defined by supressing all runs of length less than n . The normalization function
=
G (n , m ) = S (r = n, oo ) pér , m ) = S(m = 0 , n) pin, m- 1 ) ,

4
that is

r= 0

G( n , m' ) = 2
r = n
plr , m') = So pln , m' - 1 ) dm ',
where m ' = E ( r ) is the expected value after truncation and Gựn , m )
is the incomplete Gamma Function tabulated by Pearson (ref. 4) , or is obtainable from
tables of pír , m ) computed by Molina (ref . 5 ) .

Experimentally , the characteristic values of this two- parameter distribution are

obtained from

E (r ) = m + n , the expected value ;

r = m1 /2,2, the standard deviation ; and
S (r) = m1/
D (r ) = 2 mp (m* , m), the mean deviation .
>

The expected value is increased , since low values of r are omitted, while S (r) and D (r)
are not affected by m and thus are well suited to numerical evaluation . The same
approach is used for truncation of high values , or for band-pass and band- stop truncations .

HUFFMAN CODING OF POISSON DISTRIBUTED RUN- LENGTHS

3
An ensemble with 2° permissible run - lengths is assumed in Table II, and a
possible Huffman code is assigned to each run. The probability density pír , m ) is
computed assuming a Poisson distribution with m = 0.5 and m = 3. The weighted run
=
length dír , m ) = rpír , m ) is tabulated to compute the mean word length D (m ) = S (r = 0,
o m)
dír , m ) . Within the accuracy of the calculations D (m ) = m + 1. This is a significant
result in several respects :

1. The average information content is m for the message itself .

2. Shannon (ref. 6) showed that the average number of binary digits required
for coding a message exceed the information content (binary measured) by
a value which reflects the redundancy inherent in the coding scheme .
3. The average word length of Huffman - code Poisson - distributed run- length
exceeds its information content by unity , independent of average message
length.

4. The excess of average word length over average information content is not due
to redundancy, but corresponds to unity information content per message, sig
naling the termination of a message .

5
 5. The alphabet or message ensemble has an arbitrarily large number of
messages, with each message being uniquely coded . Further, no coding
sequence exists without a corresponding meaningful message. The ensemble
is unique and non - redundant.

6. The combined information content, m + 1 , consists of the message m

>

augmented by a bit signaling the end of each message and equals the
average word length . This accounts for the average word length providing
conformation of the conclusion arrived at independently in ( 5) above that
the code is unique and non - redundant.

In the example shown in Table II, a k- digit (k = 3 ) binary alphabet is compared with
a run of length m as the expected value . Data compaction can be defined as the ratio
of average word length binary D (k) to average word length coded D (m) . For binary to
Huffman coded run - length :

D (k) / D (m ) = k / (m + 1 )
= =
In Table II for m
m = 0.5 , then D(k) / D (m ) = 2 ; and for m = 3.0 , then D (k) / D(m ) = 0.75
This shows that, for example, a five-fold compaction is feasible if k = 8 and m = 0.6 .

ADEQUACY OF MATHEMATICAL MODEL

Confidence in the above results wanes as soon as the tenuous nature of the assump
tion is examined , upon which the mathematical model was formulated . Poisson distribu
tion subjected to statistical analysis is based on several distinct models originating
from a random arrival of a time sequence of events :

1. Given an average rate of occurrence , say m events per unit time , a uniform

mar
probability density m dt is assumed for event r , given the probability
-

pír - 1 , m ) . This yields the probability of obtaining a specified number of

r events as a function of a variable time interval .
.
2

Given a fixed time interval in which an average of m events occurs , the

stochastic variable r is the probable number of events likely to occur .

3. Both types of distribution can be modified by a non - zero , but constant, pulse
duration during which no other event is acceptable to the counting mechanism .

For the run - length of primary interest in practical communication systems , a

randomly arriving sequence of events is sampled at quantized time intervals . As
the sampling period becomes small compared to mean occurrence of events , the above

6
models become valid . Unfortunately , in the region of interest this condition is not
satisfied. A sampled data output from a Poisson -distributed input can be obtained
by z - transformation of the moment - generating function characterizing a Poisson
distribution .

To the knowledge of the author , investigations on sampled data or on statistical

properties of runs have not attacked this problem . A solution to the problem is of con
siderable practical interest and well within reach of presently available transform
methods , from the vantage point of sampled data technique as well as from that of
stochastic processes . It is questionable, however , if an investigation of this proce
dure will effectively serve to ascertain the adequacy of a mathematical model, unless
the sensitivity of Huffman coding to deviations from ideal distributions is better
understood .

Assuming that Huffman coding is highly sensitive to changes in the model ,

second-order approximations in formulating or modifying the model are warranted .
Fortunately , it appears that even a rough approximation of the statistical model may
be justified , since only minor changes in compaction ratio can be expected even by
significantly deviating from optimum coding procedures.

In part (b ) of Table I, a deviation from an optimum procedure is undertaken by

grouping the letter of the alphabet. An additional restriction to Huffman coding is
then imposed that each group defined by its probability must have the same run - length .
A comparison from Table I is instructive:

Minimum- Code Non - Minimum

Average Word Length D = 4.24 D = 4.36

Range of Runs 3 , 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 4, 5 , 6

Compaction Ratio 1.18 1.15

The insignificant difference in compaction ratio provides evidence that :

1. A quasi -minimum code does not deviate significantly from an optimum code .
2. Constraints were imposed on a simple model without changing significantly
established figures - of -merit.
.
3

Other figures - of - merits, such as requirements on grouping or range of

values , can provide useful information .

7
A similar approach can be taken to introduce desired changes in the Poisson distribution,
for example , truncation, to explore variations in average word length .

TRADE - OFF AND OPTIMIZATION PROCEDURES

The feasibility of using models which contain additional constraints was explored
by examining codes which differ from the Minimum Redundancy Code by an amount
negligible in practice , but which exhibit useful properties not necessarily available
from minimum codes . These codes will be termed " quasi -minimum " codes . Several
questions arise regarding trade- off criteria and procedure , and properties of these
>

codes enhancing their utilization.

1. Is it a " minimum " code ? It is difficult to ascertain if the code derived by the
Huffman technique is in fact a minimum . While no proof is as yet available ,
it appears plausible that Huffman's procedure , as well as the trade - off pro
cedure to be developed in Table III , leads to a Minimum Redundancy Code .
.

2. Is there a unique code ? Comparison of the codes in part (a) of Table I and
part (3 ) of Table III shows that there are several codes which satisfy criteria
defined by Huffman as an optimum code . To obtain one optimum code from
another , it is necessary to employ successive application of the trade - off
procedure given below .

3. What properties do minimum or quasi -minimum codes exhibit ? Specifically,

can features such as error detecting criteria or parity checks be incorporated
into Minimum Redundancy Codes . Some statistical properties of these codes
will be examined .

The quasi -minimum code developed in part (b) of Table I is summarized in part (a)
of Table III. The number of letters in each group is denoted by N(i) , and the corres
ponding probabilities listed under P (i ) are the same as given in Table I.

A Minimum Redundancy Code or other optimum performance can then be obtained

by:

1. Establishing a quasi -minimum code .

2. Establishing a trade - off procedure.

3
.

Repeating trade -off until an optimum is reached .

8
 TABLE III
OPTIMIZATION PROCEDURE

Input Data (a) Quasi -Minimum Code (b) Minimum Code

N (i) | P (i ) L (i) W (i) N(i)W(i) P(i)L(i)N(i) | L (i) W (i) N (i) (i) P (i)L (i)N (i)
%
1 13 4 4 4 .52 3 16 16 ..39
4

1 10 4 4 . 40 3 16 16 .30

6 7 4 4 24 1.68 4 8 48 1.68

8
1 4 4 4 4 . 16 4 8 .16

6 3 5 2 12 .90 5 4 24 .90

5 2 5 2 10 .50 6 2 10 .60

6 .5 6 1 6 .18 7 1 6 . 21

64 4. 36 128 4. 24

To establish a quasi -minimum code, proceed as in part (a) of Table IIE

1. Assume values for L(i) , length of word for each category.

2. Assign a weight w(i ) to L(i) , such that two successive levels differ by
a factor of 2 .

3. Compute P (i) L(i) N (i) subject to the normalization constraint

N(i) W (i)22L(M ), where L(M) is the maximum value of L(i) .
To establish aa trade - off, proceed from part (a) of Table III to part (b) of Table III
as follows :

1. Establish values for W (i) as before , and change L(i) by one unit subject to
the normalization condition N(i) W (i)22L(M ).
2. For every change in L(i) , ascertain that the contribution to P (i) L(i ) N(i)
is negative before implementing it .
3. Repeat with (1 ) and (2) until an optimum is reached.

9
 Rather than the derivation of any one optimum coding scheme , the significant
conclusions to be drawn from Table III are :

1. The lack of sensitivity of average word length for near optimum codes ;

2. The availability of step-wise optimization and tests for sensitivity for

step-wise changes ;

3. The existence of more than one code satisfying Huffman's criteria for
uniqueness.

Quasi - optimum codes will be examined in the subsequent sections in view of their
applicability to practical problems .

CODING FROM ASSUMED PROBABILITY SPECTRA

Any redundancy elimination scheme is based on utilization of information contained

in the probability spectrum . Therefore , any figure - of -merit is only meaningful in terms
of known or assumed data . To illustrate this , examine the alphabet based on the
following probability spectra :

1. If all letters have the same probability, the Huffman coding procedure
yields a binary code of uniform length , or letters at most differing by
one digit .

2. If successive letters in an alphabet differ in probability by a constant ratio

of r = 2 , all letters differ by one digit in length and the mean length of the
>

alphabet is r? (r- 1 )-2 .

3. If all letters of an alphabet differ in probability by a constant ratio rk = 2 ,
any k letters will have the same number of digits .

The Poisson- distribution coded by the Huffman procedure yield several codes :

1. If the mean m does not exceed unity greatly , all letters differ by one
digit; this arrangement will be termed Poisson- coding .
2. If the mean is m >> 1 , then two regions should be distinguished: inside and
outside the band m + vm .

3. In the region outside the band , Poisson coding gives an optimum scheme; in
the inside region , Poisson coding is not desirable .
CE

10
 4. An optimum can be derived for the region outside the band by the optimization
procedures discussed above . Alternately, an estimate of the average letter
length can be obtained from ratios of successive probabilities .

5. For m = 1 , the Poisson distribution approaches the normal distribution . By

selecting a suitable coordinate system , the normal distribution has a mean of
zero and a deviation of unity. Therefore , the sampling rate determines the
deviation from the mean.

6. Assumptions made for the Poisson distribution do not necessarily apply to

coding of normally distributed data . Specifically , caution is needed to ascertain
the underlying assumptions to normally distributed data , before coding it by
schemes developed for Poisson distributions.

Poisson - codes as defined above have distinct properties which can be exploited in
several ways , namely, with respect to:

1. Subframe syncs ;

2. Parity - type checks;

3. Error detecting schemes .

These will now be examined .

PROPERTIES OF POISSON- CODES

A series of interesting codes can be defined to describe runs with a known distribu
tion spectrum . These codes differ from codes described by Huffman in several
aspects , shown in Table IV :

1. The number of letters of the alphabet need not be finite .

2. Each code contains a zero at a fixed distance from one end , which is a
" sync" to each subframe.

3. Each letter has a different length.

Various combinations of Binary and Poisson codes are possible , as shown in the
example in Table IV under Poisson 2 and Poisson 4, each consisting of three parts :

1. A zero for sync ;

2.
A binary part, consisting of the binary number modulus 2N ;

11
 TABLE IV
POISSON CODES

Decimal Binary Poisson # 1 Poisson # 2 Poisson # 4

Co
Our

0 0000 0 00 000
O
N

1 0001 10 01 001
2 0010 110 100 010
3 0011 1110 101 011
4 0100 11110 1100 1000
5 0101 111110 1101 1001
6 0110 1111110 1100 1010
7 0111 11111110 1101 1011
8 1000 111111110 11100 11000
9 1001 1111111110 11101 11001

3. A run of ones consisting of a Poisson code .

For the examples cited , the mean length for a Poisson distribution with
m = 1 are :

Poisson # 1 P1) = 2.0

L ( Pl
Poisson # 2 L ( P2 )) = 2.9
Poisson # 4 L( P4 ) = 3.7
Binary L (b ) = 4.0

The distributions Poisson # 2 and Poisson #4 differ from Poisson # 1 in several

respects . Specifically, they :
1. Do not conform to the criteria established by Huffman for an optimum
code .

2. Correspond to no known distribution of data streams .

3. Do not satisfy the condition for quasi -minimum redundancy codes previously
defined .

4. Contain ambiguity for " syncing ' of subframe, since a sequence cannot be
unequivocally recognized subsequent to a signal out of " sync " .

It is not the purpose of these examples to derive optimum schemes , such as the
coding scheme Poisson 1 in Table IV. Rather , the aim is to show that it is possible
to define rational and valid criteria to compare coding schemes .

12
 Further advantages of Poisson codes are :
1. The ratio of the number of zeros to the number of ones has an ascertainable
expected value and an ascertainable standard deviation . Thus , two measure
ments are available for checks not too dissimilar in scope to parity checks .

2. A truncated Poisson - code gives in turn another Poisson code . Assume for
example that no data involving 0 , 1 and 2 are desired. Reducing all run
lengths by two and omitting 0 , 1 , 2 will again result in a Poisson distribution .

3. An error in " sync" or a bit error affects one or, at the most, two letters,
and is comparable to errors in binary coding (ref. 7 ) . Quantization errors
are also comparable to those in binary coding.

The important aspect of the Poisson-code is its regularity and simplicity of

structure . If applied to appropriate probability spectra, it provides not only significant
compaction but also reliability features worth exploiting.

FIGURE -OF -MERIT : SIGNAL - TO - NOISE RATIO

In binary coding, the probability of a bit error (p) limits the signal -to -noise ratio
for a long message :
-1
R (K = 00)
0 ) == pp -1..

For a K - bit message

-1
R(K) = p < (1-2-2K,-1
Thus ,
R(1 ) = ( 4/3) p-1
The signal - to - noise ratio due to quantization (ref. 7) in binary coding is
=
Q(K) = 6 ( K + 1) db .

In Huffman coding the signal - to - noise ratio R is similarly limited by

-1 -1
p = R(K) << (4/3)p-1
The quantization noise will be equal to the uncertainty in the run - length . For
the Poisson distribution , the uncertainty is heavily weighted in favor of the more
probable and shorter runs . The shortest runs are low accuracy measurements

13
with an uncertainty of the order of 1/2 or 6 db for all measurements . The second
moment of the Poisson distribution serves to calculate fluctuations in the run - length
as S(r = 0, 0) p (r) (m -r) 2 = m . The signal -to-noise level thus is m . Since the
average run length K = m + 1 , then:

Q (K ) 6VK
6 - 1 db

For example , m = 1/2 yields K = 1.5 and Q (K ) = 4 db . Figure -of-merit for signal-to
=

noise compared to quantization is :

( -1,1 /2 | (K + 1 ) 26-1 /2
Q ( K, P) / Q ( K, B ) = (K - 1) +

Binary coding is far less sensitive to quantization errors , since all bits are
weighted equally and only one bit is affected. In Poisson -coding, the shortest word
fluctuates most and is most heavily weighted . Typically, assuming word lengths
of 2.0 for both distributions, the signal-to- noise ratio is 30 percent better with
binary coding.

FIGURES- OF - MERIT : AVERAGE WORD LENGTH

The average word length in a Poisson code is determined by the mean m of

frequency distribution and is

L ( P) = m +1

The average word length for binary coding depends only on the desired accuracy and
is

L (B ) = -ln A.

For example, an accuracy of one part per thousand yields

-3
A = 10 and L (B) = 10.

For smaller values of m , the less deterministic are the data. In fact, if m < 1 ,
then the standard deviation will exceed the mean. Poisson - coding is based upon,
and exploits, the information contained in the statistical properties of data . This
type of coding is therefore most effective when wide fluctuations in the data are
anticipated , and data are needed with high accuracy . On the other hand , binary coding
requires equal effort for highly probable as well as for rare events . Therefore, binary
coding is advantageous for data streams of nearly equally probable events at uniform
and low accuracy .

14
 Consider the compaction ratio L(B) / L ( P) for four cases :

m = 1/2 m = 10

A = 10-6
=
6.7 0.9

A = 5% 2.0 0.3

In summary, in binary coding, one pays for the highest accuracy with which the
least probable data are given. In Poisson - coding, accurate data costs little , provided
the need for accuracy occurs infrequently, and provided the coding is matched to the
anticipated probability distribution .

APPLICATIONS TO MODULAR ARITHMETIC

A spectacular example of compaction resultant from variable - length codes can

be found in coding the alphabet of modular arithmetic. An example is listed in Table
V. Modular arithmetic has recently received attention in the Western technical
literature, in view of emphasis given to the subject by computer designers in the
Soviet literature .

In modular arithmetic , a number is written as a succession of remainders of

modulus N(i ) , the jth prime number . For example ,
=
( 4 , 2 , 1 ) (modular ) 4 (base 5) * 2 (base 3 ) * 1 (base 2 )
=
= (29 ) (decimal notation ) .

Similarly

(6 , 4 , 2 , 1 ) (modular) = 209 ( decimal)

and

(10 , 6 , 4 , 2 , 0 ) (modular) = 2309 ( decimal).

>

In Table V, the letter of the alphabet N (i) with associate probabilities P (i)
is listed . From these input data , a quasi-minimum code is then obtained by
computing L(i ) and w(i ) by the techniques developed for Table I.

The expected word length is calculated in Table VI assuming :

1. A uniform distribution of input data ;

2. A Poisson distribution .

15
 TABLE V
REDUNDANCY COMPARISON FOR MODULAR ARITHMETIC

N (i ) P (i ) L (i ) W(i ) W ( i ) N (i ) P (i ) L (i) n (i) K(i ) S (i )

2 50 3 16 32 3 .60 1.8

3 . 33 4 8 24 4 .30 1.2

5 . 20 5 4 20 5 . 08 0.4

7 .14
. 6 2 14 6 .02 0.2

11 .09 7 1 11 7 .01 0.1

13 .07 8 .5 8 8

17 0.6 9 . 25
. 4 9

19 0.5 10 .13 2 10

21 0.5 11 .06
. 1 11

23 0.4 12 . 03 1 12

TABLE VI
DATA COMPACTION FOR ALPHABET CODED FROM MODULAR ARITHMETIC

Modular Alphabet Decimal Equivalent Average Word Length

Range Digits Range Bits Uniform Poisson Binary

4, 2,1 3 29 2 12 4 5

6 , 4 , 2,1 4 209 3 18 4 8

10 , 6 , 4 , 2,1 5 2309 4 25 4 12

10 1010 11 125 4 33

16
 As before , the expected word length L( B) for binary coding is a function of the
=
desired accuracy, namely L(B) = lnA . In Table VI, for A = 209 or .5 % resolution ,
L ( B) = 8. However , for Poisson coding the average word length L(P) is a function
of the mean of Poisson uistribution m .

Table VI compares typical cases . For example , A = 209 (decimal) = 6421

(modular) binary coding requires In 209 or 8 -digit coding. By the Huffman procedure
given in Table V , the average path length is 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 18 using a uniform
probability distribution. Using a Poisson distribution of mean m = 1 gives an
=

average word length of L(P) = 4 as shown in Table V. The resultant compaction

=
is L( B )/ L (P) = 2.0.
A Poisson code for the modular alphabet combines features of both the high
resolution of binary coding with the compaction inherent in Poisson coding. The
compromise is based on the distribution of prime numbers, which is a compromise
3c ale between linear presentation and logarithmic compression.

ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES

A detailed discussion of run -length coding is presented by Capon (ref. 8 ) .

Compaction techniques are examined by Cherry (ref. 9 ) , Gouriet (ref . 10 ) ,
as well as Becker and Lawton (ref. 11 ) . A comprehensive analysis of Redundancy
Reduction is presented by Gardenhire (ref. 12 ) . A critical evaluation and comparison
with these investigations is not attempted at this time .

17
 REFERENCES

1. Anderson , T. O. , Eisenberg , I. , Lushbaugh , W. A. and Posner , E. C .:

>

Demonstration of a Quantile System for Compression of Data from Deep

Space Probe . IEEE Trans . AES- 3 , Jan. 1967 , pp . 57-65 .

2. Huffman, D. A .: A Method for the Construction of Minimum Redundancy

Codes . Proc . IRE , Sept. 1952 , pp . 1098-1101 .

3. Jackson, W .: Communication Theory . Butterworth Scientific Publications,

London , 1953 .

4. Pearson, K .: Table of Incomplete Gamma Functions .

H. M. Stationary Office , London , 1922 .

5. Molina , E. C .: Poisson's Exponential Binomial Limit .

Van Nostrand , New York , 1957 .

6. Shannon , C. E .: A Mathematical Theory of Communications.

Bell System Technical Journal , vol. 27 , 1943 .

7. Karp , S .: Noise in Digital-to- Analog Conversion Due to Bit Error .

IEEE Trans . PG- Set 10 , vol . 3 , Sept. 1964 , p . 124 .

8. Capon, K.: A Probabilistic Model for Run Length Coding of Pictures.

Transactions , Professional Group on Information Theory , IRE ,
December , 1959 .

9. Cherry, C. , et al: An Experimental Study of the Possible Bandwidth Compression

of Visual Image Signals, Proc . IEEE , vol . 51 , No. 11 , Nov. 1963 , pp . 1507-1517.

10. Gouriet, G. C .: Bandwidth Compression of a Television Signal : Proc . IEE ,

vol . 104 , Part B , No. 15 , May 1957 , pp . 265-272 .

11. Becker, H. D. , and Lawton , J. G .: Theoretical Comparison of Binary Data

Transmission Systems , Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory Inc., PAM . 621 , 3841 B3, >

May , 1958 , Revised March , 1961 .

12. Gardenhire , L. W .: Redundancy Reduction: The Key to Adaptive Telemetry .

N. T. S. Conference , June, 1964 .

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Electronics Research Center
Cambridge, Massachusetts , January 1968
125-25-04-63

18 NASA - Langley , 1968 7 C - 32

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 neering
m325 tm
74573

SOU
SPA

D
AND CE

VN O S TTUNOL
NASA TECHNICAL NOTE NASA TN D -4573

TRA
LIN

T
N

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U.S.A.
4TN
-D 573A
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THE LIBRARY DE TUR

laila
JUN 4 1968
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

LOW- DRIVE TEMPERATURE -STABLE

MEMORY CORES

by Howard Lessoff
Electronics Res
earch Center
Cambridge, Mass.
NATIONA AERONA
L UTICS AND SPACE ADMIN
ISTRATION WASHINGTON , D. C. • MAY 1968
 NASA TN D- 4573

LOW - DRIVE TEMPERATURE - STABLE

MEMORY CORES

By Howard Lessoff
Electronics Research Center
Cambridge , Mass .

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

For sale by the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information
Springfield , Virginia 22151 - CFSTI price $ 3.00
 LOW - DRIVE TEMPERATURE - STABLE MEMORY CORES

By H. Lessoff
Electronics Research Center

SUMMARY

Calcium substitutions to lithium ferrite are beneficial in controlling the

grain size and porosity and most likely in lowering the effective magnetic
anisotropy . Memory cores made from calcium compositions have very
uniform properties and offer advantages over unsubstituted lithium ferrite
in memory application at excitations in the order of 350 mA . Cores of
30/18 size have been prepared from molybdenum- substituted lithium ferrite
having full drive currents of 260 mA , however , the uniformity of these
cores is not well established .

INTRODUCTION

Memory cores made from polycrystalline lithium ferrite tend to develop

non- uniform grain growth and lose lithium during the sintering step . Non
uniformity of grain size ( secondary crystallization ) and variability of resid
ual lithium content are deleterious to the uniformity and reproducibility of
magnetic pulse properties . West and Blankenship ( ref . 1 ) have used hot
pressing techniques in an attempt to reduce the loss of lithium and control
grain size ; however , this technique is limited in effectiveness and not
readily applicable to production use . Replacement of lithium and /or iron
by other cations , e.g. , copper ( ref . 2 ) , manganese ( ref . 3 ) , vanadium
( refs . 4 , 5 ), and others ( refs. 6 , 7 ) has been used to improve the properties
of sintered lithium ferrite , Most of the substances act as fluxes to lower
the sintering temperature or as valence sinks to compensate for the loss of
lithium .

This report describes the use of calcium and molybdenum as substitutes

in the preparation of temperature - stable memory cores . Substituted lithium
compositions which effectively improve core uniformity and lower the power
required in memory application have been developed for memory cores .
These improvements have been achieved by control of the ceramic structure ,
lowering of the coercivity , and reduction of the sintering temperature .

EXPERIMENTAL

The formulations in Table I were prepared by normal ceramic process

ing . Most of the compositions as prepared are lithium - rich to compensate
-

for the loss of lithium during sintering , while not interfering with the pulse
properties . The raw materials , consisting of lithium carbonate , iron oxide ,
calcium carbonate , and molybdenum trioxide, are " analytical grade . " Each
 TABLE I
COMPOSITIONS STUDIED

Formulation Composition
A Ca
Lio , scao.01
.5 Fe2. 44º3.92
B
Lio.5Cao.01Fe2.4903.995
C Са
Lio.5Cao .o2Fe2 .43° 3.915
o

02
pi
D
Lio . 5 Cao.03Fe2.42° 3.910
E
Lio . 5Cao. 05Fe2.40 ° 3.90
F
Lio. Cao.
5 10Fe2.3503.875
G Li0.5Fe2.4503.925
H
Lio. 5Fe2.504
I Mo
Li0.5M00.01Fe2.4503.935

was chemically analyzed prior to use . The weighed powders were milled in
an alcohol slurry , dried , and then reacted at 700 ° C to decompose the car
bonates and initiate spinel formation . After reaction , the powder was re
milled with an organic binder in an alcohol slurry , then dried and sieved.2
The sieved powder was pressed into toroids at approximately 10 tons / in .
to yield sintered samples of the following size : 30 - mil outside diameter by
18 - mil inside diameter by 6 - mil height . All sinterings were carried out in
platinum boats in resistance furnaces . The furnaces were equipped to con
trol temperature , rate of rise , soak time and temperature , and rate of fall .
The oxygen atmosphere was regulated by means of calibrated flowmeters .

The sintered samples were polished and heat - etched to determine the
grain structure . The number of grains per unit volume was determined by
the slope - intercept method assuming the average shape to be a truncated
octahedron . Pulse properties were measured according to A.S.T.M.
C - 526-63T , " Tentative method of tests for non - metallic magnetic core to be
used with a two - to - one selection ratio operating under full switching condi
tions. " Coercivity was calculated from the current required to disturb
( i.e. , to cause detectable irreversible induction changes ) the core under
coincident - current operation .

2
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Ceramic Structure

For a given sintering temperature , the influence of calcium on the grain

structure is quite marked . As shown in Figure 1 , the ferrites with calcium
substitutions have smaller grain sizes and greater uniformity of grain size
distribution . Increasing the calcium content results in decreasing the grain
size as shown in Figure 2 for samples sintered at 1075 ° C in oxygen . Cal
cium substitutions above 1.46 atomic percent result in a precipitate at the
grain boundaries . Over the entire range of calcium substitutions, there is
a marked decrease in the amount of secondary crystallization and a decrease
in the porosity of the specimens . Increasing the sintering temperature of
pure lithium ferrite results in larger grain size and a large increase in the
degree of secondary crystallization . As the sintering temperature for cal
cium- substituted lithium ferrite increases , the grain size also increases ,
but secondary crystallization appears to be inhibited . The influence of
calcium in lithium ferrite appears to be analogous to the influence of thor
ium oxide on the sintering of ytterium oxide as discussed by Jorgensen and
Anderson ( ref. 8 ) .

The calcium concentration at the gra in boundaries would tend to inhibit

the grain boundary mobility . This inhibition of boundary would prevent the
growth of large grains at the expense of smaller crystallites . The calcium
at high concentration gradients at the boundaries would also act to enhance
vacancy diffusion and allow the removal of pores in the grains . The higher
the concentrations of calcium , the greater would be these effects ( see Fig
ure 2 ) .

The effect of molybdenum can be considered to be that of a flux for

sintering since sintering temperatures for constant grain size are reduced

la 1b 10
Li0.5Fe
F02.45º3.925 Lio..CAO.02Fe2.43º3.915 Li...Ca. 10Fe2.3503.875

Figure 1. -- Grain structure for sintering 1 hour at 1075 ° C ( 500X )

3
 3.0 ,
Ihr at 1075 ° C

2.6
millimeter
Number
grains
) 106
xcubic

2.2
(per
of

1.8

1.4

1.0

0.6

0.2
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
"X"
Lio.gCox F®2.45 - xº3.925-13 /2)x

Figure 2 . Grain size versus calcium content

4
for formulation I ; however , there is little decrease in the porosity and
secondary crystallization is quite prevalent. Both calcium and molybdenum
do influence the pulse properties of lithium ferrite .
Magnetic and Pulse Properties

Calcium has a major influence on the pulse properties and the coercivity
when compared to unsubstituted lithium ferrite . For a sintering of 1 hour
at 1075° C , lithium ferrite ( composition G ) has a coercivity of 3.5 0e and
2.7x105 grains / mm3 ; whereas composition A has a coercivity of 1.8 0e and
9.3x10 5' grains / mm 3 ' Normally the smaller grain size material , composi
tion A , should have the higher coercivity if there were no other factors in
fluencing magnetic properties. The results imply that the calcium substitu
tion reduces the effective magnetic anisotropy by a factor of about 3. Com
position G can be sintered to give a} mm
coersitity of 1.8 0e; however , the number
of grains per unit volume is 71x10 with very extensive secondary
crystallization . The uniformity of pulse properties of cores with secondary
crystallization is very poor . The switching properties of the calcium- sub
stituted lithium ferrite are quite uniform . Under similar excitation condi
tions such cores switch faster with higher break currents than lithium
ferrite ( Table II ) . Figure 3 shows typical pulse properties of composition B
when sintered for 4 hours at 1150 ° C .

TABLE II

PULSE PROPERTIES OF CORES *

Formulation dv T T
uvi1 Z р S Іь
( mv ) (m V ) ( nsec ) ( nsec ) ( mA )

22 2.8 440 710 370

G

H 21 2.0 430 700 365

H

23 2.0 390 680 385

A

23 2.5 340 640 370

B

с 24 2.5 350 650 380

** ( Compatible coercivity drive current = 600 mA ; pulse rise time =

200 nsec ; pulse duration = 1.2 msec ) .
-

The lowest drive material developed was made from composition I con
taining molyhdenum . The coercivity is approximately 0.84 Oe for the
material sintered 1 hour at 1200 ° C ; however , yield or uniformity is quite
poor because of excessive secondary crystallization . There is also substan
tial lithium loss at the high sintering temperature . It appears that the
molybdenum can undergo changes in valence to compensate for the loss of
the lithium . Typical pulse response curves for this material are shown in
Figure 4 and the influence of temperature at constant excitation conditions
is shown in Figure 5 .

5
 core size : 30/18 mils hgt.:6 mil
rise time: 0.500 microsec. -1.400
duration: 1.500 microsec.
60

F1.200
To
50
millivolts

F1.000
ove
)a,u( Vnd

40

UV -.800

30 TP

.600

20 F.80

F.70
Ib /Im
10 .60

-.50
dVz

300 350 400 450 500 550

drive current in milliamperos (Im )!

Figure 3 . Pulse response curve of composition " B " 1

6
 16

Ts

inmicroseconds
14 -1.600

)time
and
(Tp
Tg
12 UV F1.400
pup?л

10 F1.200
core size : 30/18 mils by 4 mil hgt .
millivolts

rise time : 0.500 microsec .

duration : 1.750 microsec .
,( v

-1.000 S
u

тр
-.800

4 .8

"I/'
4.7

24
16/1cm -.6
N

dV_
-.5

260 280 300 320 340

drive current in milliamperos

Figure 4 . Pulse response curves of composition " I"

7
 o
°
C
SCALE

25°c Horizontal=0.5u sec /div

Vertical = 5 mV / div

100 °C

Figure 5. -- Influence of temperature on pulse response

( Composition I , Drive Current = 260 mA/ 156 mA )

8
 REFERENCES

1. West , R.G. , and Blankenship , A. C .: J. Amer . Ceram . Soc . Vol . 50 ,

p . 343 , 1967 .

2. Gorter , E.W. , and Esvelt , C.J .: U.S. Patent 2,882,235 , April 14 ,

1959 .

3 Baltzer , P.K .: U.S. Patent 3 , 034 , 987 , Map 15 , 1962 .

.
‫به‬

4. Wickham , D.G. , and Ho Bin Im: U.S. Patent 3 , 300 , 411 , January 24 ,
1967 .

5. Lessoff , H .: U.S. Patent 3 , 372, 122 , March 5 , 1968 .

6. Lessoff , H. , and Fortin , E. G .: U.S. Patent 3 , 223,641, December 14 ,
1965 .

7. Vinal , F.E. , and Brown , D. L .: U.S. Patent 3,038,860 , December 12 ,

1962 .

8. Jorgensen , P.J. , and Anderson , R.C .: J. Amer . Ceram . Soc . Vol . 50 ,

p . 553 , 1967 .

Electronics Research Center

National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Cambridge , Massachusetts , February 1968
125-25-01-09

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Um325th
# 4574

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THE LIBRARY DE TOT

JUN 6 1963
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

A SUMMARY OF ROTOR -HUB BENDING MOMENTS

ENCOUNTERED BY A HIGH-PERFORMANCE
HINGELESS - ROTOR HELICOPTER
DURING NAP-OF-THE-EARTH MANEUVERS

by William J. Snyder
Langley Research Center
Langley Station , Hampton , Va.

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION WASHINGTON , D. C. • MAY 1968

 NASA TN D - 4574

A SUMMARY OF ROTOR - HUB BENDING MOMENTS ENCOUNTERED

BY A HIGH - PERFORMANCE HINGELESS - ROTOR HELICOPTER

DURING NAP -OF - THE - EARTH MANEUVERS

By William J. Snyder

Langley Research Center

Langley Station , Hampton , Va .

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

For sale by the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information
Springfield , Virginia 22151 - CFSTI price $3.00
-
 A SUMMARY OF ROTOR - HUB BENDING MOMENTS ENCOUNTERED

BY A HIGH - PERFORMANCE HINGELESS - ROTOR HELICOPTER

DURING NAP - OF - THE - EARTH MANEUVERS
-

By William J. Snyder
Langley Research Center

1 SUMMARY

A brief investigation was recently undertaken at Langley Research Center to study

the flying qualities and structural loads of a hingeless - rotor helicopter , the XH - 51N ,
during nap -of - the -earth maneuvers . This investigation was part of Langley's continuing
flight research with hingeless -rotor helicopters.
The series of nap -of - the - earth maneuvers was devised primarily to simulate mili
tary helicopter operation in a hostile environment where remaining undetected is a neces
sity. Most of the maneuvers employed are abrupt turns, starts , and stops which require
a helicopter with very good maneuverability to perform them effectively. Previous
investigations have shown that the cyclic loads of the hingeless rotor can be very high
during these abrupt types of maneuvers .
Time histories of the rotor - hub bending moments measured during the investigation
show that during the abrupt maneuvers a rapid buildup in the cyclic bending moments
occurs . This buildup , in most cases , exceeds the assigned endurance limit of the rotor
>

hub to such an extent that the service life of the hub is significantly shortened . These
results indicate that any operational hingeless - rotor helicopter utilized for nap -of-the
earth flying must be carefully evaluated with respect to the service life of the rotor
system .

INTRODUCTION

The helicopter, through its unique capabilities , lends itself handily to military oper
>

ation over unfamiliar terrain or in areas inaccessible to fixed -wing aircraft and ground
vehicles . It can fly at low levels and follow the terrain by abruptly maneuvering to avoid
obstructions. It can also rise quickly to an altitude for observation purposes and return
quickly to cover to avoid detection. These tasks, which are accomplished by nap -of-the
earth maneuvers , demand the fullest utilization of the helicopter and require high maneu
verability. Theimproved control-responsecharacteristicsof the hingeless-rotor
helicopters , as reported in references 1 and 2 , should make them effective aircraft for
nap -of -the - earth flying , but an investigation of the rotor dynamic loads is necessary to
determine to what extent they warrant concern .
The current hingeless - rotor flight research , utilizing the XH - 51N , is a follow-on
to wind - tunnel tests of hingeless - rotor models in the Langley full- scale tunnel and the
Langley transonic dynamics tunnel and to preliminary flight research with a rudimentary
hingeless - rotor helicopter , XH - 13N (OH - 13G) . (See refs . 1 , 2 , and 3. ) It was discovered
>

that an undesirable buildup in the cyclic chordwise moments occurred during maneuvers
with the XH - 13N (ref . 3) .

The present paper summarizes some of the rotor -hub bending moments encountered
during a brief flight investigation of the flying qualities and dynamic loads characteristics
of a high -performance hingeless - rotor helicopter during nap -of-the - earth maneuvers .
The rotor structural loads , which are of most concern during abrupt maneuvering , are
presented to indicate how they may restrict the maneuver capability of current hingeless
rotor helicopters and how they may influence the design of future hingeless - rotor heli
copters . Some of the problem areas which arose during this investigation are discussed
qualitatively in appendix A.

SYMBOLS

A1 lateral cyclic blade pitch angle ( cyclic pitch for primarily lateral control
moments ), positive for blade leading edge up at ♡ = 180° , radians

B1 longitudinal cyclic blade pitch angle (cyclic pitch for primarily longitudinal
control moments) , positive for blade leading edge up at y = 270º , radians

p helicopter rolling velocity , positive for right roll , radians per second

q helicopter pitching velocity , positive for nose -up pitching , radians per second

instantaneous blade - section pitch angle , angle between line of zero lift of
blade section and plane perpendicular to rotor shaft, radians or degrees

DO
collective pitch angle at blade root , radians or degrees

resultant amplitude of first -harmonic cyclic pitch angle

radians or degrees
A ,2 + B,?2
4

blade azimuth angle measured from downwind position in direction of rotor

rotation , degrees
2
 VEHICLE AND INSTRUMENTATION

The vehicle utilized in the present investigation is the hingeless - rotor helicopter ,
XH - 51N , shown in figure 1. The basic configuration is a three - blade single - rotor heli
copter with cantilevered flexible blades . It is fairly clean aerodynamically , with retract
able gear and with fairings around the mast area . The XH - 51N is unique in the way in
which the control system incorporates a free gyro . The gyro , seen in figure 2 , precesses
to provide feathering inputs to blades when subjected to an applied moment provided by
the pilot through a system of springs , as shown in figure 3 (from ref . 4) . The gyro is
also subject to feedback from the flapwise and chordwise blade moments (ref . 5 ) . The
major physical parameters of the XH - 51N are shown in table I.
The extensive handling - qualities and structural- loads instrumentation of the XH - 51N
is listed in appendix B. While most of the instrumentation was monitored during the data
reduction for this investigation , the structural loads relating to the rotor hub at station 6
(fig . 2 ) were found to be of most concern and are indicative of the severity of the maneu
vers ; therefore , structural data will be presented only for the rotor -hub flapwise and
chordwise bending at station 6 (6 in , or 15.2 cm from center line of main rotor) .
The data were recorded on two onboard 36 - channel oscillographs . In addition to the
onboard recording equipment, four channels of structural data were transmitted by telem -
etry to a direct readout oscillograph on the ground for constant monitoring .

TASK

The maneuvers selected are , for the most part , variations of the " Army Dozen "
(ref . 6 ) . The maneuvers utilized for this flight investigation were :
Slalom course

Teardrop turn
S - turn

Hit - the - deck

Scramble

Whoa - boy

Only one pilot was involved in the maneuvers, each of which was performed several times
for both practice and data .

3
 Slalom Course

The slalom course as illustrated in figure 4 (a) is a series of rapid roll reversals
through a line of pylons or markers . This maneuver was devised to simulate a combat
task of terrain following or evasive action.
The slalom maneuvers were performed with the markers spaced at distances of
either 200 feet or 400 feet (61 m or 122 m) . The maneuvers were performed at the maxi
mum speed at which the pilot felt he could maintain adequate control of the aircraft . The
slalom course is a very useful tool for maneuver studies since it is repeatable and incor
porates many maneuvers found in the other tasks .

Teardrop Turn

The teardrop turn illustrated in figure 4 (b) involves passing over a point , rolling into
a banked turn , and returning immediately to the same point . The maneuver is performed
by rolling either right or left , holding the banked attitude , and then rolling back level
before the aircraft passes back over the target .

S - Turn

The S -turn maneuver as shown in figure 4 (c) is a side - step maneuver to avoid some
obstacle . It involves a 90° turn in one direction , leveling , and then another 90° turn in the
opposite direction to bring the aircraft parallel to the original flight path .

Hit - the - Deck

The hit -the -deck maneuver shown in figure 4 (d) is used for rapid descents from an
observation altitude or cruise altitude to an altitude behind cover . The maneuver involves
a collective -pitch reduction and pitch -under . When the desired lower altitude is reached ,
power is increased and the helicopter continues in flight close to the ground .

Scramble

The scramble illustrated in figure 4 (e) was performed both from a hover and from
the ground . The scramble is used in nap -of -the - earth flying for rapid take -offs with the
vehicle remaining close to the ground . The maneuver is performed by lifting off and
simultaneously pitching forward , employing maximum power .

Whoa - Boy

The whoa -boy (fig . 4 (f) ) is a quick - stop maneuver consisting of a longitudinal and a
lateral flare . The maneuver is performed by pitching slightly nose - up and making a rapid

4
900 yaw with a lateral flare . The maneuver is used in place of a longitudinal flare so that
the helicopter may remain close to the ground during the flare .

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

General Procedure

The results presented were obtained from the flight records for each type of maneu
ver described in the previous section . The measured bending moments and cyclic pitch
are plotted as cyclic amplitudes about their mean values , based on readings about every
0.2 second , with care taken to include all peaks. The mean loads are not presented since
they are not considered critical. The structural data are presented as bending moments ,
but in order to realize the practical significance of these moments, they may be converted
to stresses by using the stress - conversion diagram in figure 5.
The coupled endurance limit , which is indicated on each bending- moment trace , is
based on a representative flapwise cyclic bending - moment amplitude and the particular
chordwise cyclic bending- moment amplitude required to exceed an assigned alternating
stress limit of +20 000 psi (+137 900 000 N /m2) at a corner of the hub cross section
(station 6 ) . The maximum stress is dependent on the phasing of the two moments but , for

simplification , it is considered conservative to assume that the moments are in phase ,

which is often the case . A summary of the tasks and the results to be discussed is pre
sented in table II .

Slalom Course

400 -ft (122- m ) markers.- The pertinent data for the slalom course with 400 -ft
( 122 - m) spaced markers are plotted in figure 6. The parameters shown are the cyclic
blade -angle amplitudes, aircraft pitching and rolling angular velocities , envelopes of the
cyclic chordwise and flapwise bending -moment amplitudes , and the normal acceleration .
For the slalom run the helicopter is rolled left as it passes the first marker , right
as it passes the second marker , and so forth . The initial right roll required to enter the
slalom is not shown in figure 6 .

Decreases in the cyclic pitch and in the cyclic chordwise and flapwise bending
moment amplitudes are noted as the helicopter builds up right rolling velocity . When the
helicopter is rolling left, the cyclic pitch and the cyclic bending moments increase .
>

During the left rolling maneuver the combined cyclic chordwise and flapwise bending
moments give stresses well above the endurance limit of the hub .
5
 The rise in chordwise and flapwise cyclic bending moments with left roll is at least
partially due to the large increase in the cyclic pitch . The direct dependence of the cyclic
bending moments on cyclic pitch is indicated in the equations of appendixes B and C of
reference 3 .

The asymmetrical behavior and lack of coordination of the test helicopter during the
slalom maneuvers are functions of several complex aerodynamic and dynamic factors,
some of which are inherent in all helicopters. These factors are listed in appendix A.
200 -ft (61 - m ) markers.- Figure 7 shows that the results for the slalom course
with the 200 -foot (61 - m) markers are similar to those shown in figure 6 for the course
with 400-foot ( 122 - m) markers . Although it is not readily apparent from figures 6 and
7 , an examination of all the data runs shows that the loadings resulting from the slalom
course with 200 -foot (61 - m ) markers were generally more severe than those from the
slaloms with 400 -foot ( 122 -m) markers . The trend of higher cyclic bending moments in
left roll is again apparent in figure 7 .
A detailed time history of a roll reversal from another 200 - foot (61 - m) marker
slalom run is shown in figure 8. This figure shows the actual cyclic variations of bending
moments as functions of the azimuth angle rather than a time history of maximum ampli
tudes as shown in figures 6 and 7. Again the difference between the left and right roll is
apparent. This particular roll reversal was the most severe loading condition encoun
tered during this investigation. The maximum flapwise cyclic bending moment was nearly
+20 000 in - lb (+2260 N- m) and the maximum chordwise cyclic bending moment was over
+160 000 in - lb (+18 100 N - m) which , added directly , gave a maximum cyclic stress of
>

+60 000 psi (+413 682 000 N/m2) . This high stress level would be acceptable statically ,
but when applied as an alternating stress it results in rapid deterioration of the service
life of the rotor hub. Considering that the slalom course , as well as the nap - of - the - earth
maneuvers it was devised to simulate , consists of a series of roll reversals , the fatigue
of the rotor components could result in serious limitations of the maneuver capability of
the hingeless - rotor helicopter . It is also to be noted in figure 8 that drastic fluctuations
occur in the normal acceleration during the left roll . These fluctuations led to bottoming
of the spring -mounted cabin and to large fluctuations in the cyclic bending moments (pri
marily chordwise) . The normal-acceleration fluctuations are related to the lack of
coordination during the slalom maneuvers . (See appendix A.)
A more closely coordinated (smoother) slalom came about after the pilot had a sig
nificant amount of experience in coping with the inherent problems of the helicopter.
A detailed time history of a roll reversal from a more closely coordinated slalom is
1
shown in figure 9. It can be seen that the magnitudes of the fluctuations in normal accel
eration and cyclic bending moments are substantially reduced; however , the resulting 1

stresses are still well above the assigned endurance limit .

1
6
 The buildup in cyclic bending moments during roll reversals of hingeless rotors
is also evident in figure 10 , which shows a detailed time history of a roll reversal per
formed in a rudimentary hingeless - rotor helicopter , the XH - 13N. (See refs . 2 and 3. )
By referring again to figures 8 and 9 , it can be seen that the flapwise bending
moment trace of the XH - 51N shows the effects of extensive random loadings . This ran
dom loading is tentatively ascribed to nonharmonic feedback from the blades to the con
trol gyro when the blades strike the tip vortex of the preceding blades and to the coupling
of the controls with the vertical motion of the spring -mounted cabin , as mentioned in
appendix A. The vertical motion of the cabin is aggravated by excessive collective stick
sensitivity . The XH - 13N did not employ a control gyro or spring- mounted cabin, and the
flapwise bending -moment trace in figure 10 is seen to be relatively free of nonharmonic
loadings .

Teardrop Turn and S - Turn

Figure 11 shows the time history of one teardrop turn. The maneuver was per
formed at an entry speed of 70 knots and again , during the left roll , there is a rapid
buildup in the rotor -hub cyclic bending moments . Figure 12 shows the time history of
an S-turn performed at an entry speed of 65 knots. As in the other maneuvers requiring
roll - control inputs , stresses are fairly severe during the left roll and there is a rapid
buildup in the cyclic bending moments .

Hit -the -Deck and Scramble From the Ground

The pitching maneuvers of the hit - the -deck and scramble shown in figures 13 and
14 , respectively, were far less severe than the rolling maneuvers . Again , as expected ,
the bending -moment traces follow the cyclic pitch .

Whoa - Boy
-

The whoa - boy maneuver shown in figure 15 is the least severe of the six maneuvers
from the standpoint of chordwise dynamic loading . However , the flapwise cyclic moments
maintain a fairly high level throughout the maneuver .

Methods of Alleviating the High Cyclic Hub Moments

During Nap -of - the - Earth Maneuvers
-

During this investigation the control gyro of the XH - 51N was lightly damped. An
increase in the mechanical damping on the gyro , the elimination of the coupling between
control inputs and cabin motion , and the reduction of the collective sensitivity may result
in the reduction of the chordwise and flapwise stresses during maneuvers . Other possi
bilities for reducing the maneuver loads include variable tail incidence in order to induce
7
a favorable change in the required cyclic pitch and reduced in-plane stiffness to allow
more centrifugal relief of the chordwise moments (refs . 2 , 3 , and 5) ..

SUMMARY OF RESULTS

Results of this brief investigation of the rotor -hub cyclic bending moments of a
hingeless -rotor helicopter during nap -of - the -earth maneuvers may be summarized as
follows :

1. The rotor -hub cyclic bending moments were severe , especially during rapid roll
reversals , and require specific design attention (possibly a different design approach) to
avoid limiting the maneuver capability of a hingeless - rotor helicopter .
2. The test helicopter behaved asymmetrically between right and left roll , and the
resulting stresses were substantially higher during the left rolls than during the right
rolls .

3. The degree of coordination which the pilot was able to achieve during the maneu
vers had a substantial effect on the cyclic bending moments .

4. An operational aircraft with a hingeless rotor will require careful evaluation

during nap -of-the -earth flying in order to establish the overall service life of the rotor
system .

Langley Research Center,

National Aeronautics and Space Administration ,
Langley Station , Hampton , Va . , January 24 , 1968 ,
721-02-00-02-23 .

8
 APPENDIX A

FACTORS RELATING TO ASYMMETRICAL BEHAVIOR OF TEST HELICOPTER

AND LACK OF COORDINATION DURING SLALOM MANEUVERS

The flight data and pilot comment have revealed that rapid negotiation of the slalom
course in the test helicopter results in asymmetrical behavior and difficulties in coordi
nation. Some of the factors relating to these findings are as follows :
1. Longitudinal inflow variation and coning in forward flight which results in lateral
aircraft moments ( lateral trim shift ). (This factor is inherent to some extent in all types
of rotors .)
2. Fuselage and rotor -pylon interference may be occurring in the azimuth positions
aft of the rotor pylon. (This factor could be inherent to some extent in all helicopters but
may be larger in a helicopter where the rotor is mounted close to the fuselage .)
3. Excessive collective -pitch sensitivity which leads to poor power coordination and
high fluctuations in normal acceleration (0.4g to 0.6g per in. (0.15g to 0.23g per cm) of
collective stick ).

4. Control inputs couple with vertical motion of the spring -mounted cabin ( 0.83 in .
(2.11 cm) of longitudinal control per g and 0.50 in . ( 1.27 cm ) of lateral control per g) .
.

5. Asymmetric adverse yaw which leads to poor directional control .

6. Crosswinds which cause alternating upwind and downwind turns .
7. Cross - coupling of rotor pitch and roll control inputs which results from gyro
control springs acting through bellcrank motions which become nonlinear for large pilot
control inputs.

The combination of all or some of these factors results in an erratic and poorly
coordinated maneuver and subsequently in high blade stresses .
The NASA research pilot who performed the flights reported in this paper has sub
sequently flown an uninstrumented production -prototype version of the test helicopter
through the slalom course . This prototype, which had several modifications including
rigid mounting of the cabin , appeared to perform the maneuvers in a smoother and more
>

coordinated manner .

9
 APPENDIX B

INSTRUMENTATION

Main Rotor :

Strain gages :

Hub flapwise bending at a station 6 in . ( 15.2 cm ) from center line of main

rotor
Hub chordwise bending at a station 6 in . ( 15.2 cm) from center line of main
rotor
Mast bending 90° from instrumented hub arm
Mast bending 00 from instrumented hub arm
Axial - load pitch link
Position transmitters :

Blade angle

Control System :
Strain gages :

Axial load of boost - idler linkages , longitudinal and lateral

Axial load of swash-plate linkages, longitudinal and lateral
Control - stick force , longitudinal and lateral
Position transmitters :

Swash plate , longitudinal and lateral positions

Control stick , longitudinal and lateral positions

Accelerations and Angular Velocities :

Rate gyros :
Pitch rate in transmission compartment
Roll rate in cabin

Accelerometers :

Longitudinal , lateral , and vertical cabin accelerations

10
 APPENDIX B

Vibrations :

Vibration pickups:
Longitudinal, lateral, and vertical cabin vibrations
Longitudinal, lateral, and vertical transmission vibrations
>

Horizontal Tail:

Vertical bending at a station 9 in . (22.8 cm) from center line of fuselage

Tail Rotor :

Strain gages:

Flapwise bending at a station 19.5 in . (49.5 cm) from center line of tail rotor
Chordwise bending at a station 19.5 in . (49.5 cm) from center line of tail rotor
Axial loads in pitch link

Performance :

Airspeed
Altitude
Engine and fuel - control parameters

11
 REFERENCES

1. Huston , Robert J. (with appendix A by Robert J. Huston and William J. Snyder ): An

Exploratory Investigation of Factors Affecting the Handling Qualities of a Rudimen
tary Hingeless Rotor Helicopter . NASA TN D - 3418 , 1966 . .

2. Huston , Robert J .; and Ward , John F.: Handling Qualities and Structural Characteris
tics of the Hingeless -Rotor Helicopter . Conference on V/STOL and STOL Aircraft,
NASA SP - 116 , 1966 , pp . 1-16 .
3. Ward , John F .: Exploratory Flight Investigation and Analysis of Structural Loads
Encountered by a Helicopter Hingeless Rotor System . NASA TN D - 3676 , 1966 .
4. Wyrick , D. R .; and Buzzetti, C. J .: Final Flight Test Report and Pre -Military Research
Evaluation Conference Report XH - 51A Rigid Rotor Helicopter . Rept . No. 16933
Suppl . I ( Contract No. NOW 62-0665 -d) , Lockheed - California Co. , Sept. 10 , 1963 .
5. Lockheed - California Co .: Investigation of Elastic Coupling Phenomena of High Speed
Rigid Rotor Systems . TRECOM Tech . Rept. 63-75 ( Lockheed Rept. No. 17013) ,
U.S. Army Transportation Res . Command ( Fort Eustis , Va .) , June 1964 .
6. Burpo , Frank B .: Maneuverability Data From an Army Helicopter Flying a Simulated 2

을
Armament Mission . Rept . No. 831-099-003 , Bell Helicopter Co. , Apr. 1965 .

12
 TABLE I.- PHYSICAL PARAMETERS OF XH - 51N

Main rotor (hingeless ):

Number of main - rotor blades . .
. 3
Main - rotor diameter.. 35 ft ( 10.7 m)
Main - rotor blade chord 13.5 in . ( 34.3 cm )
Main - rotor disk area 962 ft2 (89.4 m2)
Solidity ... . 0.0614
Airfoil section . . . NACA 0012
Blade twist (linear washout) . ...- 50
Fixed coning angle, hub . . 2.8° from horizontal
Fixed coning angle , blade 1.8° from horizontal
Normal rotor speed . .. 355 rpm
Blade weight . 86 lbf/blade ( 382 N/blade )
Rotor mass moment of inertia .
760 slug-ft2 ( 1030 kg-m2)
Blade sweepforward at 75 percent radius . 2.25 in. ( 5.7 cm )
Flapwise natural frequency of rotating blade 40.9 rad /sec
Chordwise natural frequency of rotating blade .
52.3 rad/sec
Control gyro :
Diameter . 77 in. ( 196 cm )
Gyro mass moment of inertia 7.5 slug-ft2 ( 10.2 kg-m2)
Tail rotor (teetering) :
Number of blades 2

Rotor diameter . O .
6 ft ( 1.83 m )
Disk area . 28.27 ft2 (2.63 m2)
Blade chord 8.5 in . ( 21.6 cm )
Solidity . .0.149
Airfoil section NACA 0012
Blade twist . . -4.400
Fixed coning angle . 00
Normal rotor speed 2085 rpm
Rotor mass moment of inertia . 0.302 slug-ft2 (0.41 kg -m2)
Effective cant angle of flapping hinge . 150
Horizontal tail:
Span .
84 in. (2.13 m)
Chord .
13 in . (33 cm )
Area . 7.55 ft2 (0.7 m2)
Aspect ratio 6.45
Fixed incidence angle -5.50
Airfoil section . NACA 0015

Gross weight for this investigation (right seat , pilot ; left seat , lead ballast) . .
. 4100 lbf ( 18 238 N)
Longitudinal center of gravity for this investigation, from center line of main rotor 0.3 in. (0.8 cm ) aft
Lateral center of gravity for this investigation, from center line of main rotor 0 in. (0 cm)

13
14
RESULTS
AND
TASKS
OF
SUMMARY
II.-
TABLE

Approximate Percent
of
Predominant to
time spen
timet Comments
Task , assi
abovegned
maneuvers task
complete
sec end
limiura
t nce
Slalo
coursme reversals
roll
Rapid 30 40 Stresses
occur
excess
in
far
assigned
of
limit
endurance

pitching
and
Rolling
turns
Teardrop 20 50 stresses
high
Moderately
t
S- urn Rolling 16 30 stresses
high
Moderately
the
Hit
-d eck Pitching 8 18 Moderate
stresses

Scramble Pitching 10 40 Moderate

stresses

b
-Who
oy a roll
nd
,ayaw
Pitch 10 30 Moderate
stresses
 15:30

NASA

LANGLEY
RESEARON
CENTER

Figure
1.-
Experime
hingeles
otor
helicopte
1N
-r.5XH ntal
sr
L-68-839

15
16
GYRO

HUB
STRA
G
- AGEIN
LOCA ON
S(6) TATITION

RINGS
SLIP

Figure
hub2.-
5Photograph
-of
XH
mast1N
and
showing
locations
gages
.strain L-68-840
 Gyro

--..

Swash

Pitch positive plate

Pitch negative
spring spring
Pitch
damper
Pitch boost
cylinder Roll
damper
Pitch trim
actuator Roll
Roll
positive negative
spring spring
Roll boost
cylinder
Roll trim
an
amar actuator

Pitch feel Roll feel

spring Speed-sensing spring
unit
Figure 3.- Control system details of XH- 51N helicopter.

17
 of
8
(a ) Slalom course (top view ).

(b) Teardrop turn (top view ).

(c) S - turn (top view ).

Figure 4.- Maneuver tasks.

18
 끼 777
( d) Hit - the - deck ( side view ) .

류
(e ) Scramble ( side view) .

(f) Whoa - boy ( side view).

Figure 4.- Concluded.

19
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at
performed
ourse
cmarkers
)s(1oot
.m22
paced

21
22
2
Normal
,acceleration 1
ugnits
0
+120 X
10 x103
1760

80
+ m-N
chordwise
hub
- otor
rMain harith +380
moment
bending
cyclic
n
l-i6,btation
samplitude 40 M
0 0
flapwise
Coupled
3†0
103 and
chordwise x1030
+4
X
limit
endurance
-rotor
Main
hub
flapwise
moment
bending
cyclic
2+0 141 ATAW 2+ 0 -m
N
1+0
-l6,,bntation
isamplitude
0 0

R1
r/sP,ad
veloc
Rolliec ity
ng 0
1-L

.5
Up
ad
/sr,qec
velocity
Pitching 0

-.5
Dn

+8
angle
- oot
rblade
Cyclic +4
ejeg
,damplitude ‫اس‬
0

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
,sec
Time

‫پر‬ markers
fknots oot
to
45
atpaced
200
performed
50
c.-m)s(6through
maneuver
1ourse
Slalom
7.-
Figure
 20 x103 40 x103
Main - rotor hub flapwise
bending moment, station 6, in- lb
-10
0

120 x103
verildim,pa
M M
0

-20
N- m

180 x103

Main -rotor hub chordwise bending

moment, station 6, in- lb
0 MAon
Walt W 0 N -m

-80 -120

20
Blade root angular motion, 0
Fum non
» , deg
‫ܘ‬

R 1

Rolling velocity, p, rad /sec 0

L -.5
2

Normal acceleration ,
g units
1
.5
ДЛД A
20
Blade - root collective
0
pitch angle, e,o deg
Up.5

Pitching velocity, q, rad /sec 0

Dn -.5

+ + LLLL
1 10 20 30 40
Main rotor revolutions, y = 0 °

Figure 8.- Roll reversal performed at 45 to 50 knots during negotiation of early slalom course with 200 -foot (61- m) markers in the XH- 51N .

23
 x41003

24
hub
flapwise
-rotor
Main
,6tation
moment
sbending
10
2x 0
pozemky 0
-m
N

0
-lb
in
1-0 -20

x1810 3
1
1x20X03
chordwise
hub
-otor
rMain wah
tation
s,6moment
bending bu m
-
N
-lb
in .0
0
-120
-80
motio
angul
,root nar20
Blade w
de,eg 0

R |

r/,p0ad
velo
sRoll ec city
ing
.
-L 5

1.5
,acceleration
Normal
ugnits .5

IH

10 20 30 40
0
revo , otornlutions
r-0°=y
Mai

.5XH
-the
in
mfwith
slalom
last
knots
at of
negotiati
during 45
performe 1N
1arkers
oot
)m(6200
course on
d
reversal
9.-
Figure Roll
 7 х
103 x103
10
-rotor
Main
blade
,
moment
bending
flapwise mond -m
N
-l41
,ibn
station 0 mummm 0
-5
15s00x3 x103
75
rblade
- otor
Main 25
mawmm
m mm
chordwise
bending
l41
-,ibtation
smoment
n 0
0 -m
N

2- 5
-50
20
Em
rBlade
angula
- oot r
wwww wwww
mmmmmmm Wwwwwww
M
dmotion
,oeg

10
0
R.2
ad 0
,pr/sec
velocity
Rolling
4-L

Norm
acce
, lera
al tion1
ugnits
0

1 10 20 30
40

Main
revolu
-r0°=y, otor tions

Figure
10.-
reversal
Roll
performed
at
knots
-170
XH
.in 3N

25
.26
2
Normal
accelera
, tion
ugnits 1

0
1x
0320
+1 3
x1060
+1

+80 wWohrdy -m
N

-rotor
Main
cyclic
chordwise
hub
+40
th +80

amplitude
,
moment
bending
6,i-lbn
station

flapwise
Coupled
0 0
chordwise
and x103
3+0
#20 1x03
limit
endurance
hub
Main
-rotor
flapwise 1#0
Aath
w m
at -m
N
moment
bending
cyclic
si,6-lbntation
amplitude 0 0
R.5

s/r,pec
ad ty
veloci
Rollin g 0

-L .5
.5
Up

ec
/sr4, ad
velocity
Pitching 0

-.5
Dn
+8
angle
-root
blade
Cyclic
amplitude
,ez
deg +4

0 2 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
,sec
Time

.
knots
70
of
speed
entry
an
at
performed
turn
Teardrop
11.-
Figure
 ,accele 2
Normalration
ugnits 1

0 1+60
x103

+80
1x03
X
Mw +80
-M
N

hub
chordwise
-rotor
Main
moment
bending
cyclic 40
$
n
-i6,btation
lsamplitude

0 0
1x<03 flapwise
Coupled x1
+370 03
2+0 X and
chordwise
Main
- otor
cyclic
rhub
flapwise limit
endurance
,bending
amplitude
moment
istation
6,-bn +10
A -m
N

0 0

R.5
s/rP,ec
ad ty
veloci
Rollin g 0

L..5
Up.5
ad 0
/r,qec
svelocity
Pitching
-.5
Dn

38
angle
-root
blade
Cyclic +4
,deg
OL amplitude 0

0 2 6 8 10 12 14
16

sTime
, ec

an
at12.-
-tFigure
performed
Surn
entry
knots
65
of
.speed

27
28
2
Normal
acceleration
,
ugnits 1

0
3
x1020
+1
8+0
1x03 va -
N
m
+40
-rotor
Main
chordwise
hub
moment
bending
cyclic
n
s,-I6ibtation
amplitude flapwise
Coupled
0 0
and
chordwise
+20
1x03 limit
endurance
rMain
-otor
hub
flapwise x103
1-20
moment
bending
cyclic
n
s,6-ilbtation
amplitude 0 -m
N
0
.5
Up
,qrec
velocity
/sPitching
ad
0

,5
Dn-
10
8
collective
-root
Blade 6
angle
pitch
, PO deg
4

0
+6
r- oot
blade
Cyclic 04
,
ampli
angle tude
.©jdeg 2
#
0
f 8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

,sec
Time

knots
70
.speed
of
entry
with
-m
)(6200
afrom
maneuverltitude
oot
fdHiteck
1he
tFigure
13.-
 2

acceleration
Normal 1
u9nits
0

x 103 x10
17 20 3
+80

60
-rotor
Main
chordwise
hub
+40
-160 -m
N
moment
bending
cyclic
n
s,-l6ibtation
amplitude
+20
flapwise
Coupled
0 chordwise
and 0
+20
x103 limit
endurance 3x103
+0
flapwise
-rotor
Main
hub
moment
bending
cyclic +10 -m
N
-l6,ibntation
samplitude
0 0
.5
Up

ad
/r,4ec
svelocity 0
Pitching
-.5
Dn

8
-rcollective
Blade
oot
ang le
,pitch deg 4
o
0
+8
angle
-root
blade
Cyclic
+4
o. °1 ,edamplitu
eg de
0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10
8

Time
,sec

.
knots
80
to
ground
from
maneuver
Scramble
14.-
Figure

29
 2

30
Normal
,acceleration 1
gunits
0 x10
1+720 3
+80
1x03

Main
- otor
chordwise
rhub +40 160 -
N
m
moment
bending
cyclic
n
amplitude
s,-l6,ibtation
Coupled
flapwise
0 chordwi
and se 0
+20
1x03 enduran
limit ce
rMain
- otor
flapwise
hub x103
2-0
bending
cyclic
moment +10
n
s,6-libtation
amplitude -m
N
0 :0
R.5

0
ec
/rP,ad
svelocity
Rolling
.L- 5
.5
Up
Pitching
rvelocity
/s,4ad
ec
0

-.Dn
5
8
rcollective
- oot
Blade
®o angle
pitch
,om
deg 4

O
+8

- oot
blade
Cyclic
rangle +4
amplitude
,o. 1 deg
0

2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
sTime
, ec

-boy
Whoa
15.-
.Figure
knots
80
about
of
speed
entry
with
maneuver

NASA - Langley, 1968 — 32 L - 5613

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Um325th eering
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UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

THE DISTRIBUTION AND PROPERTIES

OF A WEIGHTED SUM OF CHI SQUARES

by A. H. Feiveson and F. C. Delaney

Manned Spacecraft Center
Houston, Texas

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION WASHINGTON , D. C. MAY 1968

 NASA TN D- 4575

THE DISTRIBUTION AND PROPERTIES OF A

WEIGHTED SUM OF CHI SQUARES

By A. H. Feiveson and F. C. Delaney

Manned Spacecraft Center

Houston , Texas

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

For sale by the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information
Springfield , Virginia 22151 CFSTI price $ 3.00
-
 ABSTRACT

A study of some of the properties of a weighted

sum of chi - square random variables is presented ,
including the derivation of approximations to the dis
tribution of this sum and an evaluation of the Welch
approximation for the distribution of the test statistic
in the Behrens - Fisher Problem . The study indicates
that if equal sample sizes are selected, the Welch
approximation to the Behrens - Fisher Problem may
be safely used .

ii
 CONTENTS

Section Page

SUMMARY 1

INTRODUCTION . 1

SYMBOLS 1

DISTRIBUTION OF 22
Z 4

General Case 4

6
Computation of F_2 x(x)) .

Gamma Approximation F . 7
„2(x) .
Z

Accuracy of Gamma Approximation . 7

DISTRIBUTION OF 22
Z FOR ONLY TWO DISTINCT SETS OF a's 8

The Behrens - Fisher Problem 8

Computation of F_ (x ) 14
V

Welch Approximation to F_ (xx ) 15

CONCLUSION 16

REFERENCES 16

iii
 TABLES

Table Page
I MEAN OF WEIGHTS, 10; NUMBER OF WEIGHTS , 4 . 17

II MEAN OF WEIGHTS, 10; NUMBER OF WEIGHTS, 5 18

III MEAN OF WEIGHTS, 50; NUMBER OF WEIGHTS, 4 19

IV MEAN OF WEIGHTS, 50; NUMBER OF WEIGHTS , 5 . 20

V MEAN OF WEIGHTS, 50; NUMBER OF WEIGHTS, 6 .. 21

VI MEAN OF WEIGHTS, 50; NUMBER OF WEIGHTS, 7 22

VII MEAN OF WEIGHTS, 50; NUMBER OF WEIGHTS, 8 . 23

VIII MEAN OF WEIGHTS, 50; NUMBER OF WEIGHTS , 9 . 24

X MEAN OF WEIGHTS, 50; NUMBER OF WEIGHTS, 10 25

X MEAN OF WEIGHTS, 50; NUMBER OF WEIGHTS , 11 26

XI MEAN OF WEIGHTS, 50; NUMBER OF WEIGHTS , 20 27

XII MEAN OF WEIGHTS, 50 ; NUMBER OF WEIGHTS , 21 28

XIII
COMPARISON OF WELCH APPROXIMATION [G (x), Glow (x),
29
GHIGH(*)
x ] WITH TRUE VALUE [F
( (x )]

iv
 THE DISTRIBUTION AND PROPERTIES OF A

WEIGHTED SUM OF CHI SQUARES

By A. H. Feiveson and F. C. Delaney *
Manned Spacecraft Center

SUMMARY

A study of some of the properties of a weighted sum of chi - square random vari
ables is presented . Derivations of approximations to the distribution of this sum and
an evaluation of the Welch approximation for the distribution of the test statistic in the
Behrens - Fisher Problem are included. The study indicates that if equal sample sizes
are selected, the Welch approximation to the Behrens - Fisher Problem may be safely
used, even for sample sizes as small as 5 .

INTRODUCTION

2
The density function for the distribution of a weighted sum, for example, z?, of
independent chi - square random variables cannot be represented by elementary analytic
functions. In many cases, it has been found feasible to approximate the distribution
of zZ 2 by that of a gamma distribution, the first two moments of which are equal to
the first two moments of zº. This paper is divided into two main sections. The first
2
section describes the actual distribution of z ?, and the second section evaluates the
approximation described previously, particularly as it is used in the Behrens- Fisher
Problem of testing for the difference between the two samples when the variances are
not assumed to be equal.

SYMBOLS

a constant greater than 1

ан maximum ( aq , 42)
positive constant
a;
* Lockheed Electronics Company, Houston , Texas.
ар minimum (aq, a2)
term in infinite series
'k

2
F
22(x), F_ (x) cumulative distribution functions of the random variables Z
and v

f degrees of freedom for Welcht statistic

f.( v) density function for x2 (n) + ax?2 (m)

fulu) density function for random variable U

fy (v) density function for random variable ň

G
224)) approximation to F 4
Z 22 )
k index of summation

m, n, p, q, R , E constants

N. independent random variables (j = 1 , 2 , ... , k) distributed N (0, 1)

2
N(u,v ) normally distributed with mean p and variance
sample sizes
n1n2
‫ܐ‬

if al > az
(ni1 ai
пн
In2 if ay
' 1 < a2

(n2 if a , >> 82
nu

Ini if an << a2

re upper limit of integration

2 2
S1 , S2 sample estimates of variance

t referring to Student's t distribution

2
 random variable distributed as N (0, 1 )
a

U, V , Z variables of integration

2 2
Ñ random variable distributed as a X ax (n2 - 1) + (1 - a )x*(n2
+
x ( - 1)
W complex number

complex number equal to 1 - 2iat (see eq . ( 5 ) )

W;j
sample averages
*1 , 2
observations
Xij

z 2?
Z

weighted sum of independent chi - square random variables

a constant between 0 and 1

2
91
estimate of a , equal to 2 2
Si1 ++ S2

B (r , s ) beta function with arguments r and s

Γ (5 ) gamma function

E expected value operator

€ constant > 0

means
‫ܠܕ‬1‫ܕܠܐ ܕ‬
2 0 2
co 2 variances

2 2
(t ) , Φ
. characteristic functions for the random variables z?,
Z
N;?, and
22Z N.2 (t),..
so forth

00. ) standard normal cumulative distribution function (c . d . f. )

2
x<?(n)) chi - square distribution with n degrees of freedom
Behrens - Fisher statistic

3
 2
DISTRIBUTION OF Z

General Case

Let N. (j = 1 , 2 ,
=
k) be independent , normally distributed , random variables
N; k
2
with mean y = 0 and variance o2 = 1,1 and let za
Z ΣΑ a.N. where the a; are real,
j=1
positive constants . The characteristic function of zº
z?,, denot ed by ý@_z(t), is
denoted 22
k 2
k ita.N. k
Φ 21t = it22 2
21t)
2 ). Ee = E exp it

3x;}
Σ
j= 1
a.N. = II
j=1
Ee = II
j=1

2
a.N.
a ;N;
(1)

where o
a.N.
2 (t) is the characteristic function of a;N,; ?4. Since n,N; is distributed

as 2 (1), its characteristic function • 2 (t) is (1 - 2it)-1/2;. hence

X
N.

2
ia.tn.
2 (t) Ee = Φ (2 )
2(0 it)= ( 1 - 2ia,t)-1/2
a.N.
)
j
N.

therefore

221t
Φ
,891 /2
2,249) = (1-21t)-1/2
= II
j =1
1 (3 )

The cumulative distribution function (c. d. f. )) of z’,

Z to be denoted by F_2(x), is ob Z
viously zero for x = 0; hence , it can be obtained by setting h = x in the following
relation ( taken from ref. 1 ) , provided that 0 Z 2 (t) is integrable over the real line .

4
 F
2Z26(6x + h) - FZ2 ( x - h)
+

********** s sin ht -itx2o 2(t)dt

)
4
(
=
1
e
2h 271 ht

To make continuous, hence integrable , for all real t, let -1 < arg w ST
‫ ج‬2)t( 1
for all complex numbers w, and let w- 1/2 > be equal to -- (i/2 )arg w . Let
VWT
W
W. - ( t)
j = 1 – zia,t. Then 022(t ) can be written

k - (i / 2 )arg ;
wj k k

2Z211) II
j =1
/":/-1/2
w = exp Σ argwj
j=1
II W
|Wil
-1/2
(5 )

-1/2 < arg w; << 7/2, the function arg w.j can be defined as
Since --/2
1
= tan = (6 )
arg w
W; (-23,4t) - -tan +22
Therefore

)
7
(
-1/2
8Z2(t)( ) =
exp 2
[ Σ tan - 2a ; .12
2a.t
12|Will
II

and using equation (4) with h = x

F .((2x)
2x ) - 0 k
2(2x)
pusta L 1 * exp [-* ++Σ2 tan-20,-), W;11
Z
2x
1
277
sin tx
tx
-tx + 2a.t II W
-1/2dt
(8)

that is

tx
sin k -1/4
(

2 tx
4
22 ) ( exp
42 294,61
soil
( Σ tan - 12
j=
+
4a ; (9 )

5
Since the imaginary part of the integrand

х
sin t k
2 1 -1 -1/2
sin ( -tx + 2a.t ) II ( 10)
t
(-tx 2 Σ tan
1 W;
is an odd function , its integral over the real line is zero ; thus

tx
sin
2 1
k 1/4

224).- vo C066-** ** tan-12,)8( +40,2))* 2a.t dt

F
Z
=
t
cos +
2 Σ 1 + 4a

tx
sin k -1/4
. 2 2

( -? :-) (
cos -tx +
Σtan-1 2a.t ) II
j= 1
1 +
43 % ))*71 44 dt

-$ g(t, x )dt ( 11 )

where g (t , x ) represents the integrand in the preceding equation.

Computation of Fz2()
It was decided to calculate F ,2
2( x )
z*
by numerically integrating equation ( 11 ) and
to compare the results with the c.d.f. of the approximating gamma distribution . Το
achieve reasonable accuracy in a reasonable amount of time , both a step size sand
an upper limit of integration b must be determined . A rough upper bound for b can
be obtained by noting that
|!$ **g (t, x )dt
b
is less than

tx
sin k -1/4

cos( x*+ 15
2 2

(- b

2
t

dt
tx

-36-6 (14,
yΣ tan+12,0)
2
1

+ 12 4)**
2

2
2a.t
=

dt
1 + 4a .
2
dt

4
k 1/4 k k ( 12 )
k 1/2 1/2

6
1
t II ( 1 + 4a
j=
mayo waamini
22 *k /44(k/2)+1 ilпаa;a.
j =1
(2b)k /24k il a;a
j=1
Thus , if the absolute error from incomplete integration is desired to be less than some
positive number E , then b must be chosen such that equation (12 ) is less than E. The
step size should be taken proportional to 1 / x, since the function to be integrated is
roughly periodic with frequency 4 +1 / x.
After trial and error , 1 / 10x was determined to be a good step size to use . The
results were able to be checked in some cases (for example , where all the a; were
equal ) , and in those instances, at least four decimal places of accuracy were obtained.
There is no reason to suspect that the accuracy of the numerical integration would be
materially affected if the a;J were not equal .

Gamma Approximation F
2 ( x)
224

. x , is a gamma
x , denoted by G_2(x)
One of the common approximations to F_2(x),
Z

distribution having the same first two moments as that of z 2. Thus

G
al e-at_1-1.adtt
224 ) =/ rat (13 )

2 2
where a
α = ( 1/2 )
a = (1/2) (<a
Σ /Σ.3)
a a
[ Σ /Σ ]
and 1λ == ( 1/2 )
»[(2x))/2 a .

Accuracy of Gamma Approximation

Results indicate that the mean of the weights (the a:) does not affect the accu
racy of the approximation .

A statistic with one of the most measurable effects on the approximation is the
standard deviation of the weights . As the standard deviation of the weights increases ,
the approximation tends to be an overestimation of the true functional value in the right
tail of the distribution . This tendency is illustrated in tables I to XII .

Because the parameters a and i2 of G,26)

Z*
x
depend only on the first two mo
ments of the weights , the approximation yields the same value for any set of weights
with the same mean and standard deviation. This value is shown in tables I to XII
under the heading G (x ). The tables also give the true values F _ 2) (x) listed under
Z
F (x ) in columns I, II, and III, where the mean and standard deviation of the weights
>

are the same for I, II, and III, but in I , the weights are equally spaced; in II, one half
of the weights are equal to a constant and the other half are equal to another constant;

7
and in III , all of the weights except one are equal to one constant while the remaining
weight is equal to a different constant . An inspection of tables I to XII indicates that as
the number of weights increases , the accuracy of the approximation improves .
A marked difference was noted between the approximation and the true functional
value in the left tail of the distribution.

DISTRIBUTION OF Z2 FOR ONLY TWO DISTINCT SETS OF a's

The Behrens - Fisher Problem

-

The Behrens - Fisher Problem can be stated as follows : consider two independent
samples x* 11 х* 12
* in; and * 21 * 22
from normal distributions
82n
2 and 022
with means u1 and and variances 0
011 It is desired to test the null hy
P2
2 2
=
0o 1 or 02 exists .
pothesis that Hy = M 2, when no knowledge of
Since the sample averages x,1 and x2 are normally distributed with means 1
2
and M2 , respectively, and variances o 02 12 respectively,the random
014/12 and ognu,
variable

х
( , -x) - (44 - 2)
1
N (0, 1 ) (14 )
2 2
o
01 02
ni1 na
n2

Let the Behrens - Fisher statistic be the random variable obtained by inserting
2 2
sample estimates for o and o in equation ( 14 ) . That is
1 2

( X2 -x2)-(41- 2) ( 15 )
11

2 2
'1 S2
n

A2

8
 2
x.
2 ij x)
where s ? -
.

j
1
with i = 1 , 2. The problem is to find the distribution of

V. It is well known that

2 2
o
- 1)

1(
)6
S.
2 i x
1

2
i n.

2
=

and that s ' is independent of .x for i = 1, 2. Therefore, under the hypothesis

M1 = 2

2 2
o o
1 022
NO ,
So ni n2
(17 )
2

2 2 2 2
0
0,*x*(n2n1 - 1) 02***(n2 - 1)
1
X X

ni(11 -11) 12 (12 - 1)

which is equivalent to

N (0 , 1 )
?

2 2 2,2 2,2
o
02 o
°2 *X n2 1)
X¢((n1 - 1) . (12
***** n2
1

n (" - 1)
N (0, 1 )
+

" 2( " 2-1

=

(18 )
2 2
o
1
2
o2z 2
ni x®(1n1 -1) na
n2
xx"( n2 - 1)
2 2 1 2 1
o o ni1 o n2 -
‫ט‬

1 2 1 2
+

n2 nu n2

9
 2

69EU
It is no loss of generality to assume Therefore

IV

sla
N (0, 1 ) ( 19 )

2
ax *(n21 - 1) (1 - a)x+(n2 - 1)
? ,-1
. -

1 1
n2

where

2
0
1

ni (20)
α
b <as )
Il

2 2
°2
l-163

ni n2

and Ở and Vſ are the numerator and denominator, respectively, of equation (19).

Let fy (u) and fy (v) be the probability density functions of Ở and V, respec
tively . Then Fv (x ), the c . d. f. of V , can be obtained by

XV
F( x )
J avefu (ukw) fyy(w]đu
Suce
< xv / 2
v)
)du dv = $ 1(+38(8%)dv Φ

--fy-(v) ---
= 1
2
dv (21 )

where o represents the standard normal distribution function . To facilitate numer

ical integration of equation (21 ), an expression for fy (v) which does not involve a

10
 1
numerical integration is needed. A rapidly converging infinite - series representation
of fy (v) may be obtained in the following manner. Let f (v) be the density function
2 2
of x^ (n) + ax“ (m) where a < 1. Then

-V / a
1-5%._CY_
f ( v) = m (t)f, (v - at)dt
n
(22 )

where f and f are chi- square density functions with degrees of freedom m and
m n

n. Thus

1 v/a _(m /2)-11 (v - at)

at)(n/2)-1exp 1

f6)-T(CC)m 2m/2=()2n/2%
f. ( v) m
2 T 0
t
2 at) a
(t + V - at) dt

(23 )

which, upon making the transformation z = at/v, gives

6 (v) =RS"2P- 1(1 - z)9-1e (zv / 2)[1-( 1/ a )] dz (24)

where p = m/2, q = n / 2 , and

-

R =
=
y(m /2)+(n/2)-1 -v /2
V 2(
)5
/ m m n

2m /2r(m)
a
(9)2(m+n)72

Ray and Pitman (ref. 2) give an expression for fy(v) involving (11 n2 - 2)/2 +

terms when
ni and are odd; however , it requires the summing of alternating
positive and negative terms which can seriously impair numerical accuracy on the
computer .

11
Expanding the exponential term in a power series gives

k
(1
ef***
fo (v) = RS -2P- 1 (1 - 259-1Σ
2 )q- 1 k
k=0
ZA [4 ) ! 2
a
dz (26 )

Since the exponential series is uniformly convergent on the interval [0, 1] , the
integration and summation operations may be interchanged; hence

k
k
1 1

f.(v) == R
Σ3 ' k+ p--1 (148--72)309-4dz
47*6* a
Z
1

k=0
k!2k

= R
Σ k!-2k3)*
2*(1 a
B ( k + p , q)
=

« k =0

a-Pe -v/2 bi (27 )

Γ (p)
k=0

where

k
k +p + q - 1
bek2P
***** 3) -

а
(28 )
+ +kk! (k + p)(k + p + 1 ) ... (k + p + q - 1)

Note that

v (k + p ) ( 1
P'kk + 1 p)(1-1) a

‫ܙ‬
bk b. z (k + 1)(k + p + q) (29 )

12
and that for a > 1 , bk > 0.

The two properties mentioned make the series easily summable on a computer;
hence, f ( v ) can be approximated to a high degree of accuracy by summing only a few
terms of equation (27 ) .

Once fo (v) is obtainable, it is easy to compute fy(v ). Let

a
=
(30)
21-11
a1 1

and

1 - α
(31 )
12 = 0,74
n2

Then

2
Ñ ~ a Xx?(12 - 1)+ a2x®X (n2 - 1)
~ a -
(32 )

Let

= max
ah
H (21' a2)
a' L = min a(aq;
1: a2)
( ni a > a2
1 if 1
(33 )
nh
H if a
n2 ai < a2
if
(n2 ay > a2
ni
11

if
ini aa 1 << az
a2

13
Then

2 2 H 2
V ~ apx? (14
v H * - 1) + az xP (12 - 1) ~ ay
+ C4- La x?(1H - 1)+ L
% x°(12 - 1) ( 34 )

n. -

Taking a = ah/al' mm = nuH - 1 , and n = nz - 1, the distribution of (1/aL)

n

f
(that is, fo (v)) can be found from equation (27), from which fy (v) may be derived
using

1
f (35 )
fy()= al .( )
Computation of F_V ( x )

In order to integrate equation (21 ) numerically, an upper limit and a step size
must be determined . Let € be an upper bound of error in F_ (x ) resulting from in
complete integration of equation (21 ), and let re be a number such that
1 - " ( * V7€ ) < €. Since 1 -- 0 ( • )) is a monotonically decreasing function and since
< .

So fy«vdv=
0
() 1, it follows that
( of ce:]Śwwwc
w[1- ofw4]«v*[-ou
ĆE r< fv (v )dv < eE
XV dv <
2
r
E
(36 )

00

In most cases,
S E
fy (v)dv will be very small, so that the actual error may be on the
2
order of E “; however, the crude bound in equation (36) is adequate for most purposes .
The simplest way to choose a step size was determined to be by trial and error,
looking at the changes in the computed F_ (x ) for various sizes .

14
 Welch Approximation to F_ (x )

The approximating distribution to F_V (x) (ref. 3 ) is a t distribution having

f degrees of freedom, where f is defined by the relation

2
1 α
+
(1 - a )?
-

(37 )
1 1
n2 -

The accuracy of the approximation is shown in table XIII . In this table, F (x)
represents F_ (x ). Since, in general, a is unknown , it must be estimated by

2
2
S
1

ni
a = (38 )
2

2
S
1 52
ni n2
na

2
In the notation used, A-HIGH represents the 90-percent point of the distribution? of â ,
A

A - LOW represents the 10-percent point of â , and A - TRUE represents the true value
G
of a . Similarly, GHIGH (*) and Glow (x) are the approximating distributions based
on A - HIGH and A - LOW , respectively, while G (x ) is the approximate distribution
based on A- TRUE .

An inspection of table II discloses that the Welch approximation is remarkably

accurate, even for small ni and n2, provided that ni and ng n2 are equal or nearly
equal . In most other cases, the approximation underestimates F_V (x ).

Note that if a test were actually performed for the difference of two means, using
this procedure, a would have to be estimated by equation (38 ) . However, it is dis
=
closed in the tables that if ny = n2, the distribution of is remarkably insensitive to
a , so that practically any estimate such as equation (37 ) would give satisfactory re
sults .
26

α
A

2It is not difficult to show that â is distributed as (1.a)

a
-

where Ě has
+1
(1 . :)F +α

the Fisher's F distribution with n - 1 and nz - 1 degrees of freedom.

15
 CONCLUSION

Information concerning the distribution and approximate distribution of a weighted

sum of independent chi - square random variables has been presented. The information
has indicated that if equal sample sizes are selected, the Welch approximation to the
Behrens - Fisher Problem may be safely used, even for sample sizes as small as 5 .

Manned Spacecraft Center

National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Houston, Texas, February 23 , 1968
039-00-00-00-72

REFERENCES

1. Cramér, Harald : Mathematical Methods of Statistics . Princeton University

Press, 1946 .

2. Ray, W. D.; and Pitman , A. E. N. T .: An Exact Distribution of the Fisher

Behrens - Welch Statistic for Testing the Difference Between the Means of Two
Normal Populations with Unknown Variances . J. Roy . Statist. Soc . Ser . B ,
>

vol. 23 , 1961, pp . 377-384 .

3. Welch, B. L .: The Significance of the Difference Between Two Means When the
Population Variances Are Unequal . Biometrika, vol . 29, 1937, pp . 350-362 .

16
 TABLE I. - MEAN OF WEIGHTS, 10 ; NUMBER OF WEIGHTS , 4
-

Spacing of weights
Standard Basic
I II III
deviation weight
of weights of x (a ) (b) ( c)

G(x) F(x) F(x) F(x)

71. 62 0.85745 0.86245 0.86259 0 , 86687

134 , 87
. .98457 .98344 .98326 .98289
166.49 .99514 99420 .99417 .99350
5
198. 11 . 99850 .99795 .99797 .99747
229. 74 .99954
. .99926 .99929 .99900
261 , 36 .99986 .99973 .99975 .99960

70. 46 0.85650 0 , 86069 0.86082 0.86318

131. 39 .98502
. .98407 .98397 .98382
161 , 85 .99541 .99462 .99460 .99421
4
192 , 32 .99862 .99817 .99818 .99788
222. 78 .99959
. ..99937 .99939
. .99921
253 , 24 .99988
. .99978 .99979 .99970

69 , 53 0.85575 0 , 85865 0.85871 0.85977

128. 59 .98540
. ..98474 .98470 . 98465
158 , 12 . 99562 .99507 . 99506 .99488
3
187. 65 .99872 ..99841 .99841 .99827
217. 18 .99963 .99948 .99949 .99940
246. 67 .99989 .99983 .99984
. . 99979

68. 43 0.85487 0.85528 0.85528 0.85532

125 , 28 .98586
. .98576
. .98576 .98576
153 , 70 .99587 .99580 .99580 .99579
.

1
182.13 .99883 .99878
. .99878 .99878
.

210.55 . 99967 .99965

. .99965 .99965
238 , 98 .99991 . 99990 .99990 .99990

aweights are equally spaced.

b
One half of the weights are equal to a constant while the other half are equal to
another constant.
Call of the weights except one are equal.

17
 TABLE II . - MEAN OF WEIGHTS , 10 ; NUMBER OF WEIGHTS , 5

Spacing of weights
Standard Basic

I
II III
deviation weight
of weights of x (a ) (b ) (c )
G (x ) F (x ) F (x) F (x )

85.36 0.85476 0.85927 0.85776 0.86446

156.07 . 98591
. .98473 . 98491
.
.98396
.

191.42 . 99591
.
.99504 . 99529 99418
5
226.78 .99884 .99839 . 99856
. .99784
262. 13 .99968 .99949 .99957 .99919
297. 49 . 99991 .99984 .99988 .99970

84.06 0.85396 0.85772 0.85689 0.86071

152.18 .98635 .98536 .98545
.
.98496
186. 24 .99614
.
.99543 99557 .99491
4
220. 29 .99894 .99858 . 99868
. 99824
254. 35 .99972 .99957 .99962
. .99939
288. 41 . 99992 .99988 . 99990 .99979

83.01 0.85332 0.85594 0.85557 0.85731

149.05 . 98671
.
.98603 .98607
. .98586
182.06 .99633 .99584 . 99591
. .99559
3
215.08 .99902 .99878 99883 99862
248.09 .99974 .99966 .99968 .99957
281.10 .99993 .99991 .99992
. .99987

81.78 0.85258 0.85296 0.85295 0.85302

145. 34 .98715
. . 98707 .98707 .98706
177.12 .99655
. .99650 . 99503 99649
1
208.90 .99911
. .99910 . 99910 .99909
240. 68 .99978 99978 99978 .99978
272. 46 .99994
. .99996 .99996 .99996

a weights are equally spaced.

One half of the weights are equal to a constant while the other half are equal to
another constant.

Call of the weights except one are equal.

18
 TABLE III . - MEAN OF WEIGHTS , 50; NUMBER OF WEIGHTS , 4

Spacing of weights
Standard Basic
deviation weight I II III
of weights of x (a ) (b) (c)
G (x ) F (x ) F (x ) F (x )

358, 11 0.85745 0.86245 0.86259 0.86687

674. 34 . 98457
.
.98344 .98326 . 98290
832. 46 .99514 . 99420 .99417 .99350
0

25
990. 57 .99850 .99795 .99796
. . 99747
1148. 68 . 99954 . 99926 .99929
. .99900
1306.80 .99986 .99973 .99975 .99960

352.31 0.85650 0.86069 0. 86082 0.86318

656.95 . 98503
. .98407 . 98397 . 98382
809. 26 .99541 .99461 . 98397
. .99421
20
961.58 .99862 . 99817 .99818
. .99788
1113.89 .99959
. .99937 .99939
. .99921
1266. 21 .99988 .99978 .99979
. .99970
.

344. 22 0.85520 0.85670 0.85671 0.85703

632.67 .98568
. .98534 .98533 .98532
776. 89 .99578 .99549 .99549 .99543
10
921.11 .99879 .99863 .99863 .99858
1065.33 .99966
. 99958 .99958 . 99956
1209.55 99990 99987 .99987 .99986

341.45 0.85477 0.85478 0.85478 0.85478

624.35 .98591 .98591 .98591
. .98591
765.80 .99591 .99590
. .98591 .99590
1
907. 25 .99884 .99884 . 99590 .99884
1404. 87 .99968
. 99968 .99884 .99968
1190. 15 .99991
.
. 99991 .99991 . 99991

Weights are equally spaced.

One half of the weights are equal to a constant while the other half are equal to
another constant.
C
Call of the weights except one are equal.

19
 TABLE IV . - MEAN OF WEIGHTS , 50; NUMBER OF WEIGHTS, 5

Spacing of weights
Standard Basic
I II III
deviation weight
of weights of x
(a) (b ) (c )
G (x) F (x) F (x ) F (x )

426.78 0.85476 0.85927 0.85776 0.86245

780. 33 .98591 . 98473 . 98491 .98344
957. 11 .99591 . 99504 .99529 .99412
25
1133.88 .99884 .99839
. .99856 .99794
1310.07 .99968 .99949 .99957 .99926
1487.44 .99991 .99984
. .99988
. .99973

420. 29 0.85396 0.85772 0.85689 0.86071

760.88 . 98635 .98536 .98545 . 98496
20

931. 18 .99614 .99543

. .99557
o
.99491
1101.47 .99894 .99858
. .99868
. .99824
1271. 76 .99972 .99957
. . 99962
. 99939
1442.06 .99993 .99988 .99990 .99979

411. 25 0.85286 0.85422 0.85410 0.85465

733. 74 .98698 . 98664 . 98665 .98659
894. 98 .99647 . 99622 .99625 .99614
10
1056.22 . 99908 .99896
.
.99897 .99891
1217.47 .99976 .99973
. .99974 .99970
1378. 72 . 99994 . 99994
. .99994 .99993

408. 14 0.85249 0.85252 0.85252 0.85252

724.43 . 98720 . 98722 . 98722 . 98722
882.58 .99658 . 99660 .99660 . 99660
1
1040.72 . 99912 .99914 . 99914
. 99914
1198.87 .99978 . 99980
. .99980 99980
1357.02 .99995 . 99997 . 99997 .99997

aweights are equally spaced .

bone half of the weights are equal to a constant while the other half are equal to
another constant.

Call of the weights except one are equal.

20
 TABLE V. - MEAN OF WEIGHTS , 50 ; NUMBER OF WEIGHTS ,
-
6

Spacing of weights
Standard Basic
I II III
deviation weight
of x (a) (b ) ( c)
of weights
G (x) F (x) F ( x) F (x)
493. 65 0.85287 0.85696 0.85687 0.86269
880.95 .98697 . 98576 .98566 .98480
1074.60 .99646 .99566 .99567 .99468
25
1268 , 25 .99907 .99870 .99873 .99810
1461.90 .99976 .99962 .99965 .99932
1655. 54 .99994 ..99991 .99992 .99976

486.55 0.85217 0.85558 0.85560 0.85892

859. 64 . 98739 ..98639 .98632 .98585
1046. 19 . 99667 . 99602 99602 .99543
20
1232. 74 .99916 .99886 .99888 .99850
1419. 29 .99979
. .99969
.
.99970 .99951
1605.83 .99995
. .99993 .99994 .99985

476. 64 0.85121 0.85246 0.85247 0.85296

829.91 .98799 .98765 .98765 .98758
1006 , 54 .99696 .99675 .99675 .99665
10
1183. 18 .99927 .99919
. .99919 .99913
1359 , 81 .99983 .99982
.
.99982 .99979
1536. 45 .99996 .99998
.
99998 .99996

473. 24 0.85089 0.85093 0.85093 0.85093

819. 72 .98820 .98823 .98823
. .98823
992.96 .99706 .99709 .99709 99709
1
1166. 20 .99303 .99933 .99933 .99933
1339. 43 .99984 .99987 .99987
. .99987
1512. 68 .99996 . 99999 .99999 99999

a weights are equally spaced.

b
bone half of the weights are equal to a constant while the other half are equal to
another constant .
Call of the weights except one are equal.

21
 TABLE VI. - MEAN OF WEIGHTS , 50; NUMBER OF WEIGHTS, 7

Spacing of weights
Standard Basic
deviation weight I II III
of weights of x (a ) (b ) (c )
G (x ) F (x ) F (x ) F (x )

559. 16 0.85147 0.85521 0.85417 0.86132

977. 49 .98783 . 98662 . 98677 .98547
1186. 66 .99689
. .99614 .99632
.
. 99506
25
1395. 83 .99924 .99891 99902 .99828
1604.99 .99982
. .99971 .99976 .99940
1814. 16 . 99996 .99994 .99996
. .99980

551.50 0.85084 0.85395 0.85339 0.85755

954.48 .98823
. .98722 . 98731 .98657
20

1155.98 .99708 .99647 .99658 .99582

1357. 47 .99931 .99906 .99912 .99867
1558.97 .99984 .99976 .99980 .99958
1760. 47 . 99996 .99995 . 99997 . 99988

540. 79 0. 85000 0.85113 0.85106 0.85168

922. 36 .98880
. . 98458
. .98847 . 98836
1113. 15 .99734 .99714 .99715 .99703
10
1303. 39 .99940
. .99933 .99934 .99927
.

1494. 73 .99987 .99986 .99987 .99984

1685.51 .99997
. .99999 .99999 .99998

537. 12 0.84971 0.84974 0. 84974 0.84974

911. 36 . 98900 . 98902 . 98902 .98902
1
1098.48 . 99742
. . 99745 .99745 .99745
.

1285.60 .99943
. .99945 . 99945 .99945
1472 , 72 .99988 .99990 .99990 .99990
1659. 84 . 99998 . 99999 . 99999 .99999

aweights are equally spaced.

b
' One half of the weights are equal to a constant while the other half are equal to
another constant .
с
Call of the weights except one are equal .

22
 -

TABLE VII. - MEAN OF WEIGHTS , 50 ; NUMBER OF WEIGHTS, 8

Spacing of weights
Standard Basic
I II III
deviation weight
of weights of X (a) (b) ( c)
G(x) F (x) F ( x) F ( x)
623. 61 0.85038 0.85381 0.85361 0.86023
1070.82 . 98854
. 98732 .98726 .98602
1294. 42 . 99722
. 99651 99654 .99536
25
1518. 03 . 99936 99907 .99910 . 99842
1741. 64 .99986
. .99976 .99978 .99945
1965. 25 . 99997 .99995 .99995 .99981

615. 41 0. 84982 0.85266 0.85262 0.85645

1046. 22 .98893 .98792 .98788 .98716
20 1261 , 63 . 99739 .99682 .99683 .99612
1477.03 .99942 . 99919 .99921 .99880
1692.44 . 99988 99980 . 99981 .99963
1907. 85 . 99997 .99996 . 99996 .99989

603. 96 0.84905 0.85009 0. 85009 0 , 85067

1011 , 88 .98947
.
.98912 .98911 .98900
1215. 84 99763 .99743 .99743 . 99732
10
1419 , 80 .99950 .99943 .99943 .99937
1623 , 76 . 99990
. .99988 .99989 .99986
1827. 73 .99998 .99998 . 99998 .99997

600.03 0.84880 0.84882 0.84882 0.84882

1000. 12 98966 98967 98967 .98967
1200. 16 .99771 .99772 .99772 .99771
1
1400, 20 .99953 99953 .99953 .99953
1600. 24 99991 99992 .99992 .99992
1800. 28 . 99998 .99999 99999 99999

aweights are equally spaced.

bone half of the weights are equal to a constant while the other half are equal to
another constant.
Call of the weights except one are equal.

23
 TABLE VIII. - MEAN OF WEIGHTS , 50 ; NUMBER OF WEIGHTS , 9

Spacing of weights
Standard Basic
I II III
deviation weight
of weights of x (a) (b) ( c)

G(x) F(x) F ( x) F (x)

687. 17 0.84951 0.85268 0.85188 0.85933
1161.51 . 98915 .98793
. .98807
. 98649
1398. 68 .99749 99682 .99696 .99561
25
1635. 85 .99945 .99918 .99925 .99853
1873. 02 . 99989 .99979 . 99982 ..99949
2110.19 .99998 .99995 . 99996
. .99982

678. 47 0.84900 0.85162 0.85119 0.85556

1135 , 41 .98952 98851 .98858 .98766
1363 , 90 . 99765 .99710 .99718 .99637
20
1592 , 37 .99951 .99929 .99933 .99890
1820. 84 99990 .99983 .99985 .99966
O

2049. 31 .99998 .99996 .99996

. .99989

666. 33 0.84830 0 , 84925 0.84919 0.84986

1099 , 00 .99004 .98967 .98969 .98954
.

1315 , 33 .99786
. .99767 .99768 .99755
10 .99945
1531.67 .99957
. .99950 .99951
1748.00 .99992 .99989 .99990 .99987
1964 , 33 . 99998 .99997 .99998 .99997

662 , 17 0 , 84807 0.84808 0.84808 0.84808

1086. 52 .99021 .99021
. .99021 .99021
.

1298. 70 .99793 .99793 .99793 .99793

1
1510 , 87 ..99960 .99959 ..99959 .99959
1723 , 05 . 99993 .99992 99992 99992
1935. 22 .99999
. .99998 .99998 .99998

aWeights are equally spaced.

bone half of the weights are equal to a constant while the other half are equal to
another constant.
с
Call of the weights except one are equal.

24
 TABLE IX . - MEAN OF WEIGHTS, 50 ; NUMBER OF WEIGHTS, 10
>

Spacing of weights
Standard Basic
I II ΙΠ
deviation weight
of weights of x (a) (b) ( c)

G (x) F(x) F(x) F(x)

750.00 0.84880 0.85174 0.85151 0.85858
1250.00 .98966 .98847
.
. 98843 .98690
.

25
1500.00 .99771
0 .99704 .99710 .99582
1750.00 .99953 .99927 .99930 .99862
2000.00 .99991 .99982 . 99983 . 99952
2250.00 .99998 .99995 .99995
. .99983

740.83 0.84833 0.85076 0.85069 0.85482

1222.50 .99002 . 98902 .98900 .99809
.
20

1463. 33 .99785
0 .99734 .99735 .99658
1704 , 16 . 99957 .99937 . 99938 .99898
1944.99 .99992
.
.99985 .99985 .99968
0

2185.82 .99998
.
.99995 .99996 .99989

728.04 0.84769 0.84857 0.84857 0.84920

1184. 10 . 99052
0 . 99015 .99015 .99000
O

1412. 14 .99805 .99786 .99786 .99774

10
1640 , 18 99963 .99955
O . 99956 .99950
1868 , 21 . 99993 .99990 .99990 .99988
.

2096 , 25 .99999
. .99997 .99997 .99996

723. 65 0.84748 0.84748 0.84748 0.84748

1170 , 95 .99069 .99067 .99067 .99067
1394. 60 .99812 .99810 . 99810 .99810
1
1618. 26 99965 .99964 .99964 .99964
1841.90 .99994 .99992 .99992 .99992
2065. 56 .99999 .99997 .99997
. 99997

a weights are equally spaced.

bone half of the weights are equal to aa constant while the other half are equal to
another constant.
Call of the weights except one are equal.

25
 TABLE X. - MEAN OF WEIGHTS , 50; NUMBER OF WEIGHTS, 11

Spacing of weights
Standard Basic
I II II
deviation weight
of weights of x (a) (b) ( c)
G (x ) F (x) F (x ) F (x )

812. 20 0.84820 0.85096 0.85031 0.85795

1336.61 .99011 . 98894 . 98906 .98727
1598.81 .99789 .99729 .99740 . 99601
25
1861.01 .99958 .99935 .99940 .99870
2123. 21 .99992 .99984 .99986 .99955
2385.42 .99999 . 99995 .99996 .99984

802.59 0.84777 0.85004 0.84970 0.85420

1307. 76 .99045 .98948 .98955 . 98848
1560. 35 .99803 .99754 . 99760 .99676
20
1812.93 .99962 .99944
. .99947 . 99905
2065.52 .99993 .99986 .99988 .99971
.

2318. 11 .99999
. .99996 . 99996 . 99990
.

789.17 0.84718 0.84800 0.84795 0.84865

1267.50 .99093 .99058 .99059 .99041
1506.67 .99821 . 99803
. .99804 . 99790
10
1745.83 .99968 .99960
. .99961 . 99955
1984.99 99995 . 99991 . 99991 . 99989
.

2224. 16 . 99999 .99997 .99997 . 99996

784.57 0.84698 0.84698 0.84698 0.84698

1253. 70 99110 . 99108 .99108 . 99108
1488. 27 .99827 .99826 .99826
O 99826
1
1722. 84 99969 .99967 .99967 .99967
1957.41 .99995 99993 99993 .99993
2191.97 99999
. . 99997 99997 .99997

Aweights are equally spaced.

bone half of the weights are equal to a constant while the other half are equal to
another constant .

Call of the weights except one are equal.

26
 TABLE XI . - MEAN OF WEIGHTS, 50 ; NUMBER OF WEIGHTS, 20

Spacing of weights
Standard Basic III
I II
deviation weight (a) (b ) (c)
of weights of x

G (x ) F (x ) F (x ) F (x )
1353.55 0.84538 0.84715 0.84693 0.85476
2060.66 .99254 .99160 .99162 .98934
25 2414.21 . 99877
. .99841 . 99844 : .99702
2767.77 . 99982 .99972 .99974 .99913
3121.32 .99998 .99996 99996 . 99974
.

3474. 87 .99999
. .99999 .99999 .99992
.

1340.59 0.84512 0.84657 0.84647 0.85112

2021.76 . 99280
. . 99203 99203 .99065
.

2362.35 . 99884 99856 .99858 . 99773

20

. .

2702.94 . 99984 .99977 .99977 .99943

3043.53 . 99998
. .99997 .99997
. .99985
3384 , 11 .99999
. .99999 .99999 .99996
.

1322. 49 0.84476 0.84529 0.84528 0.84600

1967.47 .99316
. .99289
. .99289 .99265
2289.96 .99896
. .99886 .99886 .99873
10
2612.45 . 99986 .99984 .99984 .99980
2934.94 . 99998
. .99998 .99998 .99997
3257.43 . 99999
. .99999 . 99999 .99999

1316. 29 0.84464 0.84465 0.84465 0.84465

1948.87 .99328
. .99328 .99328 .99328
O

2265.16 . 99899 .99899

. .99899 .99899
1
2581.45 .99987 99987 .99987 .99987
2897. 75 .99998
. . 99999 . 99999 .99999
3214.04 . 99999 .99999 . 99999
. . 99999
.

aweights are equally spaced .

b
bone half of the weights are equal to a constant while the other half are equal to
another constant.
Call of the weights except one are equal.

27
 TABLE XII. - MEAN OF WEIGHTS , 50; NUMBER OF WEIGHTS, 21

Spacing of weights
Standard Basic
I II III
deviation weight
of x (a) (b) (c )
of weights
G (x) F ( x) F (x) F (x)
1412. 28 0.84521 0.84691 0.84656 0.85455
2136.85 .99271 99179 .99187 .98949
25
2499. 14 .99882 .99848 . 99853 .99708
2861. 42 .99983 .99974 .99976 . 99916
3223. 71 .99998 .99996 .99996 99975
3585.99 .99999 .99999 .99999 . 99992

1399.00 0.84495 0.84635 0.84617 0.85091

2097.00 99296 .99221 . 99226 99080
20

2446.00 .99890 99863 . 99865 .99779

2795.00 .99985 99978 .99979 99945
3144.00 .99998 .99998 . 99997 99986
3493.00 .99999 .99999 .99999 .99996

1380. 45 0.84461 0.84512 0.84510 0.84583

2041.36 .99331
. .99305
. .99305 99281
2371. 82 .99900 . 99891
.
.99891 .99878
10
2702. 27 .99987 .99985 .99985 99981
3032. 73 .99999 .99998 .99998 .99997
3363. 18 .99999 99999 . 99999 .99999

1374.10 0.84450 0.84450 0.84450 0.84450

2022. 31 .99343 .99343 .99343 .99343
2346. 40 .99904 .99904 .99904 .99904
.
1
2670.51 .99988 .99988 .99988 .99988
2994. 61 .99998 .99998 .99999 .99999
3318. 71 .99999 .99999 .99999 .99999

aweights are equally spaced.

b
'One half of the weights are equal to a constant while the other half are equal to
another constant.

Call of the weights except one are equal.

28
 TABLE XIII. - COMPARISON OF WELCH APPROXIMATION [G(x), Glow (x), CHigh(x]
WITH TRUE VALUE ( F (x) ]

Ni : 5. ... N2 = 20 . --- N1 = -5 N2 = 30

A - TRUE : , 010 A -LOW = , 005 A - HIGH : , 022 A - TRUE- , 010 A - LOW : , 005 A - HIGH : .021
XN

х F(X) GOX ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X ) х F( X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G -HIGH ( X )

1,326 A . 9000 , 9000 .8999 , 9002 1,3109 .8999 , 9000 9000 , 9001
1,7274 , 9500 , 9500 .9499 , 9502 1,6981 , 9500 , 9500 , 9499 , 9501
2.0903 , 9750. -.9750 ..9749 9751 2,0444 1,9750 9750 -, 9750 7,9751
2,5350 , 9900 .9900 , 9899 .9901 2 , 4612 , 9900 , 9900 , 9900 , 9901
3,5689 .9990 , 9990 .9990 .9990 --- 3 , 4341 - , 9991 , 9991 , 9991 , 9991
.

A - TRUE = , 050 A - LOW : .023 A - HIGH : , 103 A - TRUE = , 050 ARLOW : , 025 A - HIGH = , 099
Х Х F(x) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
F(X) G ( X ) G -LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
1,3279 - , 9007 .9007 - 9004 .9012 -173090-8999 9000 --- 8968 - , 9002
1,7291 , 9507 .9507 , 9504 .9512 1,6947 19500 , 9500 9498
. , 9502
2.0948 , 9757 , 9757 , 9754 .9761 2,0403 , 9751 , 9751 , 9749 , 9753
2,5520 .9907 , 9907 , 9905 , 9910 2,4555 , 9901 , 9901 . 9900 , 9902
3.8278 .9995 .9995 , 9995 .9995 --3 , 4114 , 9991 , 9991 .9991 -- , 9991

A - TRUEE.100 A -LOW : 1048 LA - HIGH = 1196 A = TRUE100 A -LOW - 050----- Arhi Cory = .189 -
X F( X X F( X ) G ( X ) G - LOWCX ) G -HIGHCXI.
G ( X ) G - LOWCX , G - HIGH ( X
1,3209 9000 9000 1995 9002 1 , 3120 , 9006 , 9007 90115 - - , 9005
1,7166 19500 19500 19495 19502 1,6998 , 9507 , 9507 , 9505 19505
2.0730 9750 , 9750 , 9746 .9752 -2,0479 , 9757 , 9757 , 9755 ,. 9755
2,5070 , 9900 ,. 9900 , 9897 , 9901 2,4749 , 9907 , 9907 , 9905 , 9906
1,5020 -9990 29990_ - _ 299899990 -3,6149 19995 19995 79995-9995 ..

A - TRUE : , 200 A - LOW : , 102 A - HIGH : , 354 A - TRUE , 200 A - LOW = , 107 A - HIGHz , 383
х F(X ) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
X F(X) GOX ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGHOXY
1,3196 .9000 9000 , 8998 .8986 1,3093 - , 2000 1,9000 , 9003 - , 8982
1,7142 .9500 , 9500 , 9498 .9485 1,6952 , 9500 , 9500 , 9503 , 9481
2,0692 - 9750 9750 , 9748 9737 -2-0390 , 9750 ..9750 , 9752 9733
2,5008 , 9900 , 9900
. .9899 , 9891 2,4521 , 9900 , 9900 .9902 .9888
.

3,4873 .9990 , 9990

. , 9990 , 9987 3,3733 ..9990 .9990 . .9990 , 9987

A - TRUE : , 300 A - LOW = , 163 A -HIGH :.485 A - TRUE : , 300 A - Low : , 170 A -HIGHE , 473
X F(X) G ( X ) G - LOWEX , G -HIGH ( X )
х F(X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGHOXO
1.3238 . ..9001 9000 9007 .8964 1,3158 9001 - .9000__ . 9012- -6962.

1,7219 , 9501 , 9500 , 9507 .9463 1,7072 , 9502 , 9500 , 9513 9460
2,0814 , 9751 , 9750 , 9756 9717 2.0580 , 9752 , 9750 , 9761
+
9715
2,5206 , 9901 , 9900 , 9904 , 9876 2,4826 , 9902 , 9900 .9908 , 9874
3.5343 .9990 .9990 .9991 ... 9983 _3,4444 . .9991
. , 9990 1 9992 .. .9982

A - TRUE :1400 A -LOW = , 233 A - HIGH = .594 A - IRUE : 400 A - LOW.242 A -HIGH = , 583
х F(X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
Х F( x) G ( X ) G - OW ( X ) G -HIGH ( X )
1,3444 , 9021 , 9000 , 9021 .8944 1,3383 9022 .9017 9044 ..8961

1,7478 .9523 , 951 ) , 9545 , 9459

1,7593 , 9521 .9500 , 9522 , 9442
2,1485 19772 , 9749 , 9768 ., 9700 2,1277 .9773 , 9766 , 9789 .9715
2,6577 .9921 . 9898 , 9910 , 9864 2,6207 .9921 , 9915 .9930 , 9880
4,5063 9999 9974 .9980 29976 -4, 3.4 23 .9999_9997 _----- 9998_-_- 49993
A - TRUE : , 500 A - LOW : , 313 A - HIGH : , 687 A - TRUE : , 500 A -LOW : , 323 A - HIGH = , 672
X F(x) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G -HIGH ( X ) х F(X) G( X) G -LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
1,3490 ,. 9007 , 9000 , 9039 , 8931 1,3447 , 9008 ., 9000 , 9043 6932
1,7687 ., 9509 , 9500 .9540 .9428 1,7608 ,. 9511 , 9500 , 9545 , 9429
2,1568 x 9759 97 44 19783 1.9686 2.1.439. -9761 -9750 .9708 9687
2,6443 , 9908 , 9894 , 9922 , 9853 2,6231 , 9910 , 9900 , 9925 , 9855
3,8372 , 9993 9989 , 9994 29975 -3.7841 .9993 .9990 .9995 . ..9976

29
 TABLE XII. - COMPARISON OF WELCH APPROXIMATION G6x), CLOW ( ), CHIGH(x)
WITH TRUE VALUE ( F (x )] - Continued

N1 =_2_12 : ? N1 : 3 2 : 3

A - TRUF : , 010 A - Low : .000 A - HIGH = , 287 A - TRUE = .010 A - LOX = .001 A - HIGH : , 083
У Flys GOX ) G - LOW ( x ) G -HIGH ( X ) X FOX ) GPX G - LOWCXT G -HIGH ( X )
3.0133 .9071 .9700 .8981 .9423 1.8593 .9014 19000 .8989 .9086
6.106 .9605 .9500 .9484 9A11 2.8810 39520 , 9497 9457 .9575
12.126A 9 A60 , 9750 9738 .9940 4.2342 , 9774 , 9740 , 9741 .9A06
29.8306 .9971 990n , 9494 19987 6,6241 19923 .9499 9A94 19931
2A5.2239 .9993 , 9999 .99 $ 0 1.OCOO 24.1867 , 9998 9990 .9989 .9994

A - TRUF : , 050 A - LO * :. 001 A - HIGH : , 677 A - TPUF : .050 A - LOVE.006 A -HIGH :. 321
У F(X) GOXI G -LOW ( X ) G -HIGH ( X ) X F(X) G ( X ) G - LOV ( X ) G - HIGHOXT
2.7941 .9154 9000 8905 , 9383 1.809 ? .9041 . 9non , 8947 .9231
5,3873 .9681 . 9497 , 9415 19787 2.7471 79556 79502 79451 79705
10.1778 .9A96
.
, 9747 .9687 , 9927 3.9539 .9807 19751 .9712 9493
.

23.3928 , 9977 9997 .9862 .9981 6.2049 19945 19901 19677 19974
IRA . 1644 .9992 9986 .9979
. .9996 19.7181 .9999 .9991 .9987 .9998

A - TFUE :. 100 A - LO " : . 003A -HIGH : ,816 A - TRUE : . 103 A - LON : .012 A - HIGH : , 500
Y F ( X) GOX ) G -LOV ( X ) G -HIGHTX ) FOX GTXT 6-10 TYTG- HIGHCXT
2.5521 9164 19 ron 8917 .9135 1.7683 9071 .
971 ? 8912 .9232
4,6944 .9679 19500 .9337 .9612 2.6544 .9586 19514 .9419 .9708
A.3996 . SABA .974A .9925 .9826 3.7974 .9831 , 9763
. , 9689 , 9895
18.Ono 3 .9914 9499 .9424 .9940
. 5.0 465 .9959 , 9911 .9369 .9972
152.7A7 .9996 .999 .9976 .9995 28.5731 1.COJO , 9997 .9986 .9991

A - TOUF : .200 A - LO : = . 006 A - HIGH : , 909 A - TRUF : .200 A - Lon = .027 A - HIGH : , 692
F( x GlX ) G - LOH ( X ) G - HIGH ( X ) F( X ) G ( X ) G - LO ' ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
2.2244 .9115 , 90n .8667 .8926 1.6466 9039 9 nur 8A26 .9073
3.7797 .9622 , 95 in .9180 .9242 2.3727 19547 1949A , 9326 .9567
5.1959 .SA 46 .975 .95ņ ? .9628 3.2187 .9795 .97 48 .9504 .9201
11 :6428 79954 799jn .9735 .9524 476204 .9937 98 98 .9 00 19929
55.9752 .9996 , 99 9 ,. 9946 .9973 11.0565 .9997 , 9989 .9964 .9993

A - TRUF : , 300 A - LOW : .011 A -HIGH : .945 A - TRUF : .300 A -LOW = .045 A -HIGH : , 794
X F( X) GOXTG - LOX ( X ) G - HIGH ( X ) X F(X) G -LON ( X
GEX ) G -HIGH ( X )
2.0760 .9056 , 9102 , 8561 .8645 1,5A19 .9020 .900 .8781 .8937
3.2640 79560 79507 1975 79160 272337 .9524 79509 79200 79438
5.0347 .9799 .9757 .9395 .9471 2.9607 .9773 , 9750 , 9562 .9699
8.7451 19930 799 01 .9553 , 9711 4.100A .9916 1990n .9766 , 9A66
38.4552 .9995 .99
. 92 .9923 .9944 8.4680 .9994 .9990 .9948 .9982

A - TRUF : , 400 4 - LO " = . 016 A - HIGH : , 964 4- TRUF : , 400 A - Lom : .069 A -HIGH : .857
у FOXT GOXTG - LOTT G -FIGHTX7 X FTXT GTX TOTOXIG-TIGHT
1.9193 9015 8991 8494 , 8531 1,5451 9005 9non
. .8767 .AH42
3.0r12 : 9516 .9491 39201 : 9039 2.1566 39596 .9498 3.9767 79939
4.4773 , 9763 , 9742 , 9323 .9358 2.8701 .9756 .9749 , 9544 .9613
7.375A 19908 ; 9791 .95AA 3,9617 3,8310 .9934 79898 : 9750 79803
25.3605 .9991 , 9082 .987 .9892 7.4729 .9991 .9987 .9937 .9959

A - TFUF : .500 A - LO : .024 A - HIGH : , 976 A - TRUE : .500 A -LOW.100 A - HIGH : , 900
Y FOX ) F(X) GPXI G - LOW ( X5 G -HIGH ( X )
GOX ) G - LOVYT G -HIGH ( X )
1. BA56 .9000 9non .8194 8494 1.5332 .9000 , 970n .8786 .8786
2.9200 .9500 1950 .899A .8998 2.1319 19500 79500 39283 , 9263
4.3127 .9759 , 975 .9319 69319 2.7765 .9750 , 975 .9563 .9563
6.9636 79900 7976 ,9584 19584 3,7460 7990 0 79900 79765 79765
22.3327 .9989 , 9990 .9877 . 9877 7.1742 .9990 , 9990 .9946 .9946

30
 TABLE XII. - COMPARISON OF WELCH APPROXIMATION G(x), Glow (x), CHigh(x)
WITH TRUE VALUE ( F (x)] - Continued

1.1 : 4 " 12 : 4 ivi = 5 Tic- 5

A - Irur : .010 A - LO.3.002 A - HIGH : , 052 6 -TRUE - .uiu A-LU.:-.002 A - HIGH = .040
X F(X) G ( X ) G - LOX ( X ) G - HIGH ( X ) х Flad Gin G -LOI ( X ) G- !IGH ( X )
1.6767 .9013 .900A .9101 .9144 1.5274 .9003 . 9000 .8995 .9020
2.357 .9517 1950 ? .9901 .9547 2.1190 .9504 . (150 ) .9495 .95201
3.1994 .9769 .975a .9752 .9784 2.7549 .9754 .9750 .9746 .9766
4.6419 .991A .9907 .9904 .9923 3.7001 .9904 .9900 .9097 .7910
13.7289 .999A .9794 .9993 , 9995 7.0321 .9992 .9490 .9909 .9992
4 - TEUF : .050 A -L0 /' = . 010 A - HIGH : .221 A - TRUE = , 150 -LO - 013 A -HIGHS . 178
Y F( X) G ( X ) G -LO . ( Y ) G -HIGH ( X ) F ( ) Gli G - L0 ( X ) 6-1- IGH ( X )
1,5966 9017 Unon 8995 9117 1.5055 .9010 .9000 .8975 .9071
2 : 2651 : 952 195 ; .9406 .9611 2.0750 .9513 .9500 .9476 .9569
3.010 .9775 9755 . .9723 .9835 2.6755 .9704 .9750 .9730 .9805
4.276 ? .9927 99 01 . .9963 , 9950 3.5575 .9912 .9900 .9687 .9934
9.4720 .9997 9991 .
.998R , 9998 0.5245 .9994 .9990 .9987 .9996

A - Tour : . : 00 A - LO : .020 A - H1643,375 Å - TRUE = .100 A - LOW.026 A - HIGH = .314

Y F(x ) GUXI G -LOL! ( X ) G -HIGH ( X ) х Fla ) GUx )U -LO .: ( X ) G -HIGH ( X )
1,5413 .9023 . १०31 .8917 .9117 1.4314 .9013 .900u .8955 .9090
2.1939 .951: 9 , 9481
. .9417 .9611 2.0277 .9510 .9501 .9455 . 9590
2.8217 .97A .4731 9570 .913 2.5901 .9709 .9731 .9713 0822
3.9476 .9925 .9981 .9446 .9937 3.4091 .9910 . ‫ تو‬1 19675 2944
7.3063 .9994 .9775 .9962 .9978 0.1345 .9995 .9991 .9955 . 9998

4 - TRUF : .2nr A - LOV : .044 A - HIGH : .574 - TKUE = .200 A LO = .057 A -HIGH - .507
FOX ) G ( X ) G - LOA ( Y ) G - HIGH ( X ) X Fla ) GUAG-LO, ( X ) C - HIGH ( X )
1.576 , 9219 .6981 .8373 .9062 1.4433 .G011 . 9000 .8925 .9065
2.0700 .9524 .9441 .9373 .9560 1.9502 .9514 .950u . 94 ‫لما‬ 50505
2.677 ? .9774 .9731 .9539 .9794 2.4500 .9765 .9750 9685 .9803
3.5607 ..9919 ; 9781 ‫܂‬.‫ ܟ‬A ‫ܙ ܕ‬ 39919 3.1637 .9912 .9900 9855 .7933
6.5945 .9995 , 9911 .9954 .9977 5.2710 .9994
a .9939 .9976 .999 €

A - Trur : , 370 A - LO :: . 074 A -HIGH : .698 A - TRUE = .400 A - LO ..- . 194 A -HIG ! = , 638
Fax ) Glx ) G - LO ( Y ) G -HIGH ( X ) X FOX ) GET G - L0v. ( X1 G -HIGETXD
1.4485 .971 ? .9907 .8299 .9001 1.4171 . 9Uvo . 9000 .9912 .9015
2.0ro 79517 " .9507 39367 79501 1.6939 .950 € 69500 .9409 .7515
2.5450 .9762 .975 .9635 .9751 2.3718 .9790 .9750 9671 .9762
3.3184 .9917 970 ? 9518 .9900 3.0145 . ‫ ز‬6 .99 00 9944 .990 €
5.1477 .9993 .909 .9965 .9990 4.8217 9992 . 9409 .9973 .9991

AL
A - TUF : , 400 LO * :. 110 A -HIGH :, 782 A - TRUE = , 400 A -LU .- . 147 A -HIGH - .733
FOX ) GOXIG - 1077X1 - G -HIGH0X7 X FOX ) GW G - LOL ( X ) G - IIGHTX )
1.4469 .9003 8793 .8 1
90 .8927 1.4018 .9002 .9000 .0915 .1968
1.9572 .9533 ,. 9493 19353 .9426 1.8692 .9502 . 9 ‫تن‬ .9412 .- .467
2.4798 .9753 .9743 , 9524 .9686 2.3234 .9793 .9750 .9674 .9723
3.1751 .9931 , 9793 , 9909 , 9853 -2.9274 . 93 ‫ان‬ 19900 9846 .9681
5.3737 .9991
. , 9783 , 9958 .9973 4.6400 .9991 .9990 .9974 .9985

A - TOUF : .500A-LO.3.156 A - HIGH : , 844 A - TRUE = .. 00 A - L0.9.196 A -HIGH , F04

х F(X) GUX ) G - LO " ( * ) Ğ -HIGH ( X ) X FA ) Gai ) LOW ( X ) G -HICH ( X )
1 . 439A .6000 9non 8990 8890 1.3908 .9000 .9013 2934 .79.34
1.9432 .9500 ,950,ñ 19387 19387 1.8590 .9500 9500 79432 ..0432
2.4501 .9751
. , 9759 .9951 .9654 2.3000 .9750 .9750 .9691 .9691
3.1520 13931 79931
. .983 ? 79732 2.8965 .9900 .9900 .9858 .2858
5.3295 .9991 , 9991 .9972 .9972 4.5012 .9990 .9959 .9977 .9977
31
 TABLE XIII. - COMPARISON OF WELCH APPROXIMATION [G(x)
( , Glow (x), CHIGH(x]
WITH TRUE VALUE [ F ( x)] - Continued

N1 : 10 M2 : 10 - -N1 : 15 -N2 : 15

A - TRUE ' , 010 A - LOW : 004 4 - HIGH : 024 A-TRUE , 010 A - LOW = , 005 A - HIGH : 020.
x F(x ) G ( X ) G - LOW ( x ) G - HIGH ( X ) x F(X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( x ) G - HIGH ( X )
1,3809 .9000 .9000 .8999 .9004 1,3437 .9000 ,. 9000 .8999 9002
1 , A290 .9501 .9500 .9498 , 9505 1,7589 .9500 .9500 .9499 , 9502
-2.2554 .9751 , 9750 , 9743 --- , 9754 -2,1408 , 9750 - , 9750- 9749 .9752
2,8099 , 9901 .9900 .9897 .9903 2,6179 , 9900 .9900 .7899 .9901
4.2662 3,7713 .9990 .9990 .१990- 9990
.9990 .9990 .9993 .9991
A-TRUE % , 050 A - LOW : 021 A - HIGH : : 114 A - TRUEF , 050 A - LOVE , 025 A - HIGH : 096
X F( x) X F(X) G ( X ) G - LOW( X ) G - HIGHEXI
G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
1 , 3727 9002 .9000 8991 9017 1,3387 - , 9001 , 9000 --- ,8995--, 9006
1.8135 19502 9500 19491 19518 1,7496 .9501 .9500 .9495 , 9509
2.2298 .9753 , 9750 , 9742 , 9765 2,1268 , 9751 .9749 , 9745 , 9757
2,7666 , 9902 .9900 .9695 .9910 2,5955 .9901
. ,. 9899 .9896 .9904
4.1515 .9991 .9990 .9982 .9992 3,7316 .9991 ,. 9969 , 9989 .9991-

A - TRUE : 100 A - LON , 044 4 - HIGH 213.. --A- TRUE : , 100 -A - LOWE , 052 ------ HIGH - 183
x X F(X) G ( X ) G - LOWER ) G - HIGHIX )
F( X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( ) G - HIGHEX )
1.3636 9002 9000 A984 9025 1,3332 9001 , 9000 1991 .9013 -
1 : 7963 : 9503 : 9500 : 9484 : 9526 1.7392 , 9501 .9500 , 9491 , 9513
2.2016 .9754 .9750 9756 .9772 2.1091 .9751 , 9750 .8742 .9761
2,7191 .9903 .9900 .9893 .9915 2,5658 .9901 .9900 .9895 , 9906
4.0276 .9991 .9990 , 9987 .9993. --- 3,6433 --- , 9991 -- , 9990 9989 ------9992

A - TRUE3,200 A - LOH3,093 A - HIGH: 379 A-TRUE: 1200 A - LOV.110 A - HIGH : . 336

X F( X) G ( x ) G - LOWx) G - HIGH ( X )
X F(X) G ( X ) G -LCH ( ५ ) G - HIGH ( X )
1,3489 , 9002 , 9000 .8975 , 9025 1,3241 .9001 9000 .8987 .9013
1,7685 .9200 , 9474 , 9525 1.7223 , 9501 , 9500 .9486 , 9514
.9503
2.1505 .9753 , 9750 , 97213 .9772 -2.0822 --- -.9751 .9750 . ..9753 . .9762
2,6438 , 9903
. .9900 .9884 , 9915 2.5218 .9901 , 9900 .9892 .9908
3,8360 , 9991 .9990 , 998 .9993 3,5372 .9991 .9990 .9960 .. .9992

A - TRUE : , 300 A - LOW : 149 A - HIGH : 511 A - TRUE , 300 A - LOWD , 175 A - HIGH %D 1464
X F(X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( 3 ) G - HIGH ( X )
x F( X ) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
1.3386 .9001 .9000 18973 .9013 1.3176 ..9000 -.9000- 8986 -9006
, 9500 9472 , 9514
1,7105 .9501 , 9500 , 9486 .9509
1,7492 , 9502 . .

2,1253 .9752 , 9750

. .9 / 26 , 9762 2.0641 .9751 ,. 9750 .9738 ... 9758
2,4932 , 9901 .9900 .9391 , 9906
2,5923 .9902 .9900 .9663 .9908
3,7041 .9991 .9990 .9985 .9992 3.4824 .9991 , 9990 .9983 .9992

A - TRUE , 400 A - LOW : , 2154 - HIGH : . 619 4 - TRU६ : 400 A - LOW : 248 A-HIGH % D 574
X F( X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( x ) G - HIGH( X ) X F( X) G ( X ) G - LOWEX ) G - HIGHEXI
1,3324 , 9000 .9000 .8971 .8999 1,3138 , 9000 , 9000 ..... 8989 .9001
1,7378 , 9500 , 9500 .9476 .9499 1,7035 .9500 .9500 .9488 .9501
2.1070 , 9720 .9750 , 9729 .9749 2,0521 . .9750 , 9750 , 9740 2,9751
2,5623 .9900 .9900 .9885 .9899 2,4731 .9900 .9900 .9893 .9901
3,6412 .9990 .9990 , 9986 , 9990 3,4222 .9990 1 9990 ... .9983 .9990

A - TRUEF , 500 A - LOW : 291 --HIGHD , 709 A - TRUE : , 500 A - LOWD.331 A - HIGH 1669 .
X F( x ) G ( X ) G - LOW ( x ) G - HIGH ( X ) X F(X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( x ) G - HIGHIX )
1,3304 , 9000 . 9000 .8986 .8986 1,3125 .9000 , 9000 , 8994 . , 8994
1,7341 , 9500 , 9500 .9485 , 9485 1,7011 , 9500 ., 9500
• 9494 , 9494
2,1009 , 9750 .9750 .9757 .9737 2,0484 .9750 .9750 ..9744 9744
2.5524 .9900 , 9900 .9891 .9891 2,4672 .9900 , 9900 , 9890
. , 9896
3,6107 .9990 .9990 .9988 .9988 3,4084 .9990 .9990 .9989 .9969

32
 TABLE XIII. - COMPARISON OF WELCH APPROXIMATION [G(x), Grow (x), Ghigh(x)]
WITH TRUE VALUE ( F (x )] - Continued
-

11:20 12:20 11 : 30 --N2-30-

A - TRUE : , 010 A - LOW : , 006 A - HIGH : .017 -A - TRUE 3 , 010 --- A -LOW = , 006 A -HICH = .016.
х F(X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGHEXY x F(X) G ( X ) G -LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
1,3268 --9000 9000 , 8999 9001 -1,3108 78999 , 9000 , 9000 - , 9001
1,7274 , 9500 ,. 9500 ,. 9499 , 9501 1,6980 , 9500 , 9500 , 9500 , 9501 .

2.0925 . 29751 9751 9751 9752 270435 19750 9750 -9749 79750
2,5401 , 9901 .9901 , 9901 , 9902 2,4592 , 9900 , 9900 , 9899
. .9900
_3.6169_ .9991 .... .9991- .9991 .9991 -3,3898 19990-- ,9990 ----, 9989 . - , 9990 -

LA - TRUE : , 050 A - LOW : , 029 A - HIGH : , 085 A - TRUE- , 050 A - LOW = , 032 - A - HICH = .076. -
Х F( X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X ) х F( x ) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
1,3232 9000 9000 8997 9005 -1,3045- 78999 9000 18998- , 9002
1,7208 19500 19500 , 9497 .9505 1,6938 , 9500 , 9500 , 9498 , 9502
_2.0797 9751 . 9750 -.9747 -
.9754. -2,0368 - 9750 , 9750 9748 -- , 9752
2,5177 ., 9900 , 9900 . 9898 .9903 2,4485 ., 9900 , 9900 9899 ..9902
3.5275 9990 ..9990 1 9990 .9991
. -3 , 3651 19990 ---- 9990 - , 9990-19990
A - IRUES , 100 A -LOW : 2000 A -HIGH : 1162 A = TRUE 100 A - LOW : , 066 A =HIGH : , 169__
х F(X) G ( X ) G -LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X ) х F( X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
1.3192 9000 9000 , 8995 - . , 9007 0 -1, 3060 -.8999 1 8983 , 8983 - , 8986
1,7133 19501 19500 19494 19508 1,6891 , 9500 , 9483 ., 9480 , 9487
_2.0678 _19751 . , 9749 , 9744
1 . , 9755 -2,0302 , 97 ‫גל‬ 79732 19729 - , 9735
2,4985 , 9901 , 9899 .9896 , 0903 2 , 4384 , 9901 , 9882 , 9880 , 9884
‫وید‬820 29990 2982 29988 29990 -3,3534 79091 79972-9972-9973
A - TRUE , 200 LA -LOW :, 125 A - HIGH : , 305 A - TRUE : , 200 A -LOW : , 137 - A.HIGH : .282
х F( X ) Gix ) G - LOW ( X ) G -HIGH ( X ) х F(X) G ( X ) G -LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
1,3126 ..9000 ..9000 8992 , 9008 -1.3017- .8999 .9000 .8996 -.9004
1,7013 , 9500
. ., 9500 ., 9492 , 9508
.
1.6814 , 9500 .9500 , 9496 , 9505
29750 9742 9757 2.0172 .9750 6.9750 9745 .9754
2,0502 2752
2,4723 , 9902 ., 9900 .9895 , 9905 2.4170 , 9900 , 9900 .
9897 ,. 9903
3,4517 ..9991 , 9990_
. 9989 .. .9991 3,2927 .9990 . 19990 , 9989. , 9991

A - TRUE : , 300 A -LOW ? , 196 A - HIGHz , 429 A - TRUE : , 300 A -LOW = .214 A - HIGH = , 402 .
х F(X) X F(X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X G - HIGH ( X )
G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
13079 9000 9000 8992 9005 1,2982 8999. 9000 1899 á 9003
1,6927 , 9500 , 9500 , 9491 , 9506 •
1.6759 , 9500 , 9500 . 9496 , 9503
_2,0372 , 9751 9751 , 9744 , 9756 2,0106 , 9751 , 9751. , 9747 2.9754
2,4504 , 9901 , 9901 .9896 .9905 2,4078 , 9901 , 9901 .9898 , 9903
3,3996 .9991 . 19991 .. , 9990 , 9992 2.2992 .9991 19991 . 9990 . 19992

A - TRUE : , 400 A - LOW : , 275 A - HIGH3,539 A - IRUE : 400 A -LOW : , 298 A -HIGH : ,512
х F( X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X ) X F(X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
1,3052 .8999 , 9000 8994 , 9001 1,2969. .8999 . 9000 8997___ , 9001
1,6876 , 9500 , 9500 , 9493 , 9501 1,6726 .9500 , 9500 9497 , 9501
2,0271 , 9750 , 9750 .9744 , 9751 2.0054, 9751 1,9751 9748 9752
2,4328 , 9900 , 9900 , 9895
. , 9900 2,3995 , 9901 ,. 9901 . 9897 .9901
3,3289 , 9990 .9990 , 9988 , 9990 1.2802 .9991 9991_29993 9991
A - TRUE : , 500 A - LOW :, 363 A - HIGH : , 637 LA - TRUE : ,500 A - LOW = , 389 A - HIGH = : 611
х F(x) G (XI 6 -LOW ! XD G -HIGHEXT х F(x ) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
1,3042 .8999 , 9000 .8997 , 8997 1,2963 , 8999. , 9000 8999 8999
1,6860 , 9500 , 9500 , 9497 ,. 9497 1,6716 , 9500 , 9500 . 9499 .9499
2.0244 , 9750 ,. 9750 .9747 , 9747 2.0012 9750 9.750 27.42 9749
2,4286 9900 .9900 , 9898
. 9898 2,3924 9900 9900 . 9899 . 9899
3,3193 19990 9990 9989 , 9989 3,2368. ..9990 49990 9990 99.90

33
 TABLE XIII. - COMPARISON OF WELCH APPROXIMATION [G(x), Glow (x), GHigh(x]
WITH TRUE VALUE (F(x)] - Continued
-

N1 : 50 12:50 NIS 6 N2 : 2

A - TRUE ? , 010 A - LOW : , 007 A - HIGH = .014 A - TRUE = .010 A - LOW = .000 . A -HIGH = . ? 66__
х F(x ) GOX ) G -LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X ) F(X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
-1.2987 .8999 , 9000 , 9000 .9000 . 3.0130 .9085 .9000 .8960 .9618
1,6759 , 9499 , 9500 , 9500 , 9500 6.1052 .9633
.
.95 00 .9484 9912
_2.0094 9750 4.9749 29.749 29750 12.1245 19 90 2 .9 75 0 .9
. 738 9982.

2.4051 19900 , 9699 , 9897 .9899 29.8228 .9995 .9900 .9893 .999 A
_3.2765 ..9990 .9989 .9989 . .9989 365.6413 1.0000 .9991 .99
.
90 1.0nne

A - TRUE : ., 050 A -LOW : , 036 A - HIGH = , 069 A - TRUE = .050 A -LOW = .001 A -HIGH= .751
х F( X) GTXI G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGHEX ) х FIX ) G ( X ) G -LOW ( X ) G -HIGH ( X )
1,2974 , 8999 9000 8999 -, 9001 2.7783 .9216 .9000 .8902 .9A31
1,6735 , 9500 , 9500 , 9499 69501 5.3696 .9773 .9497 .9412 .9928
2.0048 -.9750 , 9750 , 9749 .9751 10.1310 .9967 .9747 .9685 .9998
2,3972 , 9900 , 9900 .9899 .9901 23.3322 .9999 .9897 .9861
. .9998
3.2477 .9990 .9990 . .9990 .9990 193.6779 1.0000 .9984 .9977 .9998

-A- TRUE: , 100 A -LOW :-1073 A - H , CH = : 136_ A - TRUE = 100 A - LOW.002 A -HIGHS.F64
х F( X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G -HIGH ( X ) х F(X) G ( X ) G- LOW X ) G -HIGH ( X )
1,2959 .8999 9000 8999 9002 2.5316 .9266 .9000
• .8806 .9776
1,6708 .9500 , 9500 19499 .9502 4.6350 .9805 .9497 .9324 .9980
2.0005 . 9750 , 9750 , 9749 , 9752 8.2856 .9973 .9748 .9618 .9997
2.3904 9900 .9900 , 9899 .9901 17.6370 .9999 .9A9A .9819 .9998
3,2322 1 9990. 19990 19990 ..9990 .. 128.2795 1.0000 .9988 .9973 .9998

A - TRUE : , 200 A - LOW3,150 A -HIGH :. 261 A - TRUE = .200 A - LOW - .004 A -HIGH - .935
х G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) C -HIGH ( X ) х F (X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
F(X)
1,2934 .8999
. , 9000
1 A998 , 9002 2.1560 .9257 .9000 .8627 .9612
1,6663 , 9500 , 9500 , 9498 , 9502 3.6038 .9781 .9500 .9147 .9936
1,9934 29750 9752 1 9748 9752 5.7847 .9958 .9749 .9462 .9992
2,3792 , 9900 , 9900 .9898 .9901 10.5909 .9998 .9899 .9705 .9999
3,2072 , 9990 , 9990 , 9989 .9990 53.2457 1.0000 .9989 .9938 1.0000

A - TRUE : , 300 A - LOW : , 233 A -HIGH : , 377 A - TRUE = .300 A - LOW - .007 A -HIGH = .961
х F(X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( XD G - HIGH ( X ) х F(X) G ( X ) G -LOW ( X ) G -HIGH ( X )
1.2917 8997 9000 A998 -. 9002 1.9287 .9225 .9022 .8492 .9462
1,6631 .9499 , 9500 , 9498 .9502 3.0302 .9744 .9522 .. 9000 .9867
1,9884 , 9750 , 9750 ., 9748 , 9751 4.5840 .9939 .9771 .93
.
30 .9975
.9900 .9901 7.9220 .9995 .9919
. .9611
. .9998
2,3713 .9900 .9899
3,1895 , 9990 , 9990 , 9990 , 9990 49.7630 1.0000 .9998 .9940 1.0000

A - TRUE : ., 400 A -LOW- , 321 A -HIGHE.485 A - TRUE = .400 A -LOW = .012 A -HIGH - .974
X F(X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( XT G - HIGHEXD F(X) G X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
1,2906 , 8991 . 9000 .8999 .9001 1.7187 .9137
. .9000 .8344 .9282
1,6633 , 9498 , 9502 , 9501 , 9503 2.5322 .96
. 57 .9497
O
.8824 .9747
1,9893 , 9751 , 9752 , 9751 , 9753 3.5240 .9882 . 9747 .9140
. .9920
2,3750 , 9902 , 9902 , 9901 .9903 5.2460 .9977 .989
.
7 .9417 .9982
3,2479 .9992 , 9992 .9992 .9992_ 13.3214 1.0000 .998
.
7 .9771 .9997

A - TRUE : , 500 A - LOWE , 414 A - HIGH = .586 A - TRUE = .500 A -LOW = .017 . A - HIGH = .983
х F( X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X1 G - HIGH ( X ) х F(X) G ( X ) G -LOW ( X ) G -HIGH ( X )
1,2903 , 8986 , 9000 , 9000 9000 1.5945 .9081 .9000 .8248 .9151
1,6606 .9494
. , 9500 , 9500 .9500 2.2005 .9594 .9500 .8708 .9642
1,9845 ,9747 , 9750
. , 9750 .9750 3.0097 .9834
.
.9750 .9013 .9857
3,3650 , 9899 79900 , 9900 , 9900 4.1968 .9955 .9900 .9288 .9960
3,1756 , 9990 , 9990 , 9990 .9990 8.8375 .9999 .9990 .966
. 6 .9999

34
 TABLE XIII. - COMPARISON OF WELCH APPROXIMATION G(x), Glow(x), Ghigh (x)
WITH TRUE VALUE ( F (x )] - Continued

.13 2. " 2: N1-10 N2 = 2

A - TPUFO , 010
.
A - LOV = .002 A -HIGH : .039 A -TRUE =, 010 A -LOW = .000 --- A - HIGH - .377
Elx ) GPX ? G - LOH ( V ) G - HIGH ( X ) Х F(x) G ( X ) G- LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
1.4716 .9 กา 1 .9non .8996 9014 3.0130 .9087 .9000 .8980 .9636
2. 0065 .95 !? .9490 .9495 .9513 6.1051 .9638 .9500 .9483 .9925
2.5557 9752 .9740 .9716 9761 12.1242 .9908 .9750 .9738 .9986
3.3375 $ 9 : 17 .9890 19897 .9907 29.8218 .9998 .9900 .9893 .9998
5.8081 .9991 .998 ? .9788 9990 285.0695 1.0000 .9990 .9982 1.0000
A - TCUF : .050 A - LO . = . 013 A - HIGH5,176 A - TRUE = .050 A - LOW = .001 A - HIGH - .759
у F(X ) G ( X ) G - LO :' ( X ) G - HIGH ( X ) Х F(x) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
1.4573 .90.33 990 .8983 9023 2.7777 .9225 .9000 , 8902
. .9883 .

1.9778 795.j * : 9507 79283 19523 5.3676 .9788 .9499

.
.9414
. .9996
2.5790 .9755 .9751 .9737 .9770 10.1504 .9972 .9749 .9687_ .9999
3.2567 .99 :15 , 9901 , 9992 .9914 23.3578 1.0000 .9899 .9863 .9999
.

5.6672 .9992 , 9991 .9989 .9993 197.0376 1.0000 .9989 .9983 .9999

4 - Tour : .100 -LO - = . 027 A -HIGH5.311 A - TRUE = .100 A - LOW - .002 A - HIGH - .869
у FIXT GUX16-10 %'TY G -HIGH ( X ) х F (X) G ( X ) G -LOW ( X ) G -HIGH ( X )
1.4454 .9002 970 8974 6972
. 2.5294 .9282 .9000 8805 .98492
1.9544 952 , 9579 .9474 9472
. 4.6381 .9827 .9501 .9327
. .9995
2.4660 .9752 , 975; .9727 9726
. 8.3036 .9984 .9753 .9621 1.0000
3.1765 .9952 , 990 . 9885 ..9083 17.8046 1.0000 .9903 .9823 1.0000
5.310 ? .9991 .999 .9986 , 9986 143.0244 1.0000 .9993 .9978 1.0000
A - TSUS : .20 j A -LOX = .058 A - HIGH = .504 A - TRUE : .200 A - LOW = .004.- A -HIGH - .937
у F(X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( Y ) G - HIGH ( X ) Х F(X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
1.4417 7001 97011 .8982 .8914 2.1508 .9281 . 9000 .8623 .9713
0

1.9460 . 95 ‫ان‬ .9507 , 9491 , 9308 3.5850 .9809 .9500 .9142

. .9975
0

2.49: 17 .9751 .9752 .9734 .9581 5.7422 .9973 9750 .9458

. .9999
3.15in 75931 993 1989
. : 9775 10.4809 .9999 .9900 .9703 1.0000
5.2334 .9999 ., 9997 .9987
. .9947 46.4778 1.0000 .9990 9934 1.0000

A - TPUF = .300 A -LO * :.095 A -HIGH : .635 A - TRUE = .300 A - LOW = .007 A - HIGH= .963 ..
х F( X G ( X ) G - LOW ( Y ) G -HIGH ( X ) X F(X) G ( X ) G -LOW ( X ) G -HIGH ( X )
1.4627 9111 970n 992 ? 8679 1.8856 .9228 .9000 .8461 .9550
1.9867 795147 1950n 19522 .9166 2.9200 .9755 .9500 .8964 .9920
2.5240 .9763 , 9750 .9762 .9450 4.3027 .9947 .9750 .9287 .9991
3.2p2r .1919 , 990.0
. .9917 .9568 6.9636 .9997 09900 .9557 1.0000
5.6334 .9993 .9990
. .9992 .9294 23.9768 1.0000 .9991
.
.9873 1.0000

A - TRUF : , 400 A - LO .- . 141 A -HIGH : , 730 A - TRUE = .400 A - LOW = .011 R -HIGH = .976
у FOX GOX C- COWCY ) G -HIGH ( X ) F(X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
1.512 .9035 .979 .9793 .6596 1.6985 .9163 .9000 .8326 .9389
2.OPAS .9545 .95430 9597 .9080 2.4870 9687
. .9500 .8805 .9832
2.6994 .9792 , 9750 9921 ., 9372 3.4364 .9907 .9750 .9120 .9965
3.6720 .9939 99 .9943 .9605 5.0623 .9988 .9900 .9399 .9997
6.7366 .4990 9990 .9997 . 9A65 12.7006 1.0000 .9990 .9763 1.0000
4 - TEUF : , 500
.
A - LO - :. 198 A - HIG !! : . 802 A - TRUE = .500 A - LOW - 016 A -HIGH = .984
X F( X ) G ( X ) G - LON ( Y ) G -HIGH ( X ) X F (x) G ( X ) G -LOW: ( X ) G- HIGH ( X )
1.5945 , 9081 , 9 ‫חסר‬ 9189 .8564 1.5668 .
9104 .9000
.
.8221 .9247
2.2653 .9597
.
,. 950 ? .9676 .9655
. 2.2063 .9624 .9502 .8678 .9730
3.0207 .9636 .9752 .9982 .9355 2.9126 .9860 .9752 .8980 .9916
4.2321 .9956 , 9702 19972 .9600 4.0309 .9971 9903 .9257 .9986
9.6056 .9999 , 9992 1.0000 .9882 8.8005 1.0000 .9992 .9663 1.0000

35
 TABLE XIII. - COMPARISON OF WELCH APPROXIMATION [G(x), Glow (x), GHI CH (x)
Ghigh
WITH TRUE VALUE ( F (x )] - Continued
-

Ni : 2 N2-10 NI - 15 N2- 2

LA - TRUE = 2010 A - LOX = .003 A -HIGH = .033 A - TRUE = : 110 A-LOWE.CO . A -HIGH - .381
X F (x) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X ) F(X) G ( X ) G -LOW ( X ) G -HIGH ( X )
1.3610 .9000 .9000 .8998 .9006 3.0130 .9088 .9000 .8980 .9648
1.8292 .9500 .9500 .9498
. .9506 6.1050 .9640 .9500 .9483 .9930
2.2556 .9751 .9750 .9748 .9755 12.1241 ..9912 .9750 . 9738 .9987
2.8104 .9900 .9900 .9898 .9903 29.8215 .9998 .9900 .9893
. .9999
4.3209 ..9991 ..9990 49990 9991. 285.0781 1.0000__ . 9990 .9989 1.0000

A - TRUE = .050 A -LOW = .015 A - HIGHE.150 A - TRUE = .050 A - LOW = .0ni A -HIGH = . 762
х F (X) G ( X ) G - LON ( X ) G - HIGH ( X ) х F(X) G ( x ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
1.3749 .9000 .8993 .8985 .8993 2.7774 .9230 .9000 .8902 .9904
1.8176 .9501 .9493 .9485 .9493 5.3986 .9798 .9503 .9419 .9999
2.2366 .9751 .9743 .9736 .9743 10.2685 .9983 .9754 .9692 1.0000
2.7780 .9901 .9893 .9888 .9803 24.0612 1.0000 .9903 .9868
. 1.0000
4.2017 .9991 .9983 .9982 .9983 277.0766 1.0000 .9989 .9984 1.0000

A - TRUE = 100 A - LOW.032 A - HIGHE.272 A - TRUE = .100 A - LOW = .002 A - HIGH - .871
х F (X) G ( X ) G- LOW ( x ) G-HIGH ( X ) X F (X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
1.3722 .9000 9000 .8993._ .8953 2.5234 .9290 .9000 .AA05 .98H
O

1.8125 .9500 .6500 .9492 .9451 4.6256 .9836 .9500 .9326 .9998
2.2281 .9750 .9750 .9743 .9707 8.2173 .9988 .9750 .9617 1.0000
2.7638 .9900
. 9900 .9895 • 9270 17.3556 1.0000 .9900 .9819 1.0000
4.1936 .9991 .9991
. . 9990 .9983 112.4585 1.0000 .9989 .9971_1.0000

A - TRUE = .200 A - LOW - .069 A -HIGH - .457 1- TRUE= : 200 A - LOW = .004 A -HIGH - .938
X F (X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G -HIGH ( X ) х F (x) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G -HIGH ( X )
1.3830 .9005 .9000 .9015
. .BALA 2.1476 .9292 .9000 .8621 .9757
1.8359 .9508 .9502 .9517
. .9311 3.5766 .9822 .9500 .9140 .9986
2.2676 .9759 .9752 .9765 .9542
. 5.7233 .9980 .9750 . 9456 1.0000
2.8351 .99
. 07 .9902 .9911 .9774 10.4322 1.0000 .9900 .9701 1.0000
4.5033 .9994 .9993 .9994 .9950 46.0955 1.0000 .9990 .9932
.
1.0000

A - TRUE = ..300 A - LON = . 113 A -HIGH - .590 A - TRUE : .300 A - LON = .007 A - HIGH - .963
х F(X) G ( X ) G - LO , ( X ) G - HIGH ( X ) х F (X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
1.4166 .9022 . 9000 .9065 .8699 1.9086 .9265 .9022 .84 77 .9620
1.8978 .9527 .9500.
.9565 . .9184 2.9009 .9789 .9519 8981 .9950
2.3699 , 9776 . .9750 .9803_ . .9463 4.4776 .9967 .9768 .9311 .
.9905
3.0072 .9920 .9900 .9934 .9676 7.6568 .9999 .9916 .9595 .9998
4.8123 .9995 .9990 .9996 .9993 46.2219 1.0000 .9995 .9932 .9998

A - TRUE = .400 A - LOW - .166 A -HIGHE.601 A - TRUE = .400 A - LOW = .011 A -HIGH - .976
Х F (X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G -HIGH ( X ) X F (x) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G -HIGH ( X )
1.4759 ..9055 .9000 .9139 .8624 1.6096 .9176 .9000 .8319 .9438_
2.0187 .9569 .9502 .9638 .9110 2.4732 .9705 .9502 .8799 .9A69
2.5762 .9814 .9752 985A .9.398 3.4129 .9920 .9752 .9114 .9980
3.3864 .9946 .9902 .9963 .9626 5.0399 .9992 .9902 .9395 .9999
6.1996 .9999
. .9992 -9999 .9802 13.4082 1.0000 .9992 .9775 1.0000

A - TRUE = .500 A - LOY - .229 A - HIGH - .771 A - TRUE : .500 A -LO.016 A -HIGH - .094_
X F (x) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G -HIGH ( X ) x F(X) G ( X ) G -LOW ( X ) G -HIGH ( X )
1.5668 .9104 .9000 .9231 .8595 1.5546 .9115 .9000 .8209 .9291
2.2063 .9624 .9501 .9715 .9065 2.1764 .9635 .9500 .8661 .9767
2.9177 .9861 .9753 .9908 .9393 2.8564 .9871 .9750 .8960 .9938
4.0355 .9971 .9903 .9982 .9622 3.8991 .9975 .9900 .9232 .9992
8.8808 1,0000 .9991 .9999 .9891 7.9329 1.0000 .9991 .9624 1.0000

36
 x
TABLE XIII. - COMPARISON OF WELCH APPROXIMATION G(x), Glow (x), GHigh(x)
WITH TRUE VALUE ( F (x )] - Continued

Ni: 2 12:15 N1 : 10 12.5

A - TRUE : .010 A - LOW : , 003 A -HIGH = , 030 A - TRUE ? ,010 A - LOW3,003 A - HIGH : , 038
.

X F(X) G7X1 G - LOW ( X ) G -HIGHCX ) х F(x ) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGHIX )

1.343A .9000 , 9 non .8999 .9003 -1,5273 .9003 - , 9000 8995 - 9019
1,7590 79500 19500 .9499 .9503 2,1198 , 9504 ,. 9500 , 9495 , 9519
2.1411 .9750 , 9750
. .9749 .9753 -27549 9754 9750 –97.46 -, 9765
2,6184 , 9900 ,. 9900 .9699 79902 3,7060 , 9904 , 9900 , 9897 , 9910
3.7724 .9990 .9990 .9990 .9990 1,0318 - , 9992 .9990 .9989 -19992
A - TRUF : , 050 A - LOW = .017 A -HIGH- , 140 -A - TRUE : , 050 A -LOW : 2013 A -HIGH = , 172
Y FOX ) GOXI G - LOW ( X ) G -HIGH ( X ) Х F( X ) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
1.3400 9000
. .9000 .8997
. .8992 1,5051 9011 9000 8975 . 9073
1.7536 79500 79537 79496 7,9492 2,0742 , 9514 , 9500 , 9475 , 9572
0

2.1323 .9750 , 9750 .9746 , 9742 -2.6740 ..9765 9750 ,, 9730 ... 9807
2.6039 79900 .9900 9897 , 9894
.
3,5549 , 9914 ., 9900 .9887 , 9935
3.7365 .9990 ,. 9990 .9989 .9988 6.5156 -9995-9990-19987 -9996
-
A - TRUE : , 100 A - LOw = .035 A -HIGH :, 256 A -LOW : .027 LA -HIGH : , 304
X
A = TRUE : 2100
FTXT GTXI G - TOUTXT G -HIGHTX ) X F(X) G ( X ) GLOW ( X ) G -HIGH ( X )
1.3417 9000 9900 9000 8946 1,4799 9016 9000 .8954 9105
1.7551 , 9500 , 9500 19500 .9443 2,0231 , 9520 19500 , 9453 , 9603
2.1348 .9750 .9750 .9750 .9700 2,5846 . - , 9772 - , 9750 , 9711 9831
2.6080 59900 1990n .9900 ,. 9864 3,3903 , 9919 , 9900 .9874 .9949
3.7465 .9990
.
, 9990 , 9996 .9979 5.9752 w9996 9990 9984. 9998

A - TFUF : , 200
.
A - LOW = .075 A - HIGH : , 437 A - TRUE : , 200 A - LOW : , 060 A - HIGHE , 496
X FOXY G7X , GOLOV ( XS G - HIGH ( X ) х F(X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGHCX )
1,3585 .9008 9000 9n2A .8820 1,4374 ..9017 , 8993
1 8912 ..9101
1.7865 , 9510 79500 , 9529
. 19310 1,9386 , 9522 , 9493 , 9411 .9599
2. 1A57 .9760 .9750 .9774 , 9579
0
2.4425 -2.9774 19744 9674 9829
2.6925 79905 1990n 79915 79769 3.1379 , 9920 9894 9845 .9945
3,9594 .9992
.
, 999 9994 .9939
.
5,2857 -.9996 . 9984 9971 9991

A - TPUF : .300 A - LOW = . 121 A - HIGH : , 571 A - TRUE : , 300 A - LOW : , 098 A - HIGH ::628
х F(X) Gex G - LOWCY ) G -HIGH ( X ) х F(X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
1.390 .902 8 9000 , 9781 .8709 1,4094 9020 . 90 07 .8905. 19087
1.8596 79535 • 95 . ན་ 79582 79193 1,8837 , 9524 , 9507 , 9402 , 9587
2.376 , 9784 9757 .9817 .9471 2.3495 ..9774 , 9756 ..9665. ..9821
2.8965 79926 .19900 79942 .9680 , 9042
2,9876 , 9921 ., 9906 , 9945
4.5011 9996 . 9990 • 9998 . 9A94 _5.1975 ..9998 .__ . 9994 ..9980 _.9998

A - TFUE : .400 A - Low = .177 A - HIGH : , 674 A - TRUE : , 400 A - LOW = , 145 A -HIGH : , 724
X FTXT GTXTG -TOWXTG - HIGHTXT х F( X ) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
1.4602 .9064 9non 9156 .86 37 1.3798 9008 0 9000 , 8890 49045 .
1,9837 19578 79530 79652 ., 9120
1,8269 , 9510 , 9500 , 9385 , 9546
2.5200 9824 , 9751 .9A69 .9408 2.2519 ..9760 , 9750 0, 9649. .. 9788
3.2769 79952 9901 79969 ..9632
2,8040 , 9909
. , 9900 .9826 , 9925
5.7675 .9999 ,. 9991 1.000n .9881 4.2714 29993 2999.0 19963 . 29995 -
A - TPUE = ., 500 A-LOWE .244 A - HIGH : , 756 A - TRUE : , 500 A - LOW :, 202 A - HIGH = , 798
х FOXT G (XIG - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( XI X F( X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
1,5546 , 9115 9000 .9244 .8609.
1,3628 , 9003 , 9000 .8895 19014
2.1764 79635 79500 9727 , 909A
.
1,7948 , 9504 .9500 , 9390 ,. 9514
2.8564 .9871 , 9750 , 9914 , 9392 2 ‫ ر‬1991 49755. 9749 29652 9761
3.8991 79975 7990T .9985 79626 2,7150 .9904 , 98 99 .9828 , 9907
1.9329 2.0000 .9991 1.0000 .9884 4,0170 .9991 29989 19965. , 9991

37
 TABLE XIII. - COMPARISON OF WELCH APPROXIMATION [G(x), GLOW
Glow (x), CHIGH(x]
WITH TRUE VALUE ( F (x )] - Concluded

A12 5-12-10
A - TRUE , 010 A - LOW = .004 A -HIGH : .026
Х F(X ) G ( X ) G - LOW ( x ) G - HIGH ( X )
-1,3809 9000 .8982 .8980 .8987
1,8290 , 9501 . 9482 , 9480 , 9487
-2,2554 9751 0732 , 9730 , 9736
2,8100 , 9901 , 9802 .9881 .9885
-4,2663 - , 9990 -- , 9971 , 9971 , 9972

-A - TRUEF , 050 --A - LOW = , 019 - A -HIGH3, 124

х F(X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
-1,3731 -, 9001 9000 , 99 %1—9017_
1,8141 19502 , 9500 , 9491 , 9518
-2,2309 .9752 , 9750 , 9742 ..9765
2,7684 , 9902 , 9900 , 9894 , 9910
-4,1562 19991 , 9989 - , 9988 -- - , 9992

LA IRUE : 100 A - LOW : 040 A =HIGH : .230

х F(X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGHSXO
--1 / 3650 9002 - , 9000 ---- , 1985 - , 9020
1,7988 , 9502 , 9500 .9484 , 9520
-2,2057 -- , 9752 , 9750 - , 9737 - , 9767
2,7260 , 9902 , 9900 .9891 .9912
.

470455_9991-19990-9987-19982
A - TRUE : , 200 A - LOW : .085 A -HIGH : .402-
х F(X) G ( X ) G -LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
1,3541 .9001 , 9000 .8960
. , 9001
1,7783 , 9501 .9500 , 9479 .9501
-2.1724 . -.9751 -.9750 .9732 .9751
2,6703 .9901 , 9900 .9887 .9900
3,9027 .9990 .9990 19986 .9990
A - TRUE = , 300 A - LOW : , 137 A - HIGH : , 536
х F(X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGH ( X )
1,3502-49000 .9000 __ . 8985 ___ . 8973.
1,7710 , 9500 , 9500
.9484 , 9472
2,1604 , 9750 , 9750 , 9736 , 9725
2,6504 .9900 , 9900 .9890 , 9883
-3,8525 . .9990... 19990 , 9987 , 9985
A - IRUE : 2400 A - LOW = , 199 A -HIGH , 642_
х F(X) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X G - HIGH ( X )
1,3531 , 9001 9000 .8998 .8946
1,7764 .9501 ., 9500 , 9498 .9444
2.1692 .9751 .9750 , 9743 , 9701
.

2,6649 , 9901 ,. 9900 , 9899 , 9865

3.8892 .9990- ..9990 .9990...- .. 9980

A - TRUE = , 500 A -LOW = , 271A-HIGH = , 729

Х F (X ) G ( X ) G - LOW ( X ) G - HIGHIX )
1,3628 , 9003 , 9000 .9019,8927 . -
1,7948 .9504 , 9500 , 9519 9424
2.1991 29755 9750 9707__9683
2.7150 , 9904 , 9900 .9911 .9852
.

4.0170 . .9991 . .9990 , 9993 . .9975 .

38 NASA - Langley, 1968 19 S - 175

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THE DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

OF SATELLITES HAVING
LONG ELASTIC MEMBERS
THE LIBRARY OF THE
by Harold P. Frisch AUG 29 1968

Goddard Space Flight Center UNIVERSTY DE ILLINOIS

Greenbelt, Md.

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION WASHINGTON , D. C. • AUGUST 1968

 NASA TN D- 4576

THE DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SATELLITES

HAVING LONG ELASTIC MEMBERS

By Harold P. Frisch

Goddard Space Flight Center

Greenbelt , Md .

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

For sale by the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information
Springfield , Virginia 22151 - CFSTI price $ 3.00
 ABSTRACT

Many satellites , such as ATS -A , ATS - D, DODGE , RAE, etc. , have

clamped to the surface of their central body long elastic members which
when set into vibratory motion can significantly influence the motion of
the central body. If such a satellite is reasonably symmetrical, we can
predict its dynamic characteristics by modeling the entire satellite as
a symmetric double - beam system; that is , by a rigid symmetric central
body having clamped to its surface two long, diametrically opposed uni
form elastic beams with tip weights possessing identical physical and
geometrical properties . In this paper, dimensionless equations which
define the natural modes and frequencies of such a satellite system are
derived and solved . The solutions are outlined in graphical form and
then used to solve the equations that describe the elastic response of the
satellite to an arbitrary periodic forcing function . The results in both
graphical and analytical form make it possible to predict with slide - rule
accuracy the natural frequencies of any satellite that can be modeled as
a symmetric double - beam system. The dynamic response equations
have been applied to a particular problem associated with ATS -D. It is
shown that if the ATS -D microthruster were operated at any frequency,
including the system resonants , the viscoelastic damping of the elastic
beams would be sufficient to prevent the resonant -oscillation amplitudes
from exceeding the elastic limits of the attached appendages .

ii
 CONTENTS

Abstract .. ii

INTRODUCTION . ... 1

1. BASIC THEORY 2

2. NATURAL MODES AND FREQUENCIES . 6

3. CONSTRUCTION AND NORMALIZATION

OF MODES. . 15

4. TRANSIENT AND STEADY- STATE SOLUTIONS.. 16

5. SOLUTION TO FREQUENCY EQUATION 21

6. DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF ATS - D .. 29

SUMMARY 37

References 39

Appendix A - Symbol List . 41

iii
 THE DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SATELLITES
HAVING LONG ELASTIC MEMBERS

by
Harold P. Frisch
Goddard Space Flight Center

INTRODUCTION

The design and computer simulation of an active control system for a satellite having long
elastic members (booms) requires knowledge of each elastic mode of vibration that can be excited,
and its associated natural frequency. This is essential for system design, and helps to develop
and verify the computer simulation of the entire coupled dynamic system.

To predict with accuracy each vibration mode and resonant frequency, we must account for
the geometric configuration of the satellite system; the mass , size, and rotational inertia of the
rigid satellite body; and the elastic properties of the appendages. Frequently the geometrical con
figuration permits describing the satellite by a symmetric double- beam model, that is : two dia
metrically opposed uniform elastic beams with tip weights, attached to a rigid central body having
DISPLACEMENT

mass, finite size, and rotational inertia (Fig

TRANSVERSE

ure 1 ) . It is this type of satellite system that TIP WEIGHT BEAM

will be extensively discussed in this paper.

BEAM TIP WEIGHT
RIGID SATELLITE BODY
t),Y
(x

The equations developed in dimension

less form and the results given provide suf
LoL 2L
ficient information to permit computing , with 1
POSITION X
slide- rule accuracy, the natural frequencies of
each of the pertinent modes of vibration for any Figure 1 -Symmetric double -beam satellite system .
such satellite. By comparing the natural fre
quencies with those resulting from the limiting cases of zero or infinite satellite body weight, ro
tational inertia , or tip weight, it is possible to justify further simplifications in a detailed com
puter simulation of the entire satellite control system.

Such a system (as shown in Figure 1 ) is symmetrical with respect to a plane passing through
its center of mass . Therefore, the natural modes of vibration can be separated into two groups :
those that are symmetric about the axis of symmetry, and those that are antisymmetric about the
axis of symmetry relative to the point on the axis that is coincident with the system's center of
The axis of symmetry is defined as that which is normal to the undeflected shape of the

1
system , passing through the center of mass and in the plane of vibration. This symmetry permits
one to derive the two frequency equations and the mode shapes of the entire system by simply solv
ing the vibration equation over the elastic portion of one beam twice : once with the boundary con
ditions associated with the symmetric modes of vibration , and again with the boundary conditions
associated with the antisymmetric modes of vibration .

The derived modes form a set of orthogonal functions; these can be used to obtain a series
solution to the equation describing the vibrational motion of each point of the system.

To obtain the solution the applied force distribution is decomposed into an equivalent force
system . That is :

1. A force distribution, symmetric about the system's axis of symmetry, which excites only
the symmetric modes of vibration, and

2. A force distribution, antisymmetric about the system's axis of symmetry, which excites
only the antisymmetric modes of vibration.

It follows from the principle of superposition that the system's dynamic response to the equiv
alent force system is identical with its dynamic response to the actual force distribution .
The derived equations, to illustrate these results, are used to solve a particular problem as
sociated with ATS -D . They are specialized so as to describe the response of the satellite system
to a microthruster of periodic intensity located at the point where one of the booms is attached to
the rigid central body. It is shown that the viscoelastic damping of the boom material itself is
enough to prevent the peak bending moment at every point of the system from exceeding the critical
buckling moment of the boom itself, even if the thruster excites a system resonant frequency.

1. BASIC THEORY

The equations and results presented here can be applied to any satellite that can be modeled
as the symmetric double- beam system shown in Figure 1. This is an elastic system , which has
two identical diametrically opposed uniform elastic beams with tip weights , clamped to the surface
of a rigid central body. The central body is assumed to be perfectly rigid and have finite size ,
mass, and rotational inertia. Thus the elastic system under study is treated as one having dis
continuities in mass and stiffness along its length.

The present analysis first derives the orthogonal functions that define the normal modes of
vibration and the corresponding frequency equations, in a form that may be readily applied to any
similar system . These equations are then used to analytically solve the damped forced- vibration
equation. The partial differential equation for the damped vibrational motion of every point along
the systems length , when it is excited by a known force distribution, is

02 a 2 Y(x , t ) a 2 Y( x , t ) aY( x , t )
+ B( x ) - (1.1 )
дx 2 EI ( x ) дx 2
+ p( x ) Ot2 at F (x , t ) ,

2
 where

X = position coordinate measured positive from the boom tip, ft ( Figure 1 )

t = time, sec
Y ( x , t ) = transverse displacement at ( x , t ) , ft
.
F( x , t ) = external force distribution at ( x , t ) , lb ft - 1
P ( x ) = mass distribution at x , slugs ft - 1
=

EI ( x ) bending stiffness at x , lb ft 2
B ( x ) = viscous damping coefficient at x , lb sec ft - 2 . *

When the viscous damping coefficient B( x ) is proportional to the mass distribution p( x ) equation
1.1 can be solved by separation of variables; the resulting solution is of the form
o

Y( x , t ) Σa a
n (t ) y , ( x ) , (1.2)
n = 1

where

y , ( x ) is the nth normalized mode of the undamped unforced equations of motion of the entire
system , and
a . ( t ) is the time- dependent generalized displacement coordinate associated with the nth mode,
n

feet .

These mode shapes y, ( x ) that are to be used in Equation 1.2 must be derived from the equation
n

a2 a 2 Y( x , t ) 22 Y( x , t ) -
EI ( x ) + p( x ) 0 (1.3)
ox2 дх2 at 2

and must satisfy the time- independent boundary conditions of the system .

Because, when the system vibrates in any one of its normal modes of vibration the deflection
of every point of the system varies harmonically in time, the solution to Equation 1.3 is of the
form

Y( x , t ) y( x ) eiwt ( 1.4)

where y ( x ) defines the shape of the normal mode and wis its frequency of vibration (radians sec - 1 ) .

For a complete symbol list , see Appendix A.

3
 Directly substituting Equation 1.4 in Equation 1.3 gives the differential equation

d? da y ( x )
EI ( x ) P ( x ) w2 y ( x ) = 0 ( 1.5 )
dx 2 dx2

Equation 1.5, along with its time- independent boundary conditions, defines an eigenvalue prob
lem . The eigenvalues, which are the solutions to the characteristic (frequency) equation of the
problem, define the natural frequencies of the system, and the eigenvectors associated with each
of the eigenvalues define the orthogonal modes of the system .

Since Equation 1.5 has parametric discontinuities along its length which cannot be assumed
negligible a geometric construction must be used to develop solutions to this equation.

Reference 1 states that the mode shapes that are assumed to satisfy the equation

d2 day. ( x ) ( 1.6)
EI ( x ) p ( x ) w ? y, ( x )
n
= 0
dx2 dx 2

must satisfy two basic criteria: they must impose as little constraint as possible on the motion
of the system, and they must satisfy the kinematic boundary conditions. It is also extremely use
ful but not essential that the constructed modes be orthogonal.

The actual mode shapes y , ( x ) , defined over the entire system length , that satisfy Equation 1.6
are obtained as follows :

1. Note that the complete set of natural modes of vibration can be divided into two groups :

a. Those symmetric about the system's axis of symmetry : " symmetric modes of
vibration . "

b. Those antisymmetric about the system's axis of symmetry relative to the point coinci
!
dent with the system's center of mass : " antisymmetric modes of vibration. "

2. Let

EI = bending stiffness, uniform along length of elastic beam , lb ft ?,

mass distribution, uniform along length of elastic beam , slugs ft - 1, >

then solve the eigenvalue problem defined by the equation

dº y ( x )
EI pw ? y( x ) = 0 (1.7 )
dx 4

4
over the elastic portion of half of the system; that is , over the length of one beam twice , as
follows :

a . Use the boundary conditions that define the effect of the central body's mass on the
beam at its point of attachment, and the effect of the tip weight on the beam at its
point of attachment, when the system is vibrating in one of the symmetric modes of
vibration .

b. Use the boundary conditions that define the effect of the central body's size and rota
tional inertia on the beam at its point of attachment, and the effect of the tip weight on
the beam at its point of attachment, when the system is vibrating in one of the anti
symmetric modes of vibration .

3. Reflect about the system's axis of symmetry each derived eigenvector of Equation 1.7 ,
symmetrically or antisymmetrically as dictated by the boundary conditions . The two points anal
ogous to the points at which the beams are attached to the central body will then be displaced by
a distance 2R , the length of the central body, from each other . Connecting these two points with a
linear segment generates a function that is definable at every point along the system's length.

This function satisfies Equation 1.6 at every point along the flexible portion of the system; it
satisfies all boundary conditions and accounts for the length and rigidity of the satellite body.
Furthermore, since the eigenvectors of Equation 1.7 are orthogonal and the satellite length is
small compared to the system length , the symmetric and antisymmetric modes will form two sets
of orthogonal functions. It is easily shown that these two sets are mutually orthogonal by noting
that the integral of the product of an odd and an even function over symmetric limits is zero.

Note that each mode shape as constructed is not unique but defined only up to a multiplicative
The mode shapes, however , can be made unique by requiring that the orthonormality
condition

2L

" ,»), 4)
SPx) P( x ) yn ( x ) y ( x ) dx
-
MIT n,m (1.8)

be satisfied for all integers n and m, where

My = total mass of system, slugs,

2L = total length of system, ft,

ro if n # m, the Kronecker delta function

8

={
=

nim
(1 if n = m.

5
 2. NATURAL MODES AND FREQUENCIES

As previously mentioned , the natural modes and frequencies of the system are constructed
from the solutions to Equation 1.7 along with the appropriate boundary conditions that define the
symmetric and antisymmetric modes.
In order to avoid notational difficulties it
DISPLACEMENT

is convenient to define the parameter z over the

2R
TRANSVERSE

RIGID SATELLITE BODY

TIP WEIGHT
elastic portion of half the system, as shown in Fig
ure 2. Since z is linearly related to x , Equa
tion 1.7 can be rewritten as

dº y * ( z )
y*(z)

LO
EI pw ? y* ( z ) = 0 (2.1 )
dz4
POSITION Z
O

Figure 2 -Coordinate system used to derive and the boundary conditions defined at the points
frequency equations. z = 0 and z = L0 = L - R , L , being the length of
z

one beam. This equation has the general solution

y* ( z ) C , cosh \ z + C2 sinh \z + Cz cos az + CA sindz , 9 (2.2)

where

presa
14 EI (2.3)

and C ,, C2 , C3 , C, are constants of integration .

The actual values of to be used in Equations 2.2 and 2.3 are the solutions to the frequency
equations of the system, which are derivable from the equations defining the boundary conditions.
The boundary conditions for the two cases mentioned are:

Symmetric modes of vibration :

dy * ( 2 )
dz() z =0
0 ,

WS
- EI
atyou can » ‫و‬s‫م‬o)c2(o
d y* ( 7 ) + 2
11

dz3 2g w ? y* ( z ) O ,
z =0

EI d? y* (2)
El 0 ,
dz2
z = L0

d3 y * ( z ) W.
EI + w2 y * ( 2 ) 0 , (2.4)
dz3
2= L

6
 Antisymmetric modes of vibration :

dy * ( z ) 1

,
0
dz Ry * (2 ) z = 0

d'y* (2 ) + I
d? y* (2 ) S

- EI R
d23
EI
dz2
+

i
2R w2 y* ( 2 )
z = 0
O ,

da y * ( z )2
EI 0 ,
dz2
z - Lo

d3 y * ( Z2 ) Wy
* )
EI
dz3
+

A vid yo (7)
w? y* ( 2 )
z= L0
-
0 , ( 2.5)

where

W《 tip weight, lb,

W S = weight of rigid satellite body (without beams and tip weights ), lb,
=

I. = mass moment of inertia of rigid satellite body (without beams and tip weights )
about the axis through the center of mass and normal to the plane of vibration,
slugs ft ?,

g = acceleration of gravity, ft sec- 2 ,

L = L - R = length of one beam , ft,

2R = length of satellite body, ft,

2L = length of entire system, ft.

The frequency equation associated with each case is derived by substituting the general solu
tion (Equation 2.2 ) in the four equations defining the boundary conditions. This yields four homo
geneous equations in the four unknowns, C ,, C2 , C3 , C4 , for each case. It follows that for a non
trivial solution to exist, the determinant of the coefficients of C ,, C2 , C3 , C4 must be identically >

equal to zero. The evaluation of this determinant yields a transcendental equation in 1- commonly
referred to as the " frequency equation." Thus :
Frequency equation for symmetric modes of vibration :
A direct substitution of the general solution, Equation 2.2 , in the four boundary conditions,
Equations 2.4, yields :

7
 C2 + C = 0

L. + C , sinh La
C. cosh Lo
, Cz cos L. - Casin \ L = 0
W
S

- EIX
143 (C , -ca) + 2g2 w32 (C ,, ++ C ) + 0

ΕΙλ 3 +
(C , sinh 1Lo + C , cosh Lo + C2 sin Lo -Cocos \Lo)
WT
4 +
0. (2.6)

11
‫ني‬
g 22 (C , cosh Lo + C sinh Lo + C , cos \Lo + Ca sin \L.)3 4

For a non - trivial solution to exist, the determinant of the coefficients must be equal to zero;
that is

911 912 913 914

921 922 923 924
= 0 , (2.7)
931 932 933 934
941 942 943 944

where

O 921 cosh \L.

11

911

912 1 922 sinh AL )

913 0 923 cos \ L .

1

914 1 924 - sinilo

W.S WT
931 2W B, LO 941 sinh Alo +
W.B ILO cosh L.

WE
942 cosh L. +
WB AL , sinh AL )
432 - 1

W T
s
933 Lo 943 sin ILO +
11

2WB W
B
\Locos IL.

W,
+
934 1 944 cos \L . W.B \L, sin L.

weight of one beam , 16 ,

11

W.B POL

2
pa (2.8)
14 EI

8
 Directly substituting Equations 2.8 in Equation 2.7 gives the following:

WS
tanh AL0 + tan ^ L . +
L. (1 + sec \L, sech L.)
WE
T 2W,B
W
B 11 W S
(2.9)
2L 2W . (^L.) ? (tan L - tanh XL.)
B
O

This is the frequency equation for the beam of length L, having the prescribed boundary conditions .
Furthermore, because of the symmetry of the system, it is also the frequency equation for the
symmetric modes of the entire system .

Frequency equation for antisymmetric modes of vibration :

A direct substitution of the general solution, Equation 2.2, in the four boundary conditions,
Equations 2.5 , yields :

1
1 (CZ + Ca) - ŘR (C , + cz )
2 = 0

C. cosh AL + C, sinh Lo : -0Cz3 cos L. - C. sin L. 0

-EIR 1013 (C, -C.) + EIN? (C, -C,)

) + v12
w2 (6, + C,) = 0 +
2R 0

+
EIA 3 (C , sinh 1Lo + C , cosh XL, + CZ sin XL - Cocos L.) 4

Wy
" aº
(c, cosh AL, C+ , sinh AL, + c, cos A,
+
ALo C,
+ sin ALLo) = 0 . (2.10)

For a non- trivial solution to exist, the determinant of the coefficients must be equal to zero;
hat is :

911 912 913 914

921 922 923 924
0 (2.11 )
11

931 932 933 934

941 942 943 944

9
where

cosh L.

11
911 921

!!
R*

一
912 ALO 922 sinh NLĐ

1
413 R* 923 - cos Lo

- sin \L .

11
914 L. 924

1
+
931 R* 2W ( L.)?
B

932 - \L .

W
1
+
933 (\ L .)2
11

R* 26 .
B

934 + LO

WT
941 sinh Lo+ w . Lo cosh AL
B

WT
942 cosh \L. + W B \L, sinh1L.

Wy
943 sin llo +
W.B L, cos ÎL .

Wy
944 cos L. +
W \L, sin L.
B

W.
B PgL weight of one beam , 1b , >

*
1,8
s
-
W S
R2
effective inertia weight of rigid satellite body, lb ,

R
normalized satellite radius (2.12)
11

R*
Lo

10
Directly substituting Equations 2.12 in Equation 2.11 gives the following :

tanh AL - tan Lo - 29L, R* tan Alo tanh Lo - (AL R*) ” (tanh Lo + tan AL )
W*
s

T 2W B, R* 2 ^( L.)3 (1 + sec \L , sech \ L )

w ( 2.13)
B
ALO
[ tanta AL, tanh ALA + 2R* Lo (tanh XL + tan AL ) + 2 (R* AL )
0

W
*
S
3
+
2w B R* 2 (AL ) (tanh Lo - tan Lo)
Let

10
= mass moment of inertia of a beam of length 2L 0, about an axis normal to the length and
passing through its centroid, slugs ft 2.

Then
win

2
IB 3 PL . (2.14)

This expression can be used to rewrite Equation 2.13 in terms of the inertia ratio 1./18. That is, B*

by substituting

W S I, 8
S I, 21 .S

W ( 2.15)
B
PgL0, R2 PL3 R*2 318 R* 2

in Equation 2.13 :

R : (tanh Lo
tanh Lo - tan Lo - 2 Lo R* tan AL, tanh Lo - (AL, R*) -

+ tan \L. )

W.
T 31, (^L.)3 (1 + sec XL, sech \Lo)
,
B
0

(2.16)
11

W
B
L. 2 t an XL, tanh XL . + 24L, R* (t anh XL, + tan \L.) + 2 (^ L R*) 2
o2 0

+
B
...]
31, (^ L. ) 3(tanh Lo - tan AL)
This is the frequency equation for the beam of length L, having the prescribed boundary conditions.
Furthermore, because of the symmetry of the system, it is also the frequency equation for the
antisymmetric modes of the entire system.

Equations 2.9 and 2.16 are transcendental equations that cannot be readily simplified except
for extreme values of the dimensionless ratios included. For any particular set of parameters,
however, the equations can be solved accurately by numerical techniques.

11
 It is convenient to put those values of \ L, that satisfy Equation 2.9 and 2.16 , in a particular
order . That is, let:

( ^L .)2n -1 = the nth value of L , (in increasing order of magnitude) that satisfies the frequency
=

equation for the symmetric modes of vibration, Equation 2.9, >

(^L. ) 20 = the nth value of L , (in increasing order of magnitude) that satisfies the frequency
2n

equation for the antisymmetric modes of vibration , Equation 2.16.

Thus, from Equation 2.3, the mmth natural frequency of the system is given by

EI
m
À 2
m
(2.17)

where it is understood that

( L.). m

(2.18)
Il
m
L.

*
Associated with each eigenvalue in there exists an eigenvector y* ( z ) that satisfies the differ
m

ential equation

d y* ( 2 )
m
4

dz4 m y* ( 2 )
m
0 (2.19)

and the four boundary conditions given by Equations 2.4 or 2.5 . This function y** ( z ), along with the
orthonormality condition, Equation 1.8, is used to construct y ( x ) , the mth natural mode of the m

entire system .

The equation defining y* ( z ) is derived as follows :

m

m odd; symmetric modes :

Let Cm
C , Cm, C3m , Cam be the constants of integration associated with the mth natural frequency
w « . Directly substituting
m m into the first three of Equations 2.6 and solving for the constants leads
to :

Cam
11

- Cam )

C. m coshkm Lo + Cam (sinh - Lo + sin An La )

1m 2 m m C3m cos in Lo
m
1

W
S
2C2m -

= 0 .
2W B. am-Lo (C1 + C2m )
m m 3 (2.20)

12
Hence ,

Ws
+
C2m 4W B m Cm ,
in L. (1 + G ) cm m

Cam -
Gm Cm

WS
C Am 4W B L. (1 + )
Gm Cm (2.21 )

where

W S W. S

sec m Lo
(set on
1 + 4W
B
km Lo0 tanh A L m 0
+
4W B Lo Lo sech in Lo tan ^m Lo
m m m
11

G.m
W
(2.22 )
S
W S

sech . Lo
m
.6. 1 -

4W B inm Lo tan'm Lo 4W B Am Losec in Lo tanhảm Lo

Substituting these equations into the general solution gives the equation defining y* ( z ) as m

W S
y* ( 2 )
-
Cocoshi z 1 + 4W m
G cos m zz sech ^.. z
4. Lo (1 + Gm) t anh 1. Z + + m
z
m m m
B

W
s

in L. (1 + Gm) sin in z sech 1

4W B m

.] m
Z
(2.23)

for all odd values of m.

m. The evaluation of the magnitude of C 1 m will be discussed in Section 3 .

m even; antisymmetric modes :

Let Cim , C2m , C3m , Cam be the constants of integration associated with the mth natural frequency
u
Directly substituting m into the first three of Equations 2.10 and solving for the constants
leads to :

0 ,
- (cm + C3m) + ^m L, R* (C2m + C4m )
1 0

* *
S
W
0
,

[ +
RoM..
* ( ^. ]com
Com-4.1,P° C . [ R* + 1 + R* (
) cCLE
16.07] + L0, R * C4m
11

2W.B m m 2W B m 3m

C.
1 m cosh - Lo + C 2m
, sinh - Lo - Cam
3 cos A. Lo - Cm sinh. Lo
m m 0
-

m
O. (2.24)

13
Hence,

C2m Cim : 2056R* (^ _L .) )2 +

2W B R* 2 (^_L.) H. m m

11
*
W
R * \ Lo
20A. ( 2 2W B m

)
*
W
S

2w .
B
R*
R (^ _L.) 2 + 21 , L, R* H. m m

C3m Cam

11
W*

2- R*50(1.4.1?
2W
B

Can Co
1 m H. , m
(2.25)

where

R
R*

‫ܫ‬
L.

I,
W
R2

2 sec . ; L. (R*
m m Lo + tanhin L.)
*
W
S
3
2W B
R * 2 (^_L.) (sec 1. Lo + sech ^. L.)
0 m m

H m W * . (2.26)
$
R
2s
R* ^ _ L. 2 sech ^ L. ( R* 4. Lo + tan 1. L.) -

2W
в
R+ (A(^.LL.)? (tanh - Lo secÀ- Lo
* m m

... ]
+ tan . Lo sech in Lo
m

Substituting these equations into the general solution gives the equation defining y * ( z ) as
W
S

2 + 2W B
R* 2 (^ ALO) 3 H m m

y* ( 2 ) Cim cosh m z 1 + tanhλ m ι

S

R * \ L. m
2 2W R** (4.L.)?
В

*
WS
2

+
2W
B R* (^ _L .) ?
2
m

WS
** ,Roll
+ 2L0, R * H m m

cosa
z sech m 2 + H. sin z sech a m Z (2.27)
2W B R* (*.L .)?

for all even values of m .

14
3. CONSTRUCTION AND NORMALIZATION OF MODES

In the preceding section the functions y* ( z ) , which are to be used to construct the symmetric
m

and antisymmetric modes, have been derived up to the multiplicative constant Cim By following .

the rules outlined for the construction of y , ( x ) , the mth natural mode of the system, and applying
the orthonormalization condition, Equation 1.8, we can uniquely define the mth mode.

Figures 1 and 2 and the boundary conditions previously given show that the function y* ( 2 ) , m

defined at every point in the interval

0 < z < LO ,

is identical with the function ym ( x ) at every point in the interval

‫ܘܝܐ‬
+ 2R < x < 2L ,

when
11

x - Lo - 2R .
N

The determination of y , ( x ) over the full interval

0 < x < 2L

for the symmetric and the antisymmetric modes uses the following construction procedure:

m odd, symmetric modes:

For this case, the function y* ( 2 ) is defined by Equation 2.23 and

m

y * (L. -x ) ,
m
- 7 for 0 < x < L

for L.' < x << L. + 2R (3.1 )

11

y ก( x ) y * (0 ) ,
m

y* (x - Lo - 2R ) ,
m
for Lo + 2R < x < 2L .

m even, antisymmetric modes :

For this case, the function y * ( z ) is defined by Equation 2.27 and

- y.* ((L. - x) , for 0 SXSLO

y (x)
-
( v:
X -L
R
m

y * (0 ) , for <
L. < x < L . + 2R
( 3.2)

y* (x - Lo - 2R) ,
m
for L. + 2R < x < 2 .

15
 It will be recalled that yo ( x ) as constructed is defined only up to the multiplicative constant
Cm.
1 This constant can be uniquely defined for each mode by requiring that the orthonormality
condition

2 L

L" x>x2 (
0
P ( x ) y? ( x ) dx M (3.3)

be satisfied for all m .

Besides predicting the deflection, we can predict the bending moment at each point of the sys
tem if we know the curvature of each mode . These are obtainable from the equation

y * " (z)
m 1A m2? ((Cum
m c - cosh - z2 + C , sinh A
1 m 2m Z C 3m cosa 2- C4 m sin m2)
m
(3.4)

where the constants of integration are identical with those derived for y , ( x ) . We can obtain the curv m

ture of the mode y ( x ) defined over the full system length by applying the construction rules that ge
m

erated y, ( x ) from y* ( z ) ; that is, Equations 3.1 and 3.2.

4. TRANSIENT AND STEADY - STATE SOLUTIONS

With a complete set of modes , it is possible to derive a series solution for Equation 1.1 - the
equation of damped forced vibration of the entire system .

Substituting Equation 1.2 in Equation 1.1 gives

da y , ( x ) da a , ( t ) dan ( t )
d2 n

o F (x , t ) . ( 4.1 )
II

+ P ( x ) y n, ( x ) + B( x ) y, ( x )
Σ .ω
n = 1
( t ) dx 2 EI ( X ) dx 2 dt 2 n dt

Using Equation 1.6 further reduces this to the form

an
da a ( t ) da ( t )

frasco
{ $(x)} (x)
n = 1
x
dt 2
+ 2ρζω , 9,, ( x ) dt
W
+ P ( x ) y , ( x )w2 a , ( t )
n F (x , t ) , (4.2 )

where the additional substitution

B( x ) 2ρζα . ( 4.3)

has also been made. The term $ is commonly referred to as the " damping ratio " and is related to
the constants of the system by Equation 4.3 . It should be noted that the parameter p is the mass

16
per unit length of the beam alone. The equation states that B( x ) is independent of x ; hence, energy
is uniformly dissipated along the entire system length. This is an approximation, since actually
zero energy is dissipated across the length of the rigid satellite body.

The summation and all dependence upon the coordinate x can be removed from Equation 4.2 ,
by applying the orthonormality condition stated in Equation 1.8 . Multiplying Equation 4.2 through
by y, ( x ) and integrating over the entire system length reduces this equation to
2L

d? a, (t )
n

+ 25 , an
dan ( t )
dt + w (t )
L" n
(
y , ( x ) F( x , t ) dx
(4.4)
dt 2 n n
M

where Šn is the damping ratio associated with the nth mode and is given by

2L

* S ,* x)
MI py ? ( x ) dx . (4.5)

n odd; symmetric modes excited :

2L

$ M , sve
pyn?2 ( x ) dx

2WTт W
S

[ * .?(0) - Y?(ro] EMI y (4.6)

11

L.
gM , y ? 0 n

n even ; antisymmetric modes excited :

2L
2
$
Saya
$ py ? ( x ) dx
11

2W I W S

EMI yo?
2 ()
0 ) - 3gMT yo
n
-

.:(.. ]
n (4.7 )

Equation 4.4 is a differential equation that can be solved by means of the Laplace transform .
Hence,

2L
1

an ( s )
MI $S"> y , ( x ) F( x , s ) dx
(4.8)
s ? + 25 w stw 2 n n n

17
where

[ {F( x , t )} F( x , s )

[ {a . ( t )} a. ( s ) (4.9)

and the initial values of a , ( t ) are assumed equal to zero.

n

The system being linear means that we can use the principle of superposition to determine
the actual system response to the force distribution F( x , t ) , by adding the response due to each
individual force distribution of an equivalent force system.

Let the equivalent force system be defined by the two force distributions F 1, ( x , t ) and F ,2 ( x , t ),
where

F 1 ( xx, t ) = ,
F , ( x ) f ( t ) = a force distribution of periodic intensity that is symmetric about the
system's axis of symmetry and excites only the symmetric modes of
vibration,

-
F 2, ( x , t ) - F , ( x ) f ( t ) = a force distribution of periodic intensity that is antisymmetric about
the system's axis of symmetry and excites only the antisymmetric
modes of vibration .

The function f ( t ) appearing above is a continuous function of time; it describes the intensity
of the force distribution F 1, ( x , t ) and F2 ( x , t ) at time t . It will be assumed for this analysis that
9

f ( t ) is periodic with period t 2, and expressible as a Fourier series. That is,

1 2m77
( 4.10)
f(t )
b. +2 (s.com sortie devin
2
m= 1
COS
2
+ m t
t

)
where b and do are the Fourier coefficients associated with the function f ( t ) given by :
m

2 2m77
b
Sa tdt 0 , 1 , 2 ... ( 4.11 )
11

m
f ( t ) cos 2

2 2m77

doll (4.12 )
11

d t f ( t ) sin t
t dt m 1 , 2,
2 2

F( x , t ) as it appears in Equation 4.8 can be replaced by the equivalent- force system defined
above. Then, a direct substitution of Equation 4.10 in Equation 4.8 yields an expression that can

18
be readily inverted by convolution:

K n 2m 77
11

+
a (t )
My wW. (1 -5,2) 1/2
n
1
2
m= 1 (s.com COS
t
2

2m 77 n
*
+ d sin m
t
0 e sinw n (1 - 5,2 ) 1/2 t , (4.13)

where

nodd ; symmetric modes :

2 L

K.
( "%. 6035, )
y , ( x ) F ,1 ( x ) dx
n
(4.14)

n even; antisymmetric modes :

K
n
-

[" %, 4) , x)
y , ( x ) F2 (x ) dx (4.14a )

and is the symbol used to denote convolution.

Once evaluated, the expression for a, ( t ) can be substituted in Equation 1.2 and the displace
a
n

ment at any point x along the system calculated for any time t. Furthermore, differentiating
Equation 1.2 twice and multiplying the results by EI gives the bending moment at any point for any
time t .

Letting
=

Ω
n (1 - 5,2)1/2 damped natural frequency of nth mode,

n 5 Wn = inverse of time constant for nth mode,

n

0 = 22711/t2 =
frequency of applied - force distribution,

19
and performing the convolution operation called for in Equation 4.13, leads to

K n T

a, ( t )
n

14-15
M 2 n
2 e
n
sin 12 TdT n

] [. Sicomic
Σ
m= 1
cos mo ( t - T ) e sin 27 dt + dn m

S sinsin mo ( t - 7) e
0
singe]
sin 2,07 (4.16)

t
n
K n
12n ( o sin ? t + scos n n n t)
ਕੱਟੜ .
2M Ω
12n n
2
+522
n
‫ע‬
n
2
+ 12n 2

n
.. t

n
- m :-) cos me t + 2 n
sin met e
[ - sin s? +t + ( ?, – me) cos 2 t]
n n n n

Σ .. m= 1
b
‫ע‬
2 + ( - mt )?
n
V
n
+
( 2 - mo) ?
n
2

+
( ? ++mmo)) cos me t -y, sin mtt t n [1, sin ? + + ( ?o ++mo)
n mo) cos 1
cos Int]
n

V 2 + 2
n ( n + mt )? V
+2++n (2+ mo) n

t
n

(2. -mo) sin mo t - cos mot e

[ r cos Ω2 t+ - ( ?.. - m ) sin ? t! ]
Σ1
n n n
+

- [ 3
m = 1
m
n

V
n 2 + ( sin m ) 2
+ 2
n
2 +
( ? -mo)?
2

(2 + mo ne) sin mi t + y cos met e

[”, cos n n t- (2?, + m2)m
sin ? n
n

+
22 + ( + ne )?
n
n

2
‫ע‬
n
2 +
( 2 ++ me ) 2
n
:]} · (4.17)

This equation for a , ( t ) can be used to define the transient response of the system when ini
tially at rest and then set in vibration by the defined applied force F( x , t ). In order to investigate
the response at the point x of the system at time t , we substitute Equation 4.17 in

-
Y( x , t )
Σ a, (t ) y , ( x )
n , ( 4.18)
n = 1

to yield the transverse displacement, and in

=

EI Y " ( x , t ) EI (4.19)
Σ a2,, ( tt) yy.""( x ))
{ n = 1
a
n

to yield the bending moment.

20
 By observing how each term

a, ( t ) y, ( x ) ( 4.20)

and

EI a, ( t ) y," ( x ) (4.21 )

changes as a function of time, the contribution to the total response from each individual mode can
be ascertained for the particular forcing function in question.

In addition to the transient response, the steady - state response of each mode to the particular
forcing function is of interest. In deriving the resultant steady- state response of the system , note
that the steady - state generalized coordinate a , ( t ) st given by n

K bo 12
n n

a. ( t ) s.
n

ਵੱਧਤੋਂ
2MT Ωn ‫ע‬
n
2
+ Ω
n
+

mo) cos mo t + y sin mê t

|(2, -mo)
n n
( + mo ) cos mo t V n sin met
+

ΣE . .m= 1
b
m
‫ע‬
n
2
+ 12 + mo3 ) 2
n
+
2
n
2
+ ( 2 + mo) ?
n

- mo
(2, " me) sin mô t - 2
n n
cos met
( 2 + m ) sin me t + v, n
cos mot
+
Σ
m= 1
dm
‫שע‬
n
2
+ 112n - mo )?
n
‫ע‬
n
2
+ ( 12 + mo)
n mo 2
3)] ( 4.22)

is not necessarily in phase at the steady - state time t for all n, since it is obtained by evaluating
a , ( t ) with the exponential terms deleted .

5. SOLUTION TO FREQUENCY EQUATION

It has been shown that the frequency equation associated with the symmetric modes of vibra
tion of the entire system is

W S

WI tanh Lo + tan IL. + 2W

B ^L. (1 + sec \L, sech L.)
( 5.1 )
11

W.B Ws
2 ^ L 0. - 2W (^L.) ? (tan XL - tanh 1L.)
B

21
and the frequency equation associated with the antisymmetric modes of vibration of the entire
system is

tanh Lo - tan Lo - 2 ^Lo R* tan Lo, tanh Lo - (AL

( , R*) :2 (t anh Lo + tan AL )
S

31, ((120)”
B
^L . 3 (1 + sec XL, sech XL. ), (5.2)
LO 2 tan Lo tanh Lo + 2R* Lo ( tanh Lo + tan La) + 2 (R* AL ) ?
B

(zta IS
+

Bi (L)”(tanh
^ 3
3I B. L," tan AL)
L.

By the proper definition of the parameters contained in these equations it is possible to pre
dict the natural frequencies of any system that may be modeled as the symmetric double -beam
system shown in Figure 1. If the system to be modeled as a double - beam system has four or more
elastic members attached to a rigid central body, the frequency equations given above yield only
those frequencies associated with the system mode shapes that are similar to the symmetric and
antisymmetric modes defined .

The physical parameters needed to solve the frequency equations of the double beam model
are :

Ws weight of rigid satellite body (without beams and tip weights ),

IS = mass moment of inertia of rigid satellite body (without beams and tip weights) about the
axis through the center of mass and normal to the plane of vibration,
B = mass moment of inertia of a beam , of length 2L O, , about an axis normal to the length and
passing through its centroid,
WT tip weight ,
=
L. length of a single beam ,
р = mass per unit length of beam ,
EI = bending stiffness of beam ,
R
R = radius of symmetric satellite body,
g = acceleration of gravity.

Equations 5.1 and 5.2 show that the solutions to the frequency equations will depend only on
the magnitudes of four distinct dimensionless ratios.

In particular, the solutions for the symmetric modes involves parameters

Wy WS
W
B
W.B

while the solutions for the antisymmetric modes involves

W.T I S

W. 9 R*
B B

22
 These can be calculated for the symmetric double - beam system from the above definitions and
the equations
ar i
W.
B pgl . 1

R
R* 1
L.

2
1 B. -
Ž ‫م‬PLO?..,
3
‫ما‬ 1 (5.3)

15.pw Figures 3 through 7 attempt to provide sufficient information so that Equations 5.1 and 5.2 may be
cum accurately solved for all practical values of the defined ratios. With these approximate solutions
sten die and the relation
EDALTES
(^L.) 2 EI ( 5.4 )
2 p
Lo

A.
‫دی ویبی‬
it is possible to obtain a very good estimate of the first few natural frequencies of the satellite
system in question.

30 9
CURVE NUMBER WsWe
1 0.0
2 2.5
24
7 3 5.0
2
EIGHT

4 10.0
.6
/RATIO

5 25.0
TOEAM
8

50.0
--TIP

9 6
WBW

5
8 7 100.0
7 8 500.0
oo
6 9
3
5
2

15

10
3

2
5

0 1 2 3 5 6 7
AL of radians)

Figure 3 – Symmetric mode, WW vs 1Lo for

different values of W, W8 .

23
 Each curve labeled in Figure 3 plots WTA WRB vs L . as obtained from Equation 5.1 for the value:
of W , W.B tabulated on the figure. This figure contains sufficient information to give an accurate
estimate of the first two values of L , that satisfy Equation 5.1 . The natural frequencies associate
with the estimated values of Lo correspond to the first two modes of vibration for which the
satellite body can translate but not rotate. For the double -boom system , these are the first two
symmetric modes of vibration .

A set of curves which provide sufficient information to accurately estimate the natural fre
quencies associated with the antisymmetric modes of vibration can be obtained by plotting
R
W7 Wo vs L. (as derived via Equation 5.2) for incremental values of both 12/13 and R*
B in the
B

range

IS
00<
18
B

and

0 < R * < 0.10 .

Since this involves incrementally varying three parameters; the following approach is used to pre
sent the results in a more compact form .

Intuitively one fells that the least critical parameter appearing in Equation 5.2 is R* . That is,
for satellites having long elastic members such that

0 < R* < 0.1 ,

the natural frequencies will be essentially the same, no matter what the exact value of R* may be.
Figures 4 and 5 lend graphic support to this intuitive notion and thus provide one with suf
ficient information to determine the magnitude range of inertia ratio 15/16 over which R* plays an
B

insignificant role in the estimation of the system's first two antisymmetric modal frequencies.
That is , we show how sensitive the asymptotes and zero crossings of Equation 5.2 are to change in
1/15 and R* . Since it will be shown that the curves W1/Wg vs XL , as derived from Equation 5.2
B B

have shapes similar to those shown in Figure 3 , it may be inferred that any intermediate value of
W7 /Wg between zero and infinity will exhibit the same sensitivity to changes in 1/16 and R * as do
B B

the asymptotes and zero crossings.

Figure 4 plots 13/1 vs L. for the values of R* tabulated on the figure. These curves are ob
S B

tained from Equation 5.2 when W / W ,B is set equal to infinity; that is, from

Is 6 tan AL , tanh
0
L + R * AL (tanh Lot tan La) + (R+ L )
0 0

(5.5)
IB 3
( L ) (tan Lo - tanh La)
24
 ்டட்டயடா
1000

NON
/1SATELLITE
CURVE NUMBER R*
T8NERTA

1 0.001
RATIO EAM

100 2 0.005
B-IIS O

3 0.010
4 0.025
5 0.050
10
6 0.075
7 0.100

1.0

1.10
7

6
2 3
7
0.01 5
2
6
5

mmmmmm mmmmmmmmmmm

8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
AL od radians )

Figure 4 — Antisymmetric mode, 15/18 vs Lo for different

values of R* , when WW2 = c .
1
-NON

1000

CURVE NUMBER R *

0.001
100
1ISATELLITE

2 0.005
-BT8NERTIA

3 0.010
EAM

4 0.025
Is
/ O

5 0.050
10 6 0.075
7 0.100

1.0

0.1

5 3
0.01 5
6
3 6 2
7
7
‫لسلسبيل‬ பாய
1 2 3 ‫ܢܢܓܢ‬ 5 7 8

Lol radians )

Figure 5 – Antisymmetric mode, 's /18 vs i Lo for different

S 'B
values of R* , when W , WB =
0.

25
Similarly Figure 5 plots 13/1, vs L , for the same values of R*, as obtained from Equation 5.2 when
B

W T / W B, is set equal to zero ; that is , from

3 A
I S [tanh Lo - tan Lo - 2*• L , tan Lo tanh Lo - (R+
0 * L.) (tanh Lottan
+ 1.)]
La
Lo
(5.6)
B
( L.) (1 + sec · L , sech L.)

Making use of the fact that the solutions to Equation 5.2 are virtually insensitive to changes in
the parameter R* over the limits defined, Figures 6 and 7 plot w T //W B, Vs L. as derived from Equa
tion 5.2 for the values of R * = 0.01 and *
R* = 0.10 respectively and the values of 13/18 listed on
B

the figure. These figures contain sufficient information to give accurate estimates of the first two
values of L , that satisfy Equation 5.2 for any system that can be modeled as discussed . The
natural frequencies associated with the estimated values of L , correspond to the first two modes
of vibration for which the satellite body can rotate but not translate. For the double - beam system
these are the first two antisymmetric modes of vibration.

Aside from providing the information needed for solving both frequency equations, Figures 3
through 7 along with Equation 5.4 provide quantitative and qualitative insight as to how changes in
the system parameters will change the system's natural frequencies.

The range of wW,B values listed on Figure 3 shows that the root boundary conditions for the
symmetric modes vary between zero satellite weight (guided root) and infinite satellite weight
(clamped root) . Similarly, the range of the ratio magnitudes listed on Figures 6 and 7 show that
the root boundary conditions for the antisymmetric modes vary between zero satellite rotational
inertia (hinged root) to infinite rotational inertia (clamped root) for each of the listed ratios R* .
For both cases , the variation in the tip boundary conditions from zero tip weight (free tip) to in
finite tip weight (hinged tip)) is illustrated by choosing W /W ,B, as the vertical axis of Figures 3, 6 ,
and 7 .

Figure 8 gives a ready reference for the general solution of the frequency equations in the
limiting cases mentioned above. The figure shows the schematic diagram of each limiting case
along with the solutions to its frequency equation. Reference 3 gives the solutions for these cases ,
also for cases corresponding to other common beam boundary conditions.
Figures 3 through 7 and Equation 5.4 suggest the following observations:

1. The solutions L , of the frequency equations are independent of the bending stiffness EI .
Thus the system's natural frequencies are directly proportional to the square root of the bending
stiffness,

2. The solutions L 0, of the frequency equations have nonlinear dependence on the boom weight
W2 . Thus a simple proportionality relation between boom length L, or mass distribution p and the
natural frequencies exists only in special cases .

26
 35
" ‫בייייוייוווווייייווויייווויייוווייו‬
CURVE NUMBER Is / 18

AWN
OOo
vau
30 0.0

EIGHT
8 0.03

RATIO
7

TOEAM
0.10

,/.-W-BTIP
W
10 4 0.25
0.50

9
6 1.00
5.00
8 50.00
9 250.00
Figure 6 - Antisymmetric mode, 10 500.00
11
W1 /Wg vs 11o for different

8
values of 15/10 ,when R* = 0.01 .
$
5
15

6
11

10 10
3
9
4 3
8
2
2 7
1
5

5
‫السلبيليسجل‬
0
0 1 2 3 5 6 7

Lo ( radians)

35 ‫" יוווווווווווווווווווווווווווווווווווו‬ ‫דו''חוויי‬

CURVE NUMBER 1/18
30
WWEEIGHT

1 0
109
RATIO

2 0.03
-TOEAM
BTIP

3 0.10
[18
W

25 4 0.25
5 0.50
6 1.00
3 7 5.00
11
Figure 7 -Antisymmetric mode,
8 50.00
20
7 10 9 250.00
WWWB vs ilo for different
9 10 500.00 values of I /16 , when R* = 0.10.
8 11
2 7
15

3
6
10 1

2
5
54 1

3 7 8
N

AL of radians )

27
 GUIDED ROOT 3. As the satellite - to - beam -weight ratio
Calo ) m
m = 1 m = 2 m == 3 m > 3 W /Wg increases, the solution ( \ Lo ) , associated
B

Lo
with the first symmetric mode of vibration ap
The
thir
GUIDED - 4m - 5
2.365 5.498 TT
FREE 4
proaches the value that results from a clamped
Lo
GUIDED 2m - 1 root condition . Figure 3 shows that for W , W B
1.571 4.712 7.854 TI
HINGED 2
greater than 100 and W /W B, less than 20 the root
may be assumed clamped and the frequency
HINGED ROOT associated with the first symmetric mode of
lo vibration is approximately that of a clamped
TA

HINGED 4m - 3
FREE
0 3.927 7.069
4
TT beam with tip weight.
Lo
HINGED
HINGED
3.142 6.283 9.425 m TT
4. Figures 4 and 5 show that for satellites
having a satellite - to -beam -length ratio R* in
CLAMPED ROOT
the interval

Lo CLAMPED - 2m - 1
1.875 4.694 7.855 TI
‫ܠܢ‬

FREE 2 0 < R* < 0.10 ,

‫ܠܓ‬
‫ܛܢܠ‬

Lo
‫ܢ‬

CLAMPED 4m + 1
3.927 7.069 10.210 TI
HINGED 4 the solution (^L .)2 associated with the first
( 110 )? ΕΙ antisymmetric mode of vibration will be es
( g
A 2
sentially independent of the magnitude of R*
for all inertia ratios 1/18B greater than 0.10.
Figure 8 -Natural frequencies of uniform beams with For the range
different boundary conditions .

19
I B < 0.10

and

0.05 < R* < 0.10 ,

the quantity R* becomes a significant parameter in Equation 5.2 . This situation implies that the
satellite's rotational inertia is small compared with the boom's ; at the same time, the boom cannot
be extremely long compared with the length of the rigid satellite body (a situation approaching that
of a physically unrealistic system ). Thus, for most actual satellites, the magnitude of R* and
hence the actual satellite body size will be of second order importance in predictions of the sys
tem's first antisymmetric modal frequency.

5. Figures 6 and 7 show that as the satellite inertia - to - beam inertia ratio 1/1,B increases,
the solution (xl ), associated with the first antisymmetric mode of vibration approaches the value

28
that results from the clamped -root condition defined by curve number 11 on both figures. The in
ertia ratio needed to effectively clamp the root and hence restrict the rotational motion of the
satellite body is extremely large and strongly dependent on the tip-to-beam-weight ratio wT//w.B*
For example, if wT/ WB 1 , then the inertia ratio 1s/18B must be greater than 50 for the root to be
considered clamped .

6. Comparing the values of (\Lo)

^ 2 that define the asymptotes of the curves shown in Figures
6 and 7 with the true values of the asymptotes given in Figure 4 shows that for every satellite
having an inertia ratio 1s/ 18B less than 5 , a tip -to - beam -weight ratio can be found such that the
system will vibrate as if the system had infinitely heavy tip weights. For example, if the inertia
ratio of the satellite were less than 1 , then the system would vibrate as if its tips were pinned in
inertial space by infinitely heavy tip weights , for any WT // W B, greater than 5 .

7. As WF/Wg increases from 0 to 3, the solutions ( \Lo ) n , n

= 3, 4, ... of the frequency equa
0

tions, associated with the second and higher symmetric and antisymmetric modes , undergo a rapid
decrease irrespective of satellite body weight, size , and rotational inertia . As W/ WgB is increased
beyond 3, (^ L .), becomes insensitive to any further change and approaches the solution associated
with the case of a hinged tip. Thus, if the tip - to -beam -weight ratio exceeds 3 , the symmetric
double -beam system will have its tips effectively hinged in inertial space for the third and all
higher modes of vibration.

6. DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF ATS - D

The introduction stated that this paper would solve a particular problem: to determine
whether the microthruster on ATS -D could excite a resonant response of sufficient magnitude to
buckle the long elastic members (booms ) attached to the spacecraft body.

In order to introduce conservatism into the model and reduce the problem to a form com
patible with this analysis, we make some simplifying assumptions:

1. The actual satellite deploying four booms with tip weights may be adequately approximated
by the symmetric double - beam system.

2. The microthruster acts normal to the system at the point on the satellite body coincident
with the point at which one of the beams is clamped. The intensity of the microthruster may be
approximated by a periodic triangular wave having a rise time unequal to the decay time and a
peak intensity of one micropound .

29
 Let

t
ti rise time of triangular wave , sec ,

t , = period of triangular wave, sec ,

10-6 = one micropound , lb,
8(x) Dirac Delta function .

Then the actual applied force distribution F( x , t ) is described by

F( x , t ) 8 (x - L - R ) f (t ) , (6.1 )

where, in the time interval

0 < tst2

t
f(t ) 10-6
14 1
for 0 < tst

t t
2
f( t )
-

( 13 )
10-6 t
2
for t ; < t < t2 ·
1
(6.2)

This force distribution is replaced in the analysis by the equivalent force system described by
F.1 ( x , t ) and F 2, ( x , t ) ; that is :

F ( x, t ) F , ( x ) f( t ) 8 ( L - x ) f( t ) (6.3 )

R R

5,6x,t) 5 «>${) = [[(-- *)--(4-4-»]]<<e>

F2 ( ) =
) ).
F2 ( ) f ( t ) + 2 x 2 - X f( t ) . (6.4)

where

F1 ( x , t ) = force applied at the center of mass,

F 2, ( x , t ) = couple applied about the center of mass.

It follows from Equations 4.11 , 4.12 , and 6.2 that the Fourier coefficients described in Section
4 are :

bo 10-6

2
10-6 t 2 2m77

LO 2m2 772 t 1 (t2-7

10-62
t
1

2m7
COS
t
+3)

30
d
m

LE
2m 2 TT 2
t (t2 - t )
1
sin t
2
1
m 1 , 2 , ... (6.5)
and that the constants K, described by Equations 4.14, 4.14a, 6.3 , and 6.4 are :
n

n odd ; symmetric modes:

y , (L ) , (6.6)

11
K n

n even; antisymmetric modes :

R R
K.
n
y (1+ )-x.Yn (4-9)
, L
2 2 (6.7)

3. The vibrational motion will be damped by the internal friction of the boom material only
and this is describable by a viscous- type damping term in the analysis. Reference 4 presents the
results of experiments aimed at precisily defining the magnitude of the damping coefficient & for
De Havilland - type booms. It may be concluded from this that worst - case - type results may be ob
tained by setting

Ś 10-4 (6.8)

4. The adjusted geometric and physical parameters that describe the double -beam model of the
four boom ATS -D satellite are assumed to be approximated by the magnitudes listed in Table 1. It
must be noted that the mass distribution , bending stiffness , and tip weight of the beam are exactly
twice the corresponding values for a single boom of the actual satellite system.
Table 1

Adjusted Parameters for Double - Beam Model of ATS- D .

Symbol Parameter Value

Mass distribution of boom 0.8125 10–3 slugs ft - 1

EI Bending stiffness of boom 26 lbs ft2
L0 Boom length 123.5 ft

R Radius of ATS 2 ft

W Tip weight 16 lb

Ws Weight of ATS (without booms and tip weights) 641.4 lb

I S Rotational inertia of ATS (without booms and tip weights) 76.9 slugs ft ?

To give accurate values of the first n natural frequencies of the double- beam system, Equa
tions 5.1 and 5.2 must be solved numerically. It will be recalled that Equation 5.1 is the frequency
equation for the symmetric modes and that Equation 5.2 is the frequency equation for the antisym
metric modes.

Table 2 lists the first ten values of AL , that satisfy these equations. The odd - numbered values
correspond to the solutions to Equation 5.1 , and the even- numbered values correspond to the solutions

31
 Table 2 to Equation 5.2 . The table also lists the modal
frequency and period associated with each solu
First Ten Natural Frequencies of ATS-D.
tion ( L.)n .
T
(ilo), a
n T.
(radian ) (radian sec - 1 ) ( sec) Both the symmetric and antisymmetric
0.88243
‫انو‬ 687.99
mode shapes of the entire system can be gen
( L.), 0.009133 T1
(\ L .)2 2.8137 62 0.09285 T 2, 67.670
erated by using the values of (^L .)n listed in
Table 2 and the other quantities given in Table 1 .
(^L .)3 3.9815 a3 0.18592 T 33.794

( L.), 4.6516 W4 0.25378 T 24.759

4 Figures 9 through 13 plot the normalized
( Lo) s 5
7.1223 ws 0.59495 TS 10.561 displacement y , ( x ) vs the position coordinate x
(^L .) 7.26 75 W
wo 0.61945 To 10.143 for the first five symmetric modes. The equa
1.2355 T ,7 5.0857 tions used to define these mode shapes are ob
( * l. ) , 10.2635 @,
10.3144 ws 1.2477 T8 5.0356 tained by evaluating Equation 2.23 for those L's
(\L .)
with odd subscripts listed in Table 2, applying
(^L .), 13.4048 ‫ونها‬ 2.1075 T, 2.9814
the construction rules given by Equations 3.1 ,
2.1151
(^L. ) .. 13.4291 W10 T10 2.9706
and normalizing according to Equation 3.3.
TION

DEFLECTION
DEFLEC
),(xY

=
NATURAL PERIOD = 687.990 SECONDS
Y3

4.391
(x)

NATURAL PERIOD = 33.794 SECONDS

14.824

251 FT

ATS
ATS
POSITION ~ ( ft ) POSITION ( ft ) 251 FT

Figure 9-First symmetric mode of ATS system Figure 10 -Second symmetric mode of ATS system
described in Table 1 . described in Table 1 .

NATURAL PERIOD = 10.561 SECONDS

NATURAL PERIOD = 5.086 SECONDS

13.766

32
- 14.919

enam ATS

POSITION ~ ( ft )

Figure 11 -Third symmetric mode of ATS system

described in Table 1 .
251 FT

ATS
POSITION x ( ft )

Figure 12 -Fourth symmetric mode of ATS system

described in Table 1 .
251 FT
 TION
Figures 14 through 18 plot the normalized

DEFLEC
displacement y, ( x ) vs position coordinate x for
n
NATURAL PERIOD = 2.981 SECONDS

x),(Y
the first five antisymmetric modes. The equa
tions used to define these mode shapes are ob
13.876
tained by evaluating Equation 2.27 for those
ATS
Lo's with even subscripts listed in Table 2, ap
251 FT
plying the construction rules given by Equation
3.2 , and normalizing according to Equation 3.3.
Besides the mode shapes of the system, it
is also possible to generate equations that de
fine the normalized curvature of every point
along each mode shape. This may be done by
W
MM W POSITION ~ ( ft )

Figure 13 - Fifth symmetric mode of ATS system

described in Table 1 .

DEFLECTION
DEFLEC TION

)Y4
(X

NATURAL PERIOD = 67.670 SECONDS NATURAL PERIOD = 24.759 SECONDS

Y2
)(*

-13.356
11.737

251 FT
ATS
ATS
POSITION X ( ft )
POSITION ~ ( ft ) 251 FT

Figure 14 - First antisymmetric mode of ATS system Figure 15 - Second antisymmetric mode of ATS system
described in Table 1 . described in Table 1 .
DEFLECTION

Yg ( x )
NATURAL PERIOD = 10.143 SECONDS
NATURAL PERIOD = 5.036 SECONDS
Yo
()

13.649
13.850

ih wthNA POSITION ~ ( ft )

Figure 16 - Third antisymmetric mode of ATS system

described in Table 1 .
251 FT
ATS

POSITION X
( ft )

Figure 17-Fourth antisymmetric mode of ATS system

described in Table 1 .
251 FT

33
 substituting the values of in determined from the normalization of y, ( x ) in Equation 2.21 or 2.25 n

to determine C20 , C3n , and Can . These normalized constants can then be substituted in Equation
3.4 to give an expression for y , ( z ) . This resulting expression can be substituted in Equation 3.1
n

or 3.2 , depending on whether n is odd or even ,

TION

respectively , to construct y " ( x ) , the normalized

curvature of the nth mode.
DEFLEC

NATURAL PERIOD = 2.971 SECONDS

Y10
(x)

-14.825 Figures 19 through 23 plot the normalized

curvature y ," ( x ) of the first five symmetric
modes of the system (n odd ) vs position coor
251 FT
dinate x .
ATS

Figures 24 through 28 plot the normalized

POSITION curvature y ," ( x ) of the first five antisymmetric
n

( f+ )
modes of the system (n even) vs position coor
dinate x .
Figure 18-Fifth antisymmetric mode of ATS system
described in Table 1 .
CURVAT URE
CURVATURE

)(xYŚ
x)y'(

-0.02059 FT - 2
-0.9158 x 10-3 FT -22
Х

251 FT
251 FT POSITION ~ ( ft )

POSITION ~ ( ft )

Figure 20 - Curvature of second symmetric mode .

Figure 19 - Curvature of first symmetric mode.

-0.1358 FT - 2

-0.0656 FT - 2

ha
A m 34
POSITION X
( ft )

Figure 21 - Curvature of third symmetric mode.

251 FT

POSITION
* ( ft )

Figure 22 - Curvature of fourth symmetric mode .

251 FT
0.2313 FT - 2 0.7571 x 10-2FT -2
Х

0.4963 x 10- ? FT - 2

251 FT

POSITION ~ ( ft ) 251 FT

POSITION X
Х

( ft )

Figure 23 - Curvature of fifth symmetric mode.

Figure 24 - Curvature of first antisymmetric mode.

-2
0.0353 FT - 2 0.0757 FT

POSITION X
( ft )

A
Figure 25 - Curvature of second antisymmetric mode.

0.1428 FT - 2
251 FT

AN 251 FT

POSITION ~ ( ft )

Figure 26-Curvature of third antisymmetric mode.

.

0.2367 FT -2
-2

MATMA POSITION XV
( ft )

Figure 27 - Curvature of fourth antisymmetric mode.

251 FT

Figure 28-Curvature of fifth antisymmetric mode.

251 FT
POSITION
х

( ft )

35
 From Figures 9 through 28 , the following observations can be made concerning the possible
effects of vibrational motion on the ATS- D system :

1. Figures 9 through 18 show that the satellite body and tip weights will be essentially pinned
in inertial space for all modes of vibration except the first symmetric mode .

2. Figures 14 , 15 , and 16 show that if any one of the first three antisymmetric modes of vibra
tion are excited, the rotational inertia of the satellite body is not large enough to prevent significant
rotational motion of the body about the center of mass .

3. For all modes of oscillation except the first antisymmetric mode, the peak curvature and
hence the peak bending moment will exist at the boom's root . For the first antisymmetric mode
( see Figure 24) the point of peak curvature will occur at a point 45 feet from the root. The curva
ture at this point will be about 1.5 times the curvature at the root.

The object of this example is to determine whether the viscoelastic damping of the boom ma
terial itself can prevent the bending moment at any point along the boom from exceeding its criti
cal buckling moment when the system is excited at a resonant frequency.

This may be done by directly comparing the critical buckling moment and peak bending moment
of the system for each excitation frequency under study. We can avoid evaluating the complete ex
pression defining the peak bending moment,

00

max EI Y " ( x , t ) max max EI (6.9)

max
х t х t Σ a , ( t ) y ," ( x )
n = 1
n ,

by using the following fact : when the system is excited by the triangular wave whose period equals
one of the natural periods of the system , the major contribution to the resultant bending moment at
any point is associated with the particular mode excited at resonance .

Thus, when the excitation period t , defined in Equation 6.2 is given by

277
2 (6.10)

and the rise time t , is given by

what

271
좋
3wn (6.11 )

the peak bending moment is approximated by the expression

max
X
max
t
EI Y " ( x , t ) max
X
max
t
EI a n. ( t ) yn" ( x ) . ( 6.12)

36
 It will be recalled that for all modes of vibration except the first antisymmetric (n = 2 ) the
peak curvature is at the boom root; i.e. , at x L ÍR, and that

ly " ( L + R ) ly," (L - R ) .
n (6.13)

Therefore, by applying this fact the maximization on x called for in Equation 6.12 can be per
formed . This leads to the expression

‫هيييييبا‬
El max a , ( t ) y ," ( L + R ) ,
n
for n 7 2 ,
t

EI Y " ( x , t ) (6.14)

‫يييييل‬
max
X
max
t

1.5 EImax a , ( t ) y “ ( L + R ) , for n

n = 2 ,
t

100
+ töENDING
MOMENT
where, for n = 2 , the peak curvature is 1.5 times So = nth SYMMETRIC MODE
BMAX
lb)(fx,yElan

the curvature at the root. The maximization on si AS , = nth ANTISYMMETRIC MODE

t called for in Equation 6.14 can be performed 10-1

by directly substituting Equations 6.3 through

6.8 in Equation 4.22 and computing the maxi
10-2
st in the interval 0 < t < t2:
mum value of a , ( t ) ST
ASI AT POINT 45 FT FROM BOOM ROOT
The points marked on Figure 29 show what
® AS2
the contribution to the peak bending moment at 10-3 -AS ,
RISE TIME = 1/3 PERIOD
the boom root would be for each mode if it were PEAK INTENSITY = | MICROPOUND
AS 3
excited at its natural period. That is, for the
52

10-4 S2
excitation frequency ASA
TIIT

271 3 AS5
W
t
2
( 6.15) 10-5
|

s
SA
shown on the horizontal scale , the magnitude of
106
1.0 2.0

max max EI aa,n ( t ) yn" ( x ) EXCITATION FREQUENCY ( rad sec- 1)

X t

Figure 29— Peak bending moment contribution at boom

root from each mode for a triangular forcing function
can be ascertained from the vertical scale . having a frequency equal to natural frequency .

Thus, even if the damping ratio were as low as 10-4 and the microthruster did excite a reso
nant frequency, the critical buckling moment-which is about one ft - lb - would not be exceeded .

SUMMARY

The equations developed herein may be applied to any satellite having long elastic members
that can be modeled as a symmetric double- beam system, as shown in Figure 1. The following is

37
a summary of the equations and the conclusions that can be drawn by a close examination of them
and the figures.

1. Because of the system's symmetry, the normalized modes of vibration can be separated
into two groups: symmetric and antisymmetric, respectively, about the system's axis of symmetry.
3

Equations 5.1 and 5.2 are the frequency equations of the symmetric and antisymmetric modes,
respectively.

2. The frequency equations are written in terms of the dimensionless parameters:

( a) WoW
/ = ratio of tip to beam weight
B

(b) RL = ratio of satellite body radius to beam length

w = ratio of satellite body to beam weight

(c) W./Wp B

(d) 1/1 = ratio of satellite body to beam inertia

B

The natural frequencies of the system may be determined with slide- rule accuracy by simply
defining the above parameters and interpolating between the appropriate curves on Figures 3, 6
and 7 .

3. The following conclusions may be drawn from Equations 5.1 and 5.2 and the corresponding
figures .

(a) For W/s W,B > 100 and wr/W,

T/ B< 20, the frequency associated with the first symmetric mode
of vibration is approximately that of a clamped beam with tip weight.

(b) For 13/1RB > 0.1 , 0 < R/L, < 0.1 and 0 <WT/WBВ < , the frequency associated with the first
antisymmetric mode of vibration is approximately independent of R /L ..

(c ) For 12/18 < 0.1 , 0.05 < R / L , < 0.1 , and 0 < W1/W5 < 00, the quantity R /L,becomes a signifi
B B

cant parameter in the prediction of the first antisymmetric modal frequency.

(d) For 12/18 > 250 and /

B wz /WB < 30, the frequency associated with the first antisymmetric
В

mode of vibration is approximately that of a clamped beam with tip weight.

(e) For 19/18B < 5 and WT //WgB > 10, the frequency associated with the first antisymmetric
mode of vibration is approximately that of a similar system having its tips hinged in
inertial space.

(f) For WT // W B, > 3 , all higher symmetric and antisymmetric modes of vibration can be ap
>

proximated by a similar system having its tips hinged in inertial space.

4. The equations defining the symmetric and antisymmetric mode shapes are developed in
terms of dimensionless parameters and are given by Equations 3.1 and 3.2 .

38
 5. The equations defining both the transient and the steady - state response of the system in
terms of its normal modes of vibration are derived for an arbitrary force distribution of periodic
intensity . These Equations are 4.17, 4.18, and 4.22.

Goddard Space Flight Center

National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Greenbelt , Maryland , February 5 , 1968
630-12-02-01-51

REFERENCES

1. Bishop, R. E. D. , Gladwell, G. M. L. , and Michaelson, S. , " The Matrix Analysis of Vibration,"

Cambridge Univ. Press , 1965 .

2. Churchill, R. V. , " Operational Mathematics, " New York: McGraw Hill, 1958.
.

3. Hurty , W. C. , and Rubinstein , M. F. , " Dynamics of Structures," Englewood Cliffs, N. J .: Prentice

Hall, 1964.

4. Predmore, R. E. , Staugaitis, C. L, and Jellison, J. E. , " Damping Behaviour of DeHavilland

Stem Booms," NASA TN D- 3996, 1967 .

39
 Appendix A

Symbol List

a
a. ( t ) time-dependent generalized displacement coordinate associated with the nth mode, ft.

ba mth Fourier cosine coefficient.

C ,, C2 , C3 , C.4 constants of integration.

d mth Fourier sine coefficient.

EI ( x ) bending stiffness at x , lb ft 2 .

EI bending stiffness along length of elastic beam , lb ft ?.

F( x , t ) force distribution at ( x , t ) , lb ft - .

Fi1 ( x , t ) F , ( x ) f ( t ) force distribution of periodic intensity that is symmetric about the sys
tem's axis of symmetry and excites only the symmetric modes of vibration , lb ft - 1 .

F 2, ( x , t ) F,2 ( x ) f ( t ) force distribution of periodic intensity that is antisymmetric about the

system's axis of symmetry and excites only the antisymmetric modes of vibration,
lb ft - 1.

8 acceleration of gravity, ft sec - 2 .

IB mass moment of inertia of a beam of length 2L , about an axis normal to the length
and passing through its centroid, slugs ft ?.

IS mass moment of inertia of rigid satellite body (without beams and tip weights) about
the axis through the center of mass and normal to the plane of vibration, slugs ft .
2L

length of entire system, ft.

LO length of one beam , ft.

MI total mass of entire system, slugs.

m, n integers 0 , 1 , 2 ...

2R total length of rigid satellite body, ft .

2R* normalized length of rigid satellite body.
41
t time , sec .

t rise time of triangular wave, sec .

t2 period of triangular wave, sec .

'B weight of single beam without tip weight.

WI tip weight, lb.

WS weight of rigid satellite body (without beams and tip weights), lb.
W effective inertia weight of satellite body, lb.
S

x
position coordinate measured positive from the beam tip, ft .

y, ( x ) nth normalized mode of the undamped unforced equations of motion of the entire
system .

y.* ( z ) nth mode of the undamped unforced equation of motion of one beam, used to con
struct y, ( x ) .

Y( x , t ) transverse displacement at ( x , t ) , ft.

z
position coordinate defined over flexible portion of one beam , ft.

B( x ) viscous damping coefficient at x , lb sec ft - 2 .

3 viscous damping coefficient of the beams alone, lb sec ft 2.

8(x) Dirac Delta function .

&n , m Kronecker Delta function.

P( x ) mass distribution of the satellite beam system at x , slugs ft- ?.

mass distribution along the beam , slugs ft - 1 .
So damping ratio associated with the nth mode.

damping ratio measured experimentally.

λ n nth eigenvalue of the defined eigenvalue problem.

n
nth natural frequency of system ,

e frequency of applied force distribution.

V
n inverse of the time constant associated with the nth mode of vibration.

12n damped natural frequency of the th mode of vibration.

42 NASA - Langley , 1968 — 31

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-D

JUL 2 1968
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

CLEAN -ROOM FACILITIES FOR

EXPLORER XXXV SPACECRAFT

by Francis N. LeDoux
Goddard Space Flight Center
Greenbelt, Md.

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION WASHINGTON , D. ( . JUNE 1968

 NASA TN D - 4577

CLEAN- ROOM FACILITIES FOR EXPLORER XXXV SPACECRAFT

By Francis N. LeDoux

Goddard Space Flight Center

Greenbelt, Md .

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

For sale by the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information
Springfield , Virginia 22151 - CFSTI price $ 3.00
 ABSTRACT

Costly delays and failures in past spacecraft projects have been

attributed to the inadequacy or lack of contamination control. Cur
rently , NASA requires that automated spacecraft with mission in the
near vicinity of the moon be biologically decontaminated to a level of
no more than 2.59 x 106 viable spore forms at time of launch. To re
duce particulate and biological contamination of Explorer XXXV, vari
ous classes of clean rooms were used. Debris -generating operations
were performed in uncontrolled areas with protection for flight hard
ware in the near vicinity. Decontamination , conformal coating, and
encapsulation of electronics were performed in a class 10,000 conven
tional clean room; spacecraft buildup and some engineering tests were
conducted in a class 100,000 conventional clean room . Electronic sys
tems field checkout, cleaning and decontamination of small hand tools ,
instrument assembly , and/or functional operation tests , final space
craft decontamination and assembly , and bioassaying were conducted in
a class 100 bio - clean room environment. All clean- room areas were
restricted in number of personnel, clean- room dress , deportment, and
procedures. On the basis of the biorecords, it was determined that the
Explorer XXXV surfaces contained not more than 9 x 105 microorgan
isms before decontamination . This low level has been attributed to the
various clean - room environments and contamination controls utilized
during assembly and/or testing.

ii
 CONTENTS

Abstract ii

INTRODUCTION 1

ASEPSIS CONTROL DURING ASSEMBLY 1

Spacecraft Preparation Area 1

Hi - Bay Clean - Room Complex . 2

Bio - Clean - Room Complex . 3

Clean - Room Assembly Tools . O 4

ASEPSIS CONTROL OF SPACECRAFT DURING CONDUCTANCE

OF FIELD TESTS, CAPE KENNEDY, FLORIDA . 6

Cape Kennedy Clean - Room Facility . . 6

Gantry Air Cooling -Hat Shroud . . 7

Results of Bio - Decontamination 7

SUMMARY . 10

Appendix A - Clean - Room Regulations 13

General Clean - Room Deportment 13

Clean - Room Garments Required . . 14

iii
{
 CLEAN -ROOM FACILITIES FOR EXPLORER XXXV SPACECRAFT

by
Francis N. LeDoux

Goddard Space Flight Center

INTRODUCTION

Many spacecraft components are manufactured in various locales and shipped to Goddard Space
Flight Center (GSFC ) for use in a spacecraft system. The delay between the inspection of components
after manufacturing and the time the component is in the process of assembly or mechanical integra
tion is a major factor in component reliability . During these intervals the probability is highest
that satellite components, subassemblies, and assemblies will be damaged or made less reliable .
Each day that a satellite component, satellite, or space probe is exposed to unfavorable conditions such
as particulate and biological contamination increases the probability of harm or degradation.
Particulate contamination is extremely important since costly delays and failures in past
spacecraft projects have been attributed to the inadequacy or lack of contamination control. Bio
logical contamination of lunar and planetary spacecraft and / or their components is of considerable
concern to the NASA Headquarters Office of Planetary Quarantine, which requires that automated
spacecraft with a mission near the moon be decontaminated to a level of not more than 2.59 X 106
viable spore forms on board at time of launch . These particulate and biological cleanliness re
quirements, necessitated controlled facilities that would allow various levels of clean environments
in which to perform specific tasks on the Explorer XXXV spacecraft at Goddard Space Flight Center
and in the field during the launch checkout.
This paper describes the environments and physical features of the GSFC facilities used in the
Explorer XXXV decontamination during structural buildup, mechanical integration , assembly , and
biological sampling of hardware and spacecraft. This paper also indicates the control and environ
ments to which the spacecraft was subjected in the field and the results of biological decontamina
tion of the spacecraft (presently in lunar orbit), which was launched 19 July 1967 from Cape Kennedy,
>

Florida .

ASEPSIS CONTROL DURING ASSEMBLY

Spacecraft Preparation Area

The debris -generating operations performed on a component or the spacecraft structure were
conducted in the Spacecraft Preparation Area. This area is 25- by 20 -feet and contains drill presses,
filing machine, punch press, and sundry power hand tools. When it was required to custom -fit a
component to a structure and the operations of filing, drilling , or scraping of metal were necessary ,

1
 a shield was built to protect other components
from falling metallic particles. In addition , a
vacuum cleaner was used to gather loose chips
as they were generated. The vacuum cleaner in
let nozzle was placed in the immediate work area.
Before a spacecraft or a component was removed
from this area, it was vacuum cleaned and wiped
with an alcohol - dampened , cotton cloth . Fig
ure 1 shows such an operation being performed.
The spacecraft then was transported on its dolly
to the Hi - Bay Clean -Room Complex where as
-

Figure 1 - Spacecraft preparation area . sembly, integration of components, decontami

nation, and engineering tests were conducted,

Hi - Bay Clean - Room Complex

The Hi- Bay Clean -Room Complex ( Figure 2) consists of a 100,000 class, conventional clean
room , approximately 70 feet square and 24 feet high. Within this clean - room are class 100 , portable,

Figure 2 - Hi -bay clean -room complex.

2
in vertical laminar flow units, expandable in multiples of 4- by 8 - foot units , and class 100 horizontal
flow benches. The vertical flow units housed the spacecraft in the class 100,000 area when no work
by was being done on it. The spacecraft was always precleaned before being placed under the down
flow units ; cleaning consisted of wiping and vacuum cleaning the surfaces. The down - flow units
2 were also used to perform instrument integration , decontamination , and bio - sampling of compo
nents. The flow benches were used to assemble delicate mechanisms and to clean them at each stage
of assembly . After the spacecraft was mechanically integrated, it left the clean - room area for
electronic integration and /or systems environmental tests. At that time, the spacecraft was pro
tected by a strippable coating, which was applied only to the exterior exposed surfaces.

Figure 3 shows in more detail one of the class 100, vertical down - flow units. The unit in the
right foreground was used by the lead technician to perform a decontamination operation on the
spacecraft. It was also used to store space
craft not being worked on, to take bio - samples,
and to prepare sterile media.

The electronic circuit modules, electri

cal connectors, and wiring harnesses to be
cleaned, decontaminated, conformal - coated,
and / or encapsulated were first precleaned
with an aerosol of ethyl alcohol to remove de
posits of solder flux and residual water lac
quer remaining after fabrication . They were
then injected into the class 10,000 area of the
Bio -Clean - Room Complex.
1

Bio - Clean - Room Complex

Figure 3 - View of down -flow unit
Tests conducted by GSFC have indicated in the hi --bay clean -room complex .
that particulate contamination in all areas of
the complex is well below permissible NASA PARTICLE COUNTER
levels. The facility consists of four separate FILTER HOOD PASS THRU
ENCAPSULATING
rooms with a total area of 600 square feet (Fig MONITORING CLASS 10,000
ure 4) . Room A is a personnel preparation CAMERA ( ROOM C )
room with a brush vacuum mat at the entrance AIR SHOWER
OBSERVATION BIO-CLEAN ( ROOM B )
of the door to clean shoe bottoms. A closet WINDOWS ROOM
CLASS 100 CLEAN CLOTHES
with sterile clothing and a surgical wash basin 15 ' x 20 ' PASS THRU
Mare included . Room B, a small anteroom , is ( ROOM D )
DRESSING
an airlock with a built - in air shower . The air CLASS SURGICAL
WASH
shower has a 40 -mph wind that lasts for 25 10,000
BASIN
( ROOM A ) FILTERS
seconds and removes lint and skin scales from BRUSH MAT
the skin and clothing of personnel. Room C is
a work area containing decontaminating and Figure 4 - Bio -clean -room complex .

3
monitoring equipment, a positive -pressure air system, and an interlocking system on the doors
that allows only one door to open at a time. This arrangement prevents the pressurized air sys
tem from being overridden.

Room D is a bio - clean room where satellites are decontaminated. An unusual feature of this
room is a monitoring camera , which photographs the satellite and personnel every 5 seconds.
This feature was included to check on faulty operations that may occur . Horizontal, laminar
flow air emanates from a 14 -foot wall via modules with Cambridge high efficiency particulate
air (HEPA) filter units . Filtration tests confirmed a rating for this room of between 0 and 66
particles of 0.5 micron and larger, per cubic foot of air. Walls are of prefabricated panels with
4- inch plastic foam insulation. Epoxy - coated steel forms the interior surfaces. A completely
lighted ceiling gives shadowless, 200 - foot - candle illumination at working levels. There are a min
imum of 20 air changes per hour at a controlled temperature range of 67 °F to 77 °F, and a relative
humidity of 40 to 45 percent. A constant temperature of 72 ° F is maintained, and a central,
built- in wall - type vacuum system is provided in all four rooms , along with observation win
dows that are double -paned and sealed. Also included are pass - through chambers containing
interlocking doors to ensure maintenance of a positive air -pressure when parts are brought
into the room .

During any operation in a clean -room environment where a component is handled or a test is
being performed on the spacecraft, it is highly probable that particulate and biological contamina
tion will be released and transferred . In order to minimize the release or transfer of this con
tamination , it was deemed necessary that a procedure ( Appendix A) be followed by personnel work
ing in a clean - room area.

Clean -Room Assembly Tools

Tools used in the clean room were first precleaned by wiping off gross contamination with
cotton wipers . The tools were then placed in a wire mesh basket and exposed to Freon TF vapor
for 25 minutes. They were then placed in an ultrasonic bath containing a 50 - percent solution of
isopropyl alcohol ( C , H , OH) for 25 minutes at 25 kHz. After removal from the solution, they were
7

heated for 25 minutes in an oven preheated to 55 ° C . All tools were then packaged and sealed in
sterile plastic sheet material . These packs were again packaged so that the tools would be double
packed and sealed. The outer package was removed just before injecting tools into the Goddard
Down - Flow Unit for use in spacecraft assembly .

Packaging and sealing of cleaned tools are performed in a " white bench" ( Figures 5 , 6 ,
and 7) . There are three areas in the bench enclosure that are ultra -clean working areas ;
ultrasonic cleaning, assembly and /or inspection, and clean storage. This environment, having
filtration efficiencies in excess of 99.95 percent and with particles as small as 0.3 micron,
meets class 100 . It is temperature and humidity controlled and maintains a positive pres
sure in each working area.

4
11

11

55

Figure 5 -White bench, assembly operation .

Figure 6-Technician inserting cleaned tool Figure 7 - Technician sealing plastic

into plastic envelope . envelope containing tool.

5
ASEPSIS CONTROL OF SPACECRAFT DURING CONDUCTANCE
OF FIELD TESTS , CAPE KENNEDY, FLORIDA

The NASA Planetary Quarantine Officer requires that potential lunar - landing spacecraft be
handled, tested, and prepared for launch over a period of not less than T-20 days in spaces con
forming to the NASA Laminar - Flow Clean -Room Specifications, which state that spaces shall be
of the laminar - flow type, with air movement from ceiling to floor, and shall conform to Federal
Specifications 209 , class 100 clean - room standards. This requirement could not be met completely
since spacecraft had to be in two test areas that could not be made to conform to clean - room spe
cifications . When the spacecraft was undergoing tests in these areas, it was protected from partic
ulate and bio -contamination by a sterilized asepsis covering.

Cape Kennedy Clean - Room Facility

The facility at Cape Kennedy ( Figure 8) was a class 10,000 clean - room complex consisting of
both horizontal laminar flow and conventional areas . The Goddard class 100 laminar down - flow
unit was placed in the laminar flow clean - room 10 feet from the face of the final filtered air inlet.

EQUIPMENT CLEANING LEGEND :

HIGH BAY & INSPECTION
AIR LOCK
CLASS 100 - LAMINAR FLOW

ES
SOLAR PADDLE CLASS 10,000 - LAMINAR
TEST AREA
TEST &
STORAGE
HIGH BAY
0 AREA CLASS 10,000 - CONVENTIONAL
TEST AREA

-CG
TOILET EQUIPMENT , DIRECTION OF FLOW
CS

PERSONNEL , DIRECTION OF FLOW

LOCKER ROOM
EMERGENCY EXIT
GODDARD
DOWN FLOW CG -
CLEAN GARMENT CHANGE ROOM
UNIT S -
PERSONNEL AIR SHOWER
GODDARD ES -

CLEAN ROOM EQUIPMENT AIR SHOWER

MONITOR L AIR LOCK
O OBSERVATION WINDOW

Lei 10 O 5 10 15 20

GRAPHIC SCALE IN FEET

N
Figure 8 -Spacecraft clean -rooms, Building "AE , " KSC .

6
 The electronic checkout of all flight instrumentation and experiments was conducted while the
spacecraft was in the class 100 environment. Personnel conducting the tests were limited to a
maximum of five at one time in the class 10,000 area and no more than two of these at any one
time in the Goddard down -flow unit. The personnel conducting experiment tests in these areas
were subjected to restrictions of clean - room deportment and dress.
Ei
Gantry Air Cooling -Hat Shroud
-

After the completion of tests in the Spin Balance Facility , an asepsis cover previously ster
ilized with ethylene oxide was placed over the entire spacecraft ( Figure 9) . The spacecraft was
canned , and the container was pressurized with a slightly positive pressure of dry, gaseous nitrogen
and delivered to the launch gantry . The transfer container was removed, and the asepsis bag allowed
to remain intact over the spacecraft until the air - cooling -hat shroud ( Figure 10) was placed in op
eration . The air into the cooling hat shroud met class 100 requirements ; it was temperature
controlled and passed through a diffuser designed to simulate a vertical laminar flow of filtered
air over the spacecraft. The spacecraft was in this environment until separation of the service
umbilical at lift- off. The removal of the protective strip coating, final decontamination, and sample
taking for bio - assays were performed on the spacecraft while it was in the cooling -hat shroud.

Figure 9 - Asepsis cover on spacecraft Figure 10 -- Technician checking paddle arm bracket
at spin balance facility. while under gantry air -cooling hat .

Results of Bio - Decontamination

On the basis of the GSFC bio- records (see Table 1 ), it was determined that the surfaces of the
Explorer XXXV spacecraft contained not in excess of 9 x 105 microorganisms before decontamin
ation and not in excess of 2.7 x 104 microorganisms after decontamination . This constituted a 97
percent reduction . The estimate of viable organisms contained within components ( Table 2) was
based on past history and known manufacturing environments. It was determined that, of the total

7
 Table 1

Compilation of Viable Organisms on Surfaces.

Counts of Viable Organisms on Surfaces

Total Contaminated Decontaminated

Area Class Area
(in 2) Aerobic Anaerobic Aerobic Anaerobic

Veg . Spores Veg . Spores Veg . Spores Veg . Spores

Occluded " A " : 8759 212899 62232 26858 25547 5937 3251 4099 55
Electronic modules

Occluded " B " :

Surfaces that 1138 4033 0 5914 0 72 0 3450 0
module frames
occlude

Occluded " C " :

exterior of 5813 56300 4489 9923 85 20 2030 192 0
module frames

Occluded " C " :

Other interior exposed
surfaces of the space 5195 20001 17467 898 40206 79 178 0 369
craft that the cover
occludes

Interior surfaces " D " :

Other interior
surfaces of the
spacecraft 8490 63174 6517 8747 1750 1985 502 38 12
-1 Body
-2 Motor
-3 Assembly occluded

Exterior surfaces " E ' ':

Exterior surfaces of
the spacecraft
71437 228329 80818 19321 4344 3671 420 281 545
-1 Body
-2 Motor
-3 Assembly occluded

Final totals of Total

contamination of the 700.2 584736 171523 71661 71932 11764 6381 8060 981
AIMP - E spacecraft sq . ft .

Totals 9 x 105 2.7 x 104

8
 Table 2

Compilation of Viable Organisms Contained Within Components .

Accumulative
Estimated Number of
Components Total x 103
Range Components
Low High

Resistors 0-1 11612 0 11.6

Capacitors 10-100 3153 31.5 326.9

Diodes 0-1 4005 31.5 330.9

Transistors 0-1 3164 31.5 334.1

Relays 100-1000 15 33.0 349,1

Crystals 0-1 1 33.0 349.1

Inductors 0 < 100 148 33.0 363.0

Toroid transformers 0 < 100 117 33.0 375.6

Batteries 0 0 33.0 375.6 '

Metals 0 0 33.0 375.6

Tubes 0 4 33.0 375.6

Explosives 10 8 33.1 375.7

Foam 1 /ml 14727 ml 47.8 390.4

Nylon - Dacron 0 876

Teflon insulation 0 16

Magnetic cores 0 0

MOSFETS 0 747

Potentiometers ? 17

Flat paks 0 551

Fuses 0 15

Thermistors 0 35

Estimated total --

47.8 390.4
internal burden

Average 219.0
internal burden

9
viable life remaining in the components ( Table 3) , 10 percent would be spore forms. Of this 10
percent, approximately two - thirds would be aerobic, and the remainder anaerobic .

As a result of the overall evaluation (Table 4) it was determined that at time of launch, the Ex
plorer XXXV spacecraft contained not over 2.5 X 105 organisms. Of these, an estimated 2.2 x 105
organisms were contained inside the components and foam encapsulant and 2.7 x 104 organisms on
the surfaces ; 7.4 10 % of those on the surface were spores .

Table 3 Table 4

Estimated Spore Loading at Launch and Lunar Impact. Spacecraft Microbial Load at Launch .
Area erobic Anaerobic Totals Type Load Contamination Level

Surfaces 1.3 x 104 1.9 103 1.5 x 104 Internal burden 2.2 x 105

Internal burden 1.5 * 104 7.3 * 103 2.2 x 104 Surfaces 2.7 x 104

Grand totals 2.8 * 104 9.2 * 103 3.7 * 104 Total load 2.5 * 105

Remaining at 1.89 * 10-9 2.2 x 104

lunar impact The Explorer XXXV spacecraft
achieved a successful orbit with a life
expectancy of 3 years and will have
1440 cycles of temperature change between -45 ° C and +50 °C in an ultra-high vacuum . Under this
environment, the spore population on the exposed surfaces of the spacecraft should be reduced to
1.89 X 10 ^ 9 at time of lunar impact, and all vegetative life is assumed to exist no longer ; only the
internal spores ( 2.2 x 104 ) would remain .

The Planetary Quarantine Officer recommended certification of the Explorer XXXV spacecraft
based on the evaluation of records maintained at the Goddard Space Flight Center , visual observa
tions of control procedures, and assessment of the microbial environment of the spacecraft while
in residence at the Eastern Test Range .

SUMMARY

Debris - generating operations are performed in an uncontrolled area. Protection is given flight
hardware in the near vicinity of the debris -generating operation.

Decontamination, conformal - coating, and encapsulation of electronics are performed in a class

10,000 clean -room . The area is restricted to numbers of personnel, clean - room dress, deport
ment, and procedure .

Spacecraft build - up and some engineering tests are performed in class 100,000 clean - room .
The area is restricted to clean - room dress and deportment.

10
 Instrument, hardware, and spacecraft decontamination; assembly ; experiment integration ; bio
sampling; and bio -assays are performed in a class 100 environment. The areas are restricted to
number of personnel, clean - room dress, deportment, and procedures.
Decontaminated instrument assembly and / or functional operation tests are conducted on class
100 horizontal laminar flow benches .

Small hand tools are cleaned and decontaminated , packaged, and sealed to retain level of clean
liness while in a class 100 white bench environment.

Prior to shipment to launch complex, the spacecraft is dissassembled and precleaned in a

class 10,000 clean room. Spacecraft interior final cleaning decontamination, bio - sampling, and
reassembly is performed in a class 100 bio - clean room. The area is restricted to number of per
sonnel, specific clean - room dress, and clean - room deportment.

An electronic systems checkout is performed in the field while the spacecraft is housed in a
class 100 clean - room environment or while protected by an asepsis covering.

Final checkout, decontamination , and bio- sampling are conducted in a class 100 environment
in a laminar down - flow cooling -hat shroud on the gantry . The spacecraft is bathed with class 100
filtered and temperature - conditioned air until separation of service umbilical at lift - off.
-

Goddard Space Flight Center

National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Greenbelt, Maryland, February 6, 1968
039-01-01-01-51

11
 Appendix A

Clean - Room Regulations

General Clean -Room Deportment

Personnel in any of the clean room areas observed the following clean - room regulations and
adjusted accordingly .
1. Individuals having respiratory or skin ailments are not allowed to work in the clean - room
areas ,

2. Individuals with colds or severe sunburn are not permitted to work in clean - room areas .
3. No unauthorized personnel are allowed in clean rooms .
4. Only test fixtures , tools, jigs , and assembly fixtures needed to perform the required task
are permitted in clean rooms .
5. No abrasives such as files, crocus cloth, etc., are permitted.
6. No shredding or masking tapes are permitted.
7. Exposed parts or components are not to be left on work benches .
8. Only approved clean - room garments will be worn in the various clean - room areas .
9. No smoking or eating is allowed in clean rooms .
10. No person having cosmetics such as after - shaving talc , lip ice, etc., or external medication
is allowed in clean room .

11. No pencils are allowed in clean room areas . Ball point pens and lint- free paper are
permitted.
12. No horse -play will be tolerated; movements are to be slow and rhythmic .
13. No watches or jewelry are to be worn in the clean -room areas .
14. Scratching the head, eyebrows , or exposed skin areas is taboo .
15. Coveralls are not to be unzipped when in the clean room areas .
16. No skin areas are to be exposed between gloved hand and coveralls .
17. Emergency exits will be used only in legitimate emergencies .
18. No equipment will be allowed in the clean - room areas that has not been first precleaned .
19. No more than two personnel will be allowed to work at one time under the Goddard Down
Flow Unit.

20. Project and custodial personnel are not to disturb , or be in the near vicinity of, any clean
room monitoring equipment.

13
 Clean -Room Garments Required
Spacecraft Preparation Area
1. None; street clothes are adequate

Hi - Bay Clean -Room Complex

1. Class 100,000 area: shoe covers, cotton gloves, and smocks
2. Class 100 areas: shoe covers , cotton or surgical - type gloves (depending upon opera
tion ), smocks , hats, and in addition face masks are required during decontamination
and / or bio - sampling operation while under the vertical down flow unit.
Bio - Clean - Room Complex

1. Class 10,000 area: coveralls, shoe covers, cap , sterile gloves (surgical- type)
2. Class 100 bio- area : shoe covers, coveralls, cap , hood, sterile rubber gloves (surgical
type) , and face mask

Gantry Cooling - Hat Shroud

1. Class 100 area: shoe covers , velostate boots, leg stats , sterile rubber gloves (surgical
type) , fire -proofed cap, hood, and coveralls

2. In addition face masks are required during removal of strip - coating , final decontami
nation, and bio - sampling .

14 NASA - Langley, 1968 11

1
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PRELIMINARY FLIGHT EVALUATION OF

THE STABILITY AND CONTROL DERIVATIVES
AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
UNAUGMENTED XB-70-1 AIRPLANE
INCLUDING COMPARISONS WITH PREDICTIONS

by Chester H. Wolowicz, Larry W. Strutz, Glenn B. Gilyard,

and Neil W. Matheny
Flight Research Center
Edwards, Calif.

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION WASHINGTON , D. C. . MAY 1968

 NASA TN D- 4578

PRELIMINARY FLIGHT EVALUATION OF THE STABILITY AND

CONTROL DERIVATIVES AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

OF THE UNAUGMENTED XB- 70-1 AIRPLANE INCLUDING

COMPARISONS WITH PREDICTIONS

By Chester H. Wolowicz , Larry W. Strutz ,

Glenn B. Gilyard , and Neil W. Matheny

Flight Research Center

Edwards , Calif .

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

For sale by the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information
Springfield , Virginia 22151 - CFSTI price $3.00
T

1
 PRELIMINARY FLIGHT EVALUATION OF THE STABILITY AND

CONTROL DERIVATIVES AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

OF THE UNAUGMENTED XB -70-1 AIRPLANE INCLUDING

COMPARISONS WITH PREDICTIONS

By Chester H. Wolowicz, Larry W. Strutz ,

Glenn B. Gilyard , and Neil W. Matheny
Flight Research Center

SUMMARY

Stability and control characteristics of the XB - 70-1 airplane were evaluated from
data obtained during the early phases of the flight - test program at Mach numbers ex
tending to 2.56 and altitudes to 64 , 700 feet ( 19,700 meters ) .
Flight -determined stability and control derivatives and dynamic characteristics for
three wing-tip configurations were found generally to be in fair agreement with predic
tions based on wind - tunnel tests and theoretical estimates of structural flexibility
effects .

The results show the short - period and Dutch roll modes of the unaugmented air
craft to be positively damped for the flight conditions evaluated. Longitudinal damping
characteristics tended generally to correspond with predictions for the flexible aircraft;
a fairly heavy damping ratio of the order of 0.5 was evident at low subsonic speeds and
a light damping ratio of the order of 0.1 at high supersonic speeds . Dutch roll damping
of the order of 0.2 or less throughout the Mach number range was underestimated at
supersonic conditions, primarily as a result of underestimating the yaw damping due
to yaw rate .

The neutral point was approximately 30 percent of the mean aerodynamic chord for
25° and 65° wing -tip configurations at supersonic conditions and 27 percent to 29 percent
of the mean aerodynamic chord subsonically with the wing tips up . The predicted values
were slightly higher.
The airplane exhibited negative ( adverse ) values of the aileron -yaw parameter
Cnoa at Mach numbers above about0.90 , although proverse values were predicted.
Positive values were obtained at subsonic speeds , but the flight -measured values were
>

less than predicted.

The flight - determined effective dihedral was negative for fully deflected wing tips
( 65° ) and higher than predicted . The combination of negative effective dihedral and
adverse aileron yaw was conducive to divergent pilot -induced oscillation tendencies .

Flight tests showed a marked reduction in directional stability beyond approxi

mately 2º of sideslip. This nonlinearity was found in wind -tunnel studies to be the
result of canard interference .
 Comparison of the results from rigid-model wind -tunnel tests with those from
flight shows that the effects of aeroelasticity appear to be significant for the static
pitch stability, pitch-control effectiveness , roll-control effectiveness , static directional
stability , and effective dihedral derivatives ,

INTRODUCTION

The XB -70 is a large, high performance , supersonic aircraft (fig. 1 ) and represents
the closest approach in size and weight to the proposed supersonic transports , with
similar structural and performance characteristics . It therefore provides an excellent
test vehicle for obtaining data pertinent to the development of the supersonic transport.
The XB - 70 flight-test program is a two -phase operation. The first phase, which
ended in June 1966 , was a joint North American Aviation/Air Force program in which
the performance capabilities of the aircraft were demonstrated . The second phase
of the program , which started in March 1967 , is a joint NASA /Air Force research
effort to obtain additional data primarily in support of the supersonic - transport program .

A substantial amount of stability and control data was obtained throughout the flight
envelope of the aircraft during the first phase of the program . Although the informa
tion was obtained under more or less random conditions of altitude , weight, and center
of gravity , it is of sufficient scope to warrant a preliminary evaluation of the stability
and control characteristics of the aircraft. This report summarizes the results of the
evaluation and compares the flight - determined derivatives with those obtained from
wind -tunnel tests and with estimated effects of aeroelasticity.

The flight data presented were derived from tests of the XB -70-1 aircraft extending
to a Mach number of 2.56 and an altitude of 64 , 700 feet ( 19,700 meters) . The data ,
for the most part , fall within a relatively small band that closely resembles typical
climbout corridors of the proposed supersonic transport. Thus , to provide a more
consistent basis for discussion of the correlation of the flight data with the predicted
characteristics , the flight data were adjusted to correspond to a hypothetical supersonic
transport mid- corridor climbout profile. The data determined at actual flight - test
conditions are also included for comparative reference .

SYMBOLS

The data presented are in the form of standard NASA coefficients of forces and
moments which are referred to the body axes passing through the center of gravity.
The positive directions are : X, forward ; Y , to the right; Z , down. Positive directions
of the forces , moments , and angular displacements and velocities are in accord with
the right -hand rule.

Measurements were taken in the U. S. Customary System of Units . Equivalent

values in the International System of Units (SI) are indicated . Details concerning the
use of SI , together with physical constants and conversions , are given in reference 1 .

2
 The coefficients are defined in terms of the span , area , and mean aerodynamic
chord of the wing - tips -up configuration .

an normal acceleration at center of gravity , g units

ani indicated normal acceleration uncorrected for instrument position ,

g units

- at transverse acceleration at center of gravity , g units

3
ati indicated transverse acceleration uncorrected for instrument position ,
g units

b wing span , tips undeflected , feet (meters )

Lift
& CL lift coefficient ,
qs

Rolling moment
Ci rolling -moment coefficient ,
qSb
ov ӘС
e damping - in - roll derivative, per radian
a

>
pb
2V

СC1IE =
ӘС ,
I > per radian
rb
a
1 2V

Cu ӘСІ
ß effective dihedral derivative ,
aß
, per degree

ci ӘСІ
sa roll -control derivative , ada per degree

cl 2C1
or adr , per degree

Pitching moment
Cm pitching -moment coefficient,
qsc

Cmo
c == 0e == 00
pitching -moment coefficient at zero lift with Oc
aCm
Cma per radian
a qc
2V

3
 ac
Cma m
; per degree
static pitch - stability derivative , θα
acm
Cmo = per radian
åć
a
2V

Cmo ƏCm
c ఆర్ , per degree 1

Срб ac' m
,
е per degree
әбе

Собе Cmge+ doc

Cmgoc(doe
pitch -control derivative , , per degree
Cm
Normal force
.
()
CN normal - force coefficient,
qs

CNa OCN
α θα , per degree

CN ƏCN , per radian

ä
åt
a
2V

CNO ƏCN
C 20c ,
=
per degree

су ƏCN
бе
әбе , per degree

CNõe CNO -
CNCldo per degree

‫ܦܠܨ‬ QCN
ceno
do

C > per radian

29C
2V

Cn yawing -moment coefficient, Yawing moment

qSb
an
, per radian
one

pb
a
2V

4
 əcn
per radian
Car rb
2V

ӘС , n
CO static directional -stability derivative ,
B aß
, per degree

End ac
a ad , per degree
a

Co
or əcn , per degree
მნr

Lateral force
Су lateral - force coefficient ,
qs
ac .
Ca у
ß әр
, per degree

Cys ӘСу
a g per degree
రి oa

Cgo ac .
y
r air , per degree
ol

mean aerodynamic chord , tips undeflected, feet ( meters )

acceleration of gravity, feet/ second ? (meters/seconda,

09

hp pressure altitude, feet ( meters )

Ix , ly , Iz moments of inertia about X-, Y-, and Z -body axes , respectively,

slug -foot? (kilogram -meter ?)
Ixz product of inertia referred to the body X- and Z -axes , slug -foot2
(kilogram -meter ?)
M Mach number

5
m mass, slugs (kilograms)
1

Nre Reynolds number ,, pv

PVCc 1
п

1
P period of damped natural frequency of the airplane , seconds

p, q, r time rate of change of roll , pitch , and yaw about body X- , Y- , and
Z - axes , respectively, radians / second (unless noted otherwise)
poġ, time rate of change of p, q , and r, respectively, radians /second2
(unless noted otherwise )

dynamic pressure, kova , pounds / foot? (newtons/meter

I

S wing area, tips undeflected , feet2 (meters )

Tg , Tr spiral- and roll - mode time constants , respectively , seconds

T1 /2 time required for absolute value of transient oscillation to damp to

one -half amplitude , seconds

t time , seconds

V true airspeed of airplane , feet / second (meters / second)

X
Xan Xa4;XQ
au8B
ß distance from center of gravity to normal- and transverse -acceleration
sensors and a and B sensors , respectively , measured parallel to
X -body axis, positive when forward of center of gravity , feet
(meters )

Zaqaß distance from center of gravity to respective sensors as measured

parallel to the Z -body axis, positive when below center of gravity ,
feet ( meters )

Q, B angle of attack and angle of sideslip , respectively , degrees

å,i time rate of change of a and B , respectively , radians /second
perturbed value

oc canard deflection , positive when leading edge up , degrees

8e,' da, or
>
' average elevon , aileron, and rudder deflections , respectively :
trailing edge of elevator down , positive; total aileron deflection that
produces right roll , positive ; trailing edge of both rudders to left ,
positive, degrees

6
 doc
dôc gearing ratio of canard deflection to elevator deflection ( see fig . 4)

OT wing -tip position , degrees

5 ratio of actual damping to critical damping

0,4 , Euler angles of pitch , roll , and yaw , respectively , degrees

.

0,4 time rate of change of 0 and 4 , respectively , radians /second

P mass density of air , slugs / foot (kilograms/meter3)
wn undamped natural frequency, radians /second

M coefficient of absolute viscosity, pound -second / foot2

(newton -second /meter2)
Subscripts :

i indicated quantity

0 initial value

The phase angle of a vector i relative to another vector k is indicated by @jk

The second subscript k designates the reference vector.

AIRPLANE

The XB -70 airplane (fig. 1) was originally designed as a weapons system with long
range supersonic -cruise capabilities. The two airplanes built were identical in con
figuration except that the first airplane (XB -70-1) had zero geometric dihedral, and
the second (XB -70-2 ) had 5° geometric dihedral . The tip deflections with respect to
the horizontal plane remained the same. The derivatives and dynamic characteristics
in this paper were determined only for the XB -70-1 . The physical characteristics of
the XB -70-1 are given in table I.
The airplane has a design gross weight in excess of 500,000 pounds (226 , 800 kilo
grams) and a design cruising speed of Mach 3.0 at approximately 70,000 feet
(21 , 300 meters ) altitude. It has a thin , low - aspect - ratio , highly swept delta wing with
folding wing tips , twin mov able vertical stabilizers, elevon surfaces for pitch and roll
control, a movable canard with trailing -edge flaps, and twin inlets enclosed in a
single nacelle.

The normal operational limits for the three wing -tip configurations are shown in
figure 2 .

7
 Control System

The control system , described in detail in reference 2 , is irreversible . Some of

the pertinent external aspects are shown in figure 3 .
The canard surface provides part of the pitch control and has a flap surface for use
during takeoff and landing. In the normal flight configuration , the canard is geared to
the elevator action of the elevons through a ratio of 1 to -6.67 , as shown in figure 4 .
Coordinated movement of the two surfaces is provided by the pitch-control column in the
cockpit. Full elevator travel of the elevons for the first phase of the flight program was
15 ° to -25 ° ; corresponding full travel of the canard was 0 ° to 6 ° with a setting of 2. 25 °
when elevators were at zero deflection . For normal takeoffs and landings , the forepart
of the canard is fixed at 0 ° incidence and the canard flap is full down at 20° . The addi -
tional down elevator required to trim out the pitching moments due to this canard - flap
configuration provides additional lift .

The elevons are segmented with six segments on each wing semispan to prevent bind
ing as a result of bending of the wing. When the wing tips are in the deflected position ,
the two outboard segments on each tip are faired at a zero setting and become part of
the folded tip .

Roll control is obtained by differential action of the elevons. Yaw control is provided
by rotation of the vertical stabilizers about a 45 ° hinge line .

The airplane is equipped with a flight augmentation control system to provide added
stability to the vehicle in pitch , roll , and yaw. It is also equipped with a lateral bob
weight to augment the Dutch roll stability above a Mach number of 2.6.

Propulsion System
Propulsion is provided by six YJ93 -GE -3 engines equipped with afterburners , Each
engine has a 30,000 -pound (133, 200 -newton ) thrust classification at sea level . The six
engines are mounted side by side in the rear of the fuselage in a single nacelle under the
center section of the wing. The nacelle is divided into twin inlets; each inlet provides
air to three engines .

The left , and right - hand air - intake ducts are each equipped with six inlet - air bypass
doors on top of each duct just forward and between the leading edge of the vertical sta
bilizers (fig. 1 ). These doors are manually controlled in conjunction with the variable
two -dimensional throats on the XB -70-1 to control the position of the normal shock in
each of the ducts . The position of the bypass doors causes changes in pitch trim and
lift with symmetrical bypass -door deflection ( ref. 3 ) .

INSTRUMENTATION

A pulse code modulation (PCM) system is used to enable rapid processing of approx
imately 1100 parameters . The system converts analog signals from the sensor to digi
tal format and records the digitized data on tape on a time- sharing basis.

8
 The instrumentation pertinent to the stability and control investigation is listed
in table II . Included are instrument location , accuracy , range , and sampling rate of
the sensor signals.

The Euler attitude, angular rate , and linear accelerometers were alined to within
approximately 0.5º relative to the body axes .
The Mach numbers presented , as determined with a nose - boom sensor , are con
>

sidered to be accurate to within 0.01 below M = 1.0 , within 0.03 at M = 1.0 , within
0.02 at M = 1.5 , and within 0.03 at M = 2.0 . Above M = 2.0 , the error increases
=
with increasing Mach number to approximately 0.09 at M = 3.0 .

FLIGHT DATA

Test Conditions

The flight conditions associated with the various stability and control data are
shown in figure 5 and are summarized in tables III and IV . The climbout and descent
profiles shown in the figure are typical for a Mach 3.0 flight.

The longitudinal characteristics were determined from pullup and release maneu
vers , which included transient oscillations following release . The lateral - directional
characteristics were determined from " release from sideslip " maneuvers . The
pitch mode of the flight augmentation control system was off for the longitudinal
maneuvers ; the roll and yaw modes were off for the lateral -directional maneuvers .

In general, the maneuvers were performed with no direct or systematic control

of weight, center of gravity , or altitude .

Midcorridor Climbout Profile

Most of the data points in figure 5 fall within a relatively narrow corridor ap
proximately midway between the boundaries of the flight envelope and in figure 6 lie
in a profile which is typical of the climbout profiles proposed for the supersonic
transport. To minimize the scatter in the data caused by the more or less random
conditions of weight and center of gravity within this midcorridor range , the flight
data were normalized to a common set of conditions defined by the variations in
weight , center of gravity , and inertia with Mach number shown in figures 7 to 9 for
climbout portions of a typical Mach 3.0 flight of the XB -70 . The normalizing pro
cedure consisted of determining the incremental differences in the predicted deriva
tive characteristics corresponding to the differences in flight and midcorridor weight
and center of gravity for each point in the corridor and applying these derivative
increments directly to the flight -determined derivatives . These increments were in
general small , and the overall accuracy of the results was not significantly com
promised . The resulting modified data were used as the basis for the discussion and
are designated hereafter as flight -based data . These data represent the derivative
variations along the hypothetical midcorridor climbout profile . The data for the
actual flight -test conditions are included for comparative reference .

9
 1

Data Analysis and Accuracy 1

1

A study of the time histories of pullup and release maneuvers and release from
sideslip maneuvers showed that simple analytical techniques for determining longitud
inal and lateral -directional stability and control derivatives ( ref. 4) would not be ade
quate for determining most of the derivatives . The quality of the maneuvers and
recorded data during the first phase of the program were , in general, substandard for
detailed analysis of the stability and control characteristics . As a result , the tech
nique of matching flight time histories of maneuvers on an analog ( ref. 5) was used.
The limitations of the data that necessitated the use of this technique are discussed in
appendix A , and the mathematical relationships used are summarized in appendix B.
>

Typical analog matches are shown in figures 10 ( a) and 10 (b ) and figure 11 .

The longitudinal short -period, the Dutch roll , spiral, and roll - subsidence
characteristics could not be determined directly from the flight time histories because
of the effects of pilot control inputs . Instead , these characteristics were calculated
from the actual flight -determined derivatives, and the characteristics in the mid
corridor profile were calculated at climbout conditions from the flight -based
derivatives. Digital programs based on the dynamics equations in appendix B were
used for this purpose .

The uncertainty in the value of each derivative was estimated by varying the mag
nitude of the derivative in both directions from the best match value until a noticeable
mismatch became evident. The average of the increments from the best match value
was then taken to be a measure of the uncertainty . This technique was strongly influ
enced by the damping characteristics at the flight - test condition as well as by the
quality of the maneuver .
The maximum uncertainties of the longitudinal derivatives in percent of the best
match values are summarized in the following table , although in most cases the actual
uncertainties were considerably less than the maximum values listed:

Maximum uncertainty ,
Derivatives percent
Subsonic Supersonic
CNa 20 10

CNDE 100 30

(CNO Cna)
+ Over 200 Over 200

Cma 10 5

Cmie 20 10

40 30
( Cmq + Cme ?
On the basis of these results , only the derivatives CN@ ? Cmą (Cmq + Cme), and
Cmãe were believed to be sufficiently accurate for further consideration .

10
 The following maximum uncertainties were estimated for the lateral - directional
derivatives :

1
:
Derivatives Uncertainty , percent

Cng 5

CLB
15 ( approximately +0.00005 when Clßão)
1

Cyß 20
30

Cnr
Cn

Cpp 20 to 100 (approximately +0.01 when Cnp ~ 0)

30
our

ol
e =)
50 (approximately 0.01 to 0.05 when C2 , 0)
Co
or 5

01
69 15

Ens Ens
a
30 (approximately 0.000005 when ngaa ñ 0)
CL cl
OT 30 ( approximately 0.000005 when or ~ 0)

Cyor 50

Суба 100

All the derivatives except Cyba have been retained in this report.

11
 PREDICTED CHARACTERISTICS

Predicted rigid and flexible aircraft derivatives for lg flight conditions were pro
vided by the manufacturer ( ref. 6 ) for each wing -tip configuration at a lightweight and a
heavyweight condition with 0.2227 center of gravity and a midweight condition with
0.1977 center of gravity . The rigid aircraft static stability and control derivatives
were obtained from wind -tunnel data based primarily on a 0.03 -scale model. Some of
these data were also obtained from an 0.008 -scale model. The rigid -model data were
not corrected for possible elastic distortions of the model. The manufacturer consid
ered the elastic effects to be negligible for the low Reynolds numbers and corresponding
low -dynamic pressures of most of the tests . Flexibility effects on the full - scale
airplane were calculated by using the modal approach discussed in reference 7. As
pointed out in the reference , the rigid -model aerodynamic data were linearized , and
flexible -to - rigid ratios for the aerodynamic corrections were generated by using modal
data . The rigid - aircraft rotary derivatives were calculated .

The predicted derivatives for any specific flight or flight -based condition in this
report were obtained by interpolation of the manufacturer's predicted characteristics .

RESULTS

The results of the investigation are presented in terms of the actual flight test
conditions and the conditions along the flight -based hypothetical climbout profile . The
stability and control derivatives and aircraft dynamics for both conditions are compared
with predictions for the rigid and flexible aircraft wherever the predicted characteris
tics were available .

The longitudinal characteristics for actual flight - test conditions (table III) are
summarized in figures 12 to 14. For the lateral - directional flight -test conditions
(table IV ) the results are summarized in figures 15 to 19 .
The longitudinal characteristics for the flight -based midcorridor climbout conditions
are summarized in figures 20 to 23 and the lateral -directional conditions in figures 24
to 30 .

DISCUSSION

As mentioned previously , this discussion is limited to the hypothetical midcorridor

climbout conditions in order to provide a more consistent basis for comparison with
predictions. Factors which could affect the correlation of the predicted and flight
determined characteristics include wind -tunnel techniques , the large difference in
Reynolds number between flight and wind - tunnel tests (table V ) , and the adequacy of
the theoretical correction to rigid -model data to account for aeroelastic effects . The
wind - tunnel tests were made with no attempt to simulate pressure changes due to the
inlet and exhaust flows; also , many of the tests were made with nonsegmented elevons ,
The stability and control tests in flight were performed in such a manner that the
separate effects of aeroelasticity and Reynolds number could not be determined .
12
 Longitudinal Characteristics

Stability and control derivatives. - Figures 20 ( a) and 20 (b) compare the derivatives
CNq ' Cmq Cmõe' and (Cmq + Cma) for the midcorridor climbout conditions with
predictions for a rigid and a flexible aircraft.. In general , the flight -based and pre
dicted ( flexible aircraft ) characteristics are in fairly good agreement for the three
wing-tip deflections ( 0º , 25° , 65° ) investigated. In most instances, the aeroelastic
corrections are significant and , in general, bring the rigid -model data into improved
agreement with the flight -based trends . Some notable discrepancies are evident in
CNa
for Øt = 25° , Cmõe for Øt = 0° , and (Cmq + Cmö)for both Ôt =. 0° and

OT = 25° . These discrepancies are believed to be due in part to the large difference
between the Reynolds numbers for the flight and wind -tunnel tests ( approximately 100
to 300 x 106 and 2 to 27 x 106 , respectively ). Duplication of flight Reynolds numbers
for aircraft as large as the XB -70 , however , is beyond the capability of existing wind
tunnels . Figure 21 shows the results of a study performed in the 11- by 11 - foot wind
tunnel at the NASA Ames Research Center to assess the effect of Reynolds number in
the range from 9.4 x 106 to 21.2 x 106 by varying the tunnel stagnation pressure at a
Mach number of 1.2. Apparent reductions in both Cmą and Cmre C with increasing
Reynolds number appear to be consistent with the trend of the flight data. The wind
tunnel results , however , are believed to be masked by aeroelastic distortions in the
model as a result of the increased dynamic pressure ( fig. 21 ) at the highest Reynolds
number.

The flight-based pitch -damping derivatives (Cmq|+ Cmà) in figure 20 (b) appear to
indicate a reasonable trend toward correlation with predictions for the flexible aircraft
in the subsonic and supersonic regions . The lack of correlation in the transonic
region implies rapid changes of the derivative in this region where wind - tunnel data
were very limited between Mach numbers of 0.95 and 1. 20 .

The change in longitudinal characteristics as a result of a change in wing -tip

configuration from 0° to 25° ( fig. 20 ) could not be accurately determined from the flight
based data in the transonic region because of the sparsity and seeming scatter in the
data for OT
Of = 25° . The predictions, however, do indicate some decrease in Cm , as
a result of deflection of the tips to 25° . The trend of the data indicates that changing
the wing -tip deflection from 25° to 65° reduced Cmą significantly but otherwise had
little effect on the longitudinal characteristics .

The zero -lift pitching-moment coefficient Cm. for zero elevator and canard de
flections was based on the following expression:

Cma
С CNOC
Cmo --Cmala - Qo) - Cmdeбе - обс6c CNa [ CN - CNCbe - 2.25)]- Cmā,®e - 2. 25Cm6.
е

13
Since it was not possible to determine Cmoc and CNGC from the flight data , pre
dicted values for the flexible aircraft were used in determining the zero - lift flight
pitching -moment coefficient . The results are presented in figure 22 , which shows the
flight -based Cmo to be generally larger than predicted.
Figure 22 also shows the flight -based neutral points to range from 27 percent to
29 percent of the mean aerodynamic chord at subsonic speeds (OT = 0° ) and approxi
mately 30 percent of the mean aerodynamic chord with the tips at 25° and 65 °, and to be
>

slightly ahead of the predicted values . The effect of deflecting the wing tips from
0° to 25° is not clearly defined in the flight -based data; however , the predicted trends
indicate a forward shift in neutral point with increasing tip deflection .

Short-period dynamics. – The unaugmented longitudinal short -period dynamics

summarized in figure 23 indicate the flight -based and predicted periods to be generally
in good agreement. The damping ratios show fairly heavy damping in the subsonic
region and light damping in the supersonic region. Changes in tip configuration do not
appear , in general, to have a significant effect on the longitudinal dynamics.

Lateral - Directional Characteristics

Control derivatives . - One of the more difficult characteristics to predict for a

large flexible aircraft is the adverse yaw due to aileron. A comparison of flight -based
and predicted characteristics in figure 24(a) shows the predicted Cnga to be positive
( proverse ) , whereas the flight -based values are negative ( adverse) from a Mach number
of approximately 0.90 through the supersonic range . The strongest adverse -yaw effects
due to aileron were encountered in flight at M = 0.95 for OT =- 0° and 25° and through
the lower supersonic region for GT = 65° . It should be noted that in the subsonic region
of figure 24( a) the predicted and flight -based trends are both positive (proverse ) , with
the flight -based value lower in magnitude . Conversely , figure 15 ( a) shows the flight
value of Cnoa at M = 0.51 for the gear-down and flaps -down configuration to be ad
verse . Corresponding predicted values for this configuration are not shown because of
references 6 , 8 , 9 , and 10 did not include gear- and flap - down data.

The major causes of the discrepancy between the flight -based and predicted Cnoa
are not known . However , three factors have been identified that account for a portion
of the discrepancy: ( 1 ) the wind -tunnel data were limited and resulted in over
simplified approximations of the variation of Cnga with De , (2) more down elevator
was required in flight for longitudinal trim than was predicted , and ( 3) large differences
in Reynolds number existed between the predicted and flight data ( table V) . These three
factors are illustrated in figure 25 for M 20.95. The figure shows predicted data
from references 6 and 8 for the XB -70-1 airplane and unpublished wind -tunnel data for
the XB - 70-2 configurations as well as a flight test point of the XB -70-1 airplane , Al
though the wind - tunnel data and the referenced data are for two different configurations,
the correspondence is sufficiently close to provide a qualitative study of the tunnel and
referenced data with flight. For this flight condition the difference between predicted
and flight elevator trim settings was small (about 1° ) as compared with a difference of
6° or more at M = 1.2 and at Mach numbers above 2.2 . The comparisons shown in
14
figure 25 between the results from various wind -tunnel tests and flight test indicate a
potential shift toward adverse yaw with increasing Reynolds number (Ames data ) and
decreasing angle of attack (Langley data ). The flight data , it should be noted , were ob
tained at Reynolds numbers nearly an order of magnitude greater than those of the Ames
tests . Also , a high sensitivity to small changes in Mach number at the critical Mach
>

number of the figure is evident from a comparison of the Langley and Ames data for
Q = 5° . In general , however, the combined effects of the differences in elevator trim ,
Mach number, and angle of attack and the large difference in Reynolds number account
for only a small part of the large discrepancy between the predicted and the flight data.
Another factor which may contribute significantly to the discrepancy between flight
and predicted Cng, is the elastic deformation of the vertical tails due to inertial and
aerodynamic loadings. The predictions consider only the static change in vertical -tail
load due to change in flow field resulting from aileron inputs . The flight-determined
derivatives, on the other hand, were obtained from dynamic measurements involving
such factors as rolling accelerations and varying sideslip.

The predicted variations of Cnor in figure 24(a) correlate well with the flight
based trends . The effects of aeroelasticity on this derivative are estimated to be
relatively small.
Flight -based roll -control effectiveness loa is shown in figure 24 (b ) to have ap

proximately the same trend with Mach number as the predictions for the flexible air
craft . Most of the predicted data were based on nonsegmented elevons , with correc
tions applied for segmentation. Recently obtained unpublished model data for tests at
dMec=re0.95 and 1.2 at Reynolds numbers of 9.4 x 106 and 21.16 x 106 show an apparent
=

ase in Croa with increasing Reynolds number.

The flight -based values for C187 shown in figures 24(b) and 15 (b ) are negative in
the subsonic and transonic regions for wing tips at 0° and 25° , whereas for most air
planes the value is normally positive . The negative value signifies aa trailing - edge -left
movement on the rudder (positive Or) produces a left - rolling -moment increment , which
implies a strong interaction of the rudder pressure field on the wing . The predictions
of references 6 and 8 indicate Clor to be negligible; hence , the derivative was
assumed to be zero , as shown in figure 24(b) . The data of reference 9 , however , show
the rigid -model values for Op = 0° to be negative, which generally confirms flight data.
>

Figure 24(c) shows the predicted values for Cyer to be generally lower than de
termined from flight tests . Reliable estimates of Cyda could not be obtained from the
flight data, so only the predicted trends are shown .
-

Stability derivatives. - The flight -based stability derivatives are compared with
predictions in figure 26. There is relatively good agreement for some derivatives and
large discrepancies in others .

The flight -determined derivatives, in general, are considered to be valid only for
sideslip angles less than +2° because of a highly nonlinear trend in stability

15
characteristics beyond this range. Recent unpublished data for the XB -70-2 model ob
tained in the NASA Ames Research Center 11- by 11 - foot wind tunnel for Mach numbers
of 0.95 and 1.2 , OT = 30° , and a = 5° revealed a sharp break in the variation of Cn
with B , whereas C, is only slightly affected. Figure 27 shows the wind - tunnel results
=
for M = 1.2 . Both the break and the difference in slope in the linear range are asso
ciated with the presence of the canard. Also , a variation in Reynolds number , which
was accompanied by changes in dynamic pressure , affects the slopes but not the break
points . Unpublished data obtained in the NASA Langley Research Center 7- by 10 - foot
wind tunnel indicate the break to be small or negligible at a = 0° and to increase
rapidly with increasing angle of attack . The wind -tunnel data used by the manufacturer
did not define the change in characteristics as clearly because of an insufficient number
of sideslip test points.

The flight -based static directional -stability derivative Cng is generally in good
agreement with the predicted values (fig. 26(a)) except at subsonic conditions (OT 0° )
where the flight -based values are higher. The general trend of the data for the different
wing - tip positions indicates that deflecting the wing tips from 0° to 25° or from 25° to
65° did not significantly increase Cng. Full tip deflection , however , was predicted to
enhance substantially the directional stability at M = 1. 4.
The variation of the flight -based effective dihedral parameter Cz with Mach
Cu'p
number in figure 26 ( a) shows the same trends as the predictions; however , the general
level of the flight -based data suggests a possible overcorrection for aeroelastic effects .
Each increase in tip deflection in figure 26( a) results in a significant reduction in
dihedral effect . In the original design concept, neutral or slightly positive effective
dihedral was intended . Later , after fabrication of the first aircraft was started , the
effective dihedral with wing tips at 65° was found to be negative. The second aircraft ,
therefore , was constructed with 5° geometric dihedral in the outer wing panels to off
set this trend . The first aircraft does not incorporate this feature and, as a result ,
exhibits adverse roll -off response characteristics with the tips at 65° . This tendency
coupled with the adverse - aileron -yaw characteristics required careful coordination of
controls to avoid pilot - induced oscillations in unaugmented flight .

The damping derivative Cnr (fig. 26(b)) generally proved to be much larger than
predicted at Mach numbers greater than 1. The predicted values were calculated in
the absence of dynamic model tests .

The flight -based values for the yawing -moment -due -to -roll derivative Cnp
( fig. 26(b) ) are in fairly good agreement with the calculated values. This derivative
has a significant effect on Dutch roll damping when the effective dihedral is high .

The damping -in - roll derivative Chp is shown in figure 26(c) to be generally more
negative than predicted . Large differences between flight and predictions are noted in
the transonic region ; however , the predictions in this region are generally unreliable ,

The flight -based values for the derivative Cir (fig. 26(c)) are more negative than
predicted for 25° and 65° tip deflections in the lower supersonic region. Also , negative
16
 rather than positive values (as predicted) were obtained in the subsonic region with
tips at 0 ° . The more negative trend for the flight -based data tends to improve the
spiral characteristics.

3 d
The flight -based values of Cyg (fig. 26(d)) show a good correlation with the pre
dictions for the flexible aircraft, considering the degree of uncertainty in these data.
1.
Dutch roll dynamics. - The Dutch roll characteristics , as calculated from the
flight -based data, are compared with predictions in figure 28 in terms of period and
damping and in figure 29 in terms of amplitude ratios and phase angles . The flight
based and predicted periods in figure 28 correlate well for 0° and 25° tip deflections
and show a fairly constant level of about 5 seconds. With the tips at 65° , the flight
based periods are longer than predicted , with the difference attributable in part to
differences in
Cng and Cip
The damping characteristics in terms of the damping ratio ( fig. 28 ) show moder
ately light damping ( % = 0.2 ) with tips at 0° , light damping ( 5 = 0.1 ) with tips at 25° ,
and light to moderately light damping with the tips at 65° , with damping increasing with
Mach number . It is interesting to note that the damping with the tips at 65° is con
siderably higher than predicted, primarily as a result of underestimating the damping
derivative Cnr ( fig. 26(b)). The pilots quickly noticed the difference between the
damping of the actual aircraft and that observed on the XB - 70 ground -based simulator
when the predicted derivatives were used .

1 The 101 ratios of the Dutch roll oscillations ( fig . 29( a) ) show the aircraft to have
high oscillatory rolling characteristics for the 0° tip configuration. These character
istics reflect the high effective dihedral of this configuration ( fig. 26( a) ) . Lowering the
wing tips to 25° reduced the ratio significantly . The reduced roll oscillations in com
bination with the reduction of the roll - control effectiveness Сіба ( due to deactivation
of the two outboard segments ) resulted in an improved roll response and was the basis
for the pilot's decision to fly the airplane in the subsonic region with the tips at 25 °
instead of 0° .

With the tips at 65° the flight -based oscillatory roll characteristics
C are much higher
IB
than predicted. The ratio is governed mainly by the ratio and , because
周
IB CnB Сов
showed generally good agreement with predictions , the correlation of flight -based
>
, - 間
|
with predictions is similar to that for CiB . The negative dihedral with the tips at 65°
is reflected in the phase angle o UB : The maximum roll angle lags the maximum side
slip angle by about 160° when the effective dihedral is negative. When the effective
dihedral is positive, the bank angle leads the sideslip angle by an angle of the order of
50° or less.

The ratio of the Dutch roll oscillations (fig. 29 (b) ) is significantly less than
剧
Iß
1.0 with the tips at 0° and generally near 1.0 with tips deflected. The heading change
17
about the body Z - axis during Dutch roll oscillations is not necessarily indicative of the
amplitude of the sideslip . The phase angles , however , range between 170° to 180° .
The correlation of the flight -based values of 間with predictions is reasonably good.

Spiral and roll stability .- The roll stability ( roll convergence ) of the airplane as
calculated from the flight -based derivatives is shown in figure 30 to be more positive
=
0º and 25° and about the same as predicted for OT = 65° ..
than predicted for OT = °

The spiral roots also were calculated from the flight -based derivatives and, al
though showing considerable scatter , appear to be generally higher than predicted for
Mach numbers below approximately 2.0 . Positive spiral stability ( spiral convergence)
is evident up to a Mach number of about 1.8 , which compares favorably with the pre
dicted Mach number of about 2.0 .

CONCLUSIONS

An evaluation of the unaugmented stability and control characteristics of the

-

XB -70-1 airplane was made on the basis of data obtained during the first phase of the
flight -test program . The evaluation showed that :

1. The airplane was characterized longitudinally by a fairly heavy damping ratio

of the order of 0.5 at low subsonic speeds and a light damping ratio of the order of 0.1
at high supersonic speeds . The predicted characteristics tended generally to cor
respond with the flight results .

2. In the lateral -directional modes , the airplane was characterized by moderately

light Dutch roll damping , with damping ratios of 0.2 or less throughout the Mach range .
The damping was higher than predicted at supersonic conditions , primarily as a result
of underestimating the variation of the yawing -moment coefficient due to yaw rate .

3. The neutral point was slightly more forward than predicted. For the 25° and
65 ° wing -tip configurations , the neutral point was approximately 30 percent of the mean
aerodynamic chord, and 27 percent to 29 percent of the mean aerodynamic chord when
the tips were up .

4. The airplane exhibited negative (adverse) values of the aileron -yaw parameter
Cnga at Mach numbers above approximately 0.90 , whereas proverse yaw values were
predicted . Positive values were obtained at subsonic speeds , but the flight values
were less than predicted. Although the major sources of the discrepancy have not
been ascertained, contributing factors include differences between flight and predicted
elevator trim settings , the sparsity of the wind -tunnel data , and, possibly , the large
differences in Reynolds number between predicted and flight data ,
5. Both the flight -measured and predicted effective dihedral were negative for the
65° wing -tip configuration , with flight showing a higher value . The predicted effects of
elasticity appear to have been overestimated .

18
 6. The negative effective dihedral in the supersonic region with wing tips at 65°
and the unpredicted adverse aileron yaw made the airplane very susceptible to divergent
pilot - induced oscillations.

7. The flight -determined derivatives indicated the airplane to be spirally stable at

Mach numbers below approximately 1. 8 .

8. A significant reduction in directional stability was evident at sideslip angles

beyond approximately 2° . Wind -tunnel studies showed this to be a canard - interference
effect .

9. Comparisons of the flight results with rigid -model wind - tunnel data and the
predictions for the flexible aircraft generally indicated that the aeroelastic effects
were significant for the static pitch stability , pitch - control effectiveness , roll - control
effectiveness, static directional stability , and effective dihedral derivatives .

Flight Research Center,

National Aeronautics and Space Administration ,
Edwards , Calif. , October 12 , 1967 ,
732-01-00-01-24 .

19
 APPENDIX A

DETERMINATION OF THE STABILITY AND CONTROL DERIVATIVES

FROM FLIGHT DATA

This appendix considers limitations of the flight data and provides details of the
analog -matching technique used.

Inadequacy of Data for Simplified Techniques

In many of the pullup and release maneuvers , the transient short -period oscillations
were accompanied by elevator movements , whereas accurate determination of the
derivatives by simplified techniques requires the controls to be fixed . Also in the sub
sonic region , the oscillations were heavily damped. As a result , the simplified tech
niques ( ref. 4) for determining the longitudinal stability and control derivatives were
not in general adequate . Also , the lack of pitch -acceleration sensors prevented a sat
isfactory determination of pitch -control effectiveness by the simplified methods. Ac
curacy of the angle -of -attack data was questioned because the a - vane was mounted on
a short nose boom and thus was subject to upwash effects . In addition , elasticity of the
forebody of the fuselage affected the indicated reading.
The lateral -directional derivatives were determined mainly from release - from
sideslip maneuvers . In general, however , the lateral - directional controls were moving
during these maneuvers . Also , the output from the B -vane was questionable because
of its location on the short nose boom , and the transverse acceleration was noisy .

In view of these problems , the technique of analog matching was considered to be

the most suitable method for determining the longitudinal and lateral -directional
stability and control derivatives .

Analog Matching of the Flight Data

A high - speed repetitive operation ( Rep -op) was used to match the flight time
histories on the analog computer. The technique was a refinement of the method of
reference 5 in that a precision recorder was used in addition to the Rep - op scope .
Also , a smaller - scale overlay was used with the precision recorder.
The general procedure used to determine the derivatives was to adjust the deriva
tives of the mathematical (analog ) model until a close match was obtained on the Rep -op
scope . At this point, a record was taken on the precision recorder and compared with
its overlay . If adjustments were required , the Rep - op scope was used to observe the
direction and magnitude of response to additional adjustments in the derivatives . The
process was repeated until an accurate match of the flight histories was obtained on the
precision recorder . Although there was always some question regarding the accuracy
of the flight time histories of angle of attack ( in longitudinal maneuvers ) and B ( in
lateral -directional maneuvers ), the analog match of each of these two quantities was
reasonably good for about half the maneuvers analyzed. The attitude parameters 0
and 4 were found to be more reliable than a and B , respectively .

20
 The mathematical models incorporated in the analog for longitudinal and lateral
directional derivative matching are summarized in appendix B. The models were
linearized, small -perturbation equations of a rigid airplane except that large changes
in roll angles were permitted. The derivatives include the effects of aeroelasticity
and power, since the equations do not contain terms for these effects.

Initially , control inputs were programed into the analog by using digital diode
function generators ( DDFG ). However , because of the time span of the lateral
directional maneuvers being analyzed and the high repetitive speed of the analog, the
DDFG would not reset to the same voltage and the break points programed into the
DDFG would wander. To alleviate these problems, the control input signals were put on
magnetic tape which was programed into the analog . The use of magnetic tape improved
the operations; however , the wander problem was replaced by a noise problem which
made the recordings hashy. The noise problem was caused by the low voltage output
from the tape recorder which had to be amplified by a factor of 50 in order to drive the
analog. The noise problem , although a nuisance , was tolerable .

21
 APPENDIX B

MATHEMATICAL RELATIONS USED IN ANALYSIS OF FLIGHT DATA

Analog Matching For Derivative Determination

The equations used in the analog to determine the stability and control derivatives
by analog matching of flight time histories are summarized in this appendix . Because
the flight -time histories were given as indicated values (not corrected to the center of
gravity ), the output of the analog was expressed in terms of indicated values. In the
absence of angular accelerometers , the perturbated Euler angles were important
factors in the matching operations.

Longitudinal derivatives. – The following small -perturbation equations were used in

the analysis of the pullup and release maneuvers :

G,S + Agc
Δα + Δδο +
α Q + CNje
CN ,A
Aan mg
EN * (€xq+ cxa) MED 2V

ΔΘ gaan
Δα g sino
-([--(*.
Aq V. o ) 57.3 vo

7.Sc Aqc
Ağ
Punt (cmqda+ Cmą,ače+ (cmq +Cmal)
=

Iy Cm Δα + Δδ + +
2V0

The rate of change of perturbated pitch attitude was based on the simplified trans
formation

Ai = Aq

Perturbated values of a and an were converted to indicated values , to correspond

to flight time histories , by using the expressions
Xa
A
Δα; = Δα – 57.3 . V
3 o
Хар да
Aan ;= Aan + g

The following four outputs of the analog were used in matching the indicated flight
time histories :

22
 ani anio + Aani
=

0
=
Qi = dio + Δ
AQα;

q = 57.3( %. ++ Aq) deg/sec

3 / Aga
0 + 57.3 | Aqdt
0 = 6

Lateral -directional deriv atives. - The analysis of the release - from -sideslip
E maneuvers was based on the following three equations :

& % Apā s
СубтAr + CСyуgбaаAO g
AB =
EL VO sin ( 4. ++ AQ) - Ar + +
57.3 mv . 'y 4
csB
8+
1902). W sin 9 V

Ixz 7.Sb cl ci b
+
or saΔ
Ap = Arl I
(X с
Ix 14,48+ 40,+7,26 + (4,ap+ Ci_ar)
Δδ + +
Aða Ap + 2V O

Ixz q Sb Cns Δ OnsAr b

Ar = Ap
((7) Tom se (ngas+ enq an,+cong 207* (@mydp= cq_a) 74.)
+
Iz CnorA8r + a δα + Ap 28o

The rate of change of perturbated roll attitude was based on the following relation :

0. rolo
‫ ܀‬- ‫ܕܘܐ‬
Δή = Ap + (ro + Ar) 57.3
ΔΦ) -
cos ( 6. ++ A4) 57.3
COS Q
6.
Perturbated values of B and at were converted to indicated values , to correspond
to flight time histories , by using the expressions

хр ZB
Δβ, = Δβ + 57.3 V
Ar
V
Ap
)
αο ar zat 8
Aati = - sin (4. + ) + sin 4 .
*음* )‫فد‬AB + Ar
57.3 sp) +
Ap + X at g

The following five outputs of the analog were used in matching the indicated flight
time histories:

23
 uti

=
at; o + Aati

Δβ
Bi = Bio + ABI

φ = Φο + Δφ

р 57.3 ( p. + Ap) deg/sec

r = 57.3 ( r. + Ar) deg/sec

Dynamic Characteristics

Longitudinal short -period characteristics were determined from the following

relations :

2 57.37, SC SC
Cma + Cma
wn
ly
2
em va [(cmą + Cma )exa - Cmmaca re]
2mv2
+ CN -

ão se ? 57.37. CNa
top- motivy (cmq+ Cma) - 92mv.
Śwn 4Voy
+ +
2mVo

ζωη
=
Š w
n

271
P =
wnV1 - 52 -

The lateral -directional characteristics were determined by substituting the deriv

atives into the linearized lateral - directional equations of motion and solving for the
Dutch roll, spiral , and roll - subsidence roots by using a digital program .

24
 REFERENCES

1. Mechtly , E. A .: The International System of Units - Physical Constants and Con

version Factors . NASA SP -7012 , 1964 .
2. Control Systems Group : Flight Control Systems, XB - 70 Air Vehicle. Rep. No.
NA -60-2 , North American Aviation , Inc. , Jan, 4 , 1960 .

3. Aero - Thermo Design , B -70 Division : Analysis of External Aerodynamic Effect of

Inlet Operation on the XB -70 at Mach Numbers of 1.2 to 3.5 in the North American
Aviation Trisonic Wind Tunnel and the Ames 8 x 7 Supersonic Wind Tunnel. Rep.
No. NA -62-575 , North American Aviation , Inc. , June 1 , 1962 .
4. Wolowicz , Chester H. : Considerations in the Determination of Stability and Control
Derivatives and Dynamic Characteristics From Flight Data AGARD Rep. 549
Part 1 , 1966 .

5. Rampy , John M.; and Berry , Donald T .: Determination of Stability Derivatives

From Flight Test Data by Means of High Speed Repetitive Operation Analog
Matching. FTC -TDR-64-8 , Air Force Flight Test Center , May 1964.

6. Aerodynamics Group: Estimated Rigid and Flexible Aerodynamic Derivatives for

XB - 70 Air Vehicle No. 1. Rep. No, TFD -65-396 , North American Aviation , Inc. ,
June 21 , 1965 ( rev . Oct. 6 , 1966 ) .

7. Wykes, John H .; and Lawrence , Robert E .: Aerothermoelasticity - Some Recent

>
-

Studies of the Impact on Stability and Control of Winged Aerospace Vehicles .

Paper No. 64-489 , AIAA , July 1964 .

8. Aerodynamics Group : Aerodynamic Characteristics for Structural Analysis .

XB -70 Air Vehicles # 1 and 2.
2 Vol .. I. Rep . No. NA-64-973
- , North American
Aviation , Inc. , Oct. 1 , 1964.

9. Aero -Thermo Design, B -70 Project Group : Analysis of Aerodynamic Character

istics of the .03 - Scale XB -70 Airframe Model V at Mach Numbers of 0.23 to 3.5
in the Ames 8 x 7 Supersonic Wind Tunnel , North American Low -Speed Wind
Tunnel , North American Trisonic Wind Tunnel and Cornell 8 - Foot Transonic
Wind Tunnel. Rep . No. NA -61-43 , North American Aviation , Inc. , June 1 , 1962 .
10 . Aero - Thermo Design, B -70 Project Group: Analysis of Aerodynamic Character
istics of the .03 -Scale B -70 Airframe Model V at Mach Numbers of .2 to 3.5 in
the Ames 8 x 7 , Southern California Cooperative, and North American Low
Speed Wind Tunnel. Rep. No. NA -60-457 -SST , North American Aviation , Inc. ,
>

Apr. 13 , 1960 .
>

25
 TABLE I. - GEOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE XB -70-1 AIRPLANE

Wing –
Total area , includes 2482. 34 ft2 (230. 62 m2)
covered by fuselage but not 33.53 ft2 ( 3. 12 m2)
of the wing ramp area , ft2 (m2) 6297.8 ( 585.07 )
Span , ft (m ) . 105 ( 32 )
Aspect ratio 1.751
Taper ratio 0.019
Dihedral angle , deg 0
Root chord (wing station 0 ) , ft ( m ) .
117. 76 ( 35.89 )
Tip chord (wing station 630 in. ( 16 m ) ) , ft ( m ) 2.19 ( 0.67 )
Mean aerodynamic chord , in . ( m ) 942 , 38 (23.94 )
Wing station , in . ( m ) 213.85 ( 5.43 )
Fuselage station of 25 -percent wing mean
aerodynamic chord, in . ( m ) . 1621.22 ( 41,18 )
Sweepback angle , deg :
Leading edge .. 65.57
25 -percent element . . 58. 79
Trailing edge . 0
Airfoil section 0.30 to 0.70 HEX (MOD )
Thickness , percent chord :
Wing station
Root to 186 in . ( 4.72 m ) .. 2.0
460 in . to 630 in. ( 11. 68 m to 16 m ) 2.5

Folding wing tip ( data for one tip only)

Area, ft2 (m2) 520.90 ( 48.39 )
Span , ft ( m ) . 20.78 ( 6.33 )
Aspect ratio 0.829
Taper ratio 0.046
Root chord , wing station 380.62 in . ( 9.67 m ), ft ( m ) 47.94 ( 14.61 )
Tip chord , wing station 630 in . ( 16 m ) , ft ( m ) . . 2.19 ( 0.67 )
Mean aerodynamic chord (wing station 467.37 in .
(11.87 m )), in . ( m ). ... . 384.25 ( 9.76 )
Down deflection from inboard wing , deg 0 , 25 , 65
Elevons ( data for one side )
Total effective area aft of hinge line , includes 3,33 ft2
( 0.31 m2 ) air gap at wing -tip fold line , ft2 ( m2 ) 197.7 ( 18.37 )
Span , ft ( m ) :
Wing tips up . 20.44 ( 6.23 )
Wing tips down . 13.98 ( 4.26 )
Chord , in .. ( m ) .. 116 (2,95 )
Sweepback of hinge line , deg 0

Canard -
Area , includes 150.31 ft2 ( 13. 96 m2 ) covered by
fuselage, ft2 ( m2 ) . 415.59 ( 38.61 )
Span , ft ( m ) 28.81 ( 8.78 )
Aspect ratio O 1. 997
Taper ratio 0.388
Dihedral angle , deg 0
Root chord ( canard station 0 ) , ft ( m) 20.79 ( 6.34 )

26
TABLE L – GEOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE XB - 70-1 AIRPLANE Concluded

Tip chord ( canard station 172 , 86 in . (4.39 m ) ) , ft ( m ) 8.06 ( 2.46 )

Mean aerodynamic chord , in . (m ) : .
184.3 ( 4.68 )
Canard station , in. ( m ) 0
73.71 ( 1.87 )
Fuselage station of 25 -percent chord , in . ( m ) 553.73 ( 14.06 )
Sweepback angle , deg :
Leading edge 31. 70
25 -percent element . o 21.64
Trailing edge . . . -14 . 91
Airfoil section . 0.34 to 0.66 HEX ( MOD)
Thickness chord ratio , percent:
Root 2.5
Tip o 2.52
Ratio of canard area to wing area 0.066
Canard flap ( data for one side) -
Area (aft of hinge line ) , ft2 (m2) . 54. 69 ( 5.08 )
Inboard chord canard station 47.93 in . ( 1.22 m) , ft ( m ) .
7.16 ( 2.18 )
Outboard chord canard station 172.86 in. ( 4.39 m ) , ft ( m) . 3.34 ( 1.02 )
Ratio of flap area to canard semiarea 0.263

Vertical tail (one oftwo), –-

Area (includes 8.96 ft2 ( 0.83 m2) blanketed area) , ft ? (m²) . 233,96 ( 21,74 )
Span , ft ( m ) . . 15 ( 4.57 )
Aspect ratio . 1
Root chord ( vertical -tail station 0 ) , ft ( m) :
> O 23.08 ( 7.03 )
Tip chord (vertical -tail station 180 in. ( 4.57 m) ) , ft ( m) . 6.92 ( 2.11 )
Taper ratio .... 0.30
Mean aerodynamic chord , in. ( m) : . 197.40 ( 5.01 )
Vertical -tail station , in. ( m ) . 73.85 ( 1.88 )
Fuselage station of 25 -percent chord o 2188.50 ( 55.59 )
Sweepback angle , deg:
Leading edge 51.77
25 -percent element 45

Trailing edge . 10.89

Airfoil section . .
0.30 to 0.70 HEX ( MOD)
Thickness chord ratio , percent :
Root . 3. 75
Tip . 2.50
Cant angle , deg 0
Ratio of vertical tail to wing area 0.037

Rudder -
Area, includes 8.66 ft? (0.81 m2 ) blanketed area, ft2 ( m2 ) . 191.11 ( 17.76 )
Span , ft ( m ) ... 15.00 ( 4.57 )
Root chord , vertical - tail station 0 , ft ( m ) 9.16 ( 2.79 )
Tip chord , vertical -tail station 180 in. ( 4.57 m) , ft ( m ) . . 6.92 ( 2 , 11 )
Sweepback of hinge line . . - -45.0
Ratio of rudder area to vertical -tail area . 0.82

Fuselage ( includes canopy ) -

Length , ft ( m) 185 , 75 ( 56.62 )
Maximum depth ( fuselage station 878 in. (22.30 m ) ) , in . ( m) . . 106.92 ( 2.72 )
Maximum breadth ( fuselage station 855 in. (21.72 m ) ) , in. ( m ) 100 ( 2.54 )
Side area, ft2 m2
(maz 939.72 ( 87.30 )
Planf ormarea, it ? (m2) 1184.78 ( 110.07 )

27
28
X0B
.–
II
-7TABLE
INVESTIGATION
CONTROL
AND
STABILITY
TO
PERTINENT
INSTRUMENTATION

Sensor
location
,
X ,
Y ,
2
fuselage buttock ,Accuracy Sampling
Parameter water full ent rang
Tranesducer
station
, plane
, plane
perc rate
,
,
)
.(m
in .(in range sec
per
)m )(m.in
Central
d-air
ata
system 80 )(2,03 0 (0) 0
(14
) .36 2.0 100,000
to
-1,000
30,480
(-305
)ft
m 4
altitude
c
)( oarse
Central
d ata
system
-air 80 )(2.03 0 (0) 14 )(.36 1.0 ft
5,000
/ ev
/(1
r)m 52.4
ev 40
altitud
f() ine e
Centra
dair
- ata l
system
Mach 80 )(2.03 0 0)
( 14 )
.
(36 2.0 3.2
to
0.5 4
number
c)( oarse
Centra
system
air
-data l
Mach 80 )(2,03 (0) 14 2.0 0.3
/rM ev
히

0 )(.36 40
number
)(fine
attack
of
Angle )( .34
292 (
06
) .15 20 (51
). .8 o
°t309
-10 20
Angle
sidesli
of p (07 .
)3121 0)0
( 13 ).
( 33 .8 °+20 20
Pitch
attitude 1415
(35.
).94 16 )4
(1 (-13
-64
.6 2.0 o
°t400
-10 20
attitude
Bank 3
)(14155.94 16 4
)(. 1 -64
(-
) 1.63 2.0 °4
+5 20
Pitch
rate 1404
3( 5.
)66 )16
.(4 1 6
).-64
(-13 2.0 +10
deg
/ ec
s 4
Roll
rate 1404
).(35.
66 16 4 .() 1 (-3
-64
).6 1 2.0 deg ec
s#1/ 00 4
Yaw
rate 3)(1404 5.66 )4 1
(16 -64
-
() 1,63 2.0 +10
deg
/sec 4
acceler
Normalation 1485
)(37.72 )11
28 --71
() 1.80 2.0 2g
+ 20
Transv ation
accelererse 1486
37.74 0
)( 0)
( 4
.)(-9-37 2.0 Alg 20
Left
wing
positio
-thipand n 2,0 °to
0
65 4
Right
wing
positio
-thip
and n 2.0 0°to
65 4
hLeft
canard
positio
- and n 2.0 t06 o 20
s
Left
-vertica
htabiliz
and ler 1.0 12
# 20
position
and
s-ver
hRig ht
tic
tab zer
ilial 1.0 1°+2 20
position
n
ion
elevoidual
Posit
indiv
of 1.2 °+
30 20
segment
 X0-1
.-
III
TABLE
-7
DATA
FLIGHT
BASIC
LONGITUDINAL
B

Center
of
OT hp
'h ' Weight
, ,
gravity Atrimi detrim ,
ly
Test
point M m?(-fk)tg2
slug
deg feet
(m
) eters lb
(g
)k deg
percentē deg

1* 0 0.49 (3.
103
)10.2x
11x103 0x106.1805
)(0.398
x106 21.1 7.0 10.3 x10x106
)(220.7
8.
06

*
*
2 0 .49 (3
)10.
2.11 97
(.1).3800 21.2 6.8 10.2 2)(20.6 7.9

*
3 0 .60 11.1 3)( .38 )(.1.492825 21.9 6.3 3.3 )(221.1 8.6
4 0 61 5()19.0 .79 29
)(.1.4946 21.9 8.2 .2 )(221.2 8.7
5 0 .79 7)(25.0 .62 80
(.1).3724 21.8 5.5 2.8 )(219.26.0
6 0 1.03 )(134
,10.39 624
)(.1.358 22.6 4.2 6.8 4)(217.3
3.
0 11
1. 3
35. 1
() 0.76 43
)(.13. 558 23.1 4.2 8.0 3,0
)(217.0
8 25 .80 (3,1)10.4 7 (.2).4155 75 21.8 4.4 8.0 )(221.6 9.2

00 voor A CON
9 25 80 )(310.8 .29 )(.2474 150 21,7 4.2 8.0 (2
)21.6 9.2
10 25 .95 7()25.0 .62 597
)(.1352 20.8 3.6 4.6 18.2 2() 4.6
11 25 .95 0.79
)(135.4 (.1)383737 21.1 5.8 2.0 )(217.3 3.4
12 25 20
1. 65
)(141.5 2. 411
)(.1.311 21.4 5.1 4.8 2()16.9 2.9
13 25 1.40 )(140.8 2.44 .361 1)(. 637 19.7 4.4 4.8 7)(217.53.
14 25 40
1. )(141.2 2.56 1)(..363360 19.7 4.
2 5.2 3.
7)(217.5
15 65 1.61 3.
)(145.0
72 .369 1)(. 674 19.8 3.6 5.9 2
()18.7 5.3
16 65 1.79 )(154,2 6.52 .312 1)(. 415 22.0 4.5 0
6. )(216.8 2.8
17 65 1.81 )(145.0 3.72 )(.1400814 21.6 3.5 6.1 2()21.0 8.4
18 65 11
2. )(154.8 6.70 651
)(.1364 20.7 4.0 3.1 ,7)(219.7 6
19 65 12
2. 1)(50.0 5.24 1774
)(.391 21.2 4.0 5.9 2()20.2 7.4
20 65 2.24 1)(57.6 7.56 (.1)343 556 20.0 4.7 -1.1 )(219.0 5.7
21 65 2.33 )(154.7 6.67 13
)(.1.4874 20.8 4.4 3.3 )(221.08.4
22 65 2.51 )(160.2 8.35 728
)(.1381 21.9 4.1 75. )(220.2
7.1
23 65 2.56 9.72
)(164.7 501
(.1) 331 23.9 5.0 6.9 )(217.1
3.0

and
*Gear
down
.flaps

29
30
DATA
FLIGHT
BASIC
D IRECTIONAL
LATERAL
-XB
7 0-1
IV.-
TABLE

,бт ,
hp Weight of
Center Detrim ,Ix ,Iz xz
, atrim
:
Test
point M
feet
m ,
gravity
deg () eters )lb
k(g deg deg k)-m fm
?(fsslug
(tt2
tglug
22
percentē

1* 0 )106
4.1446x
4x103
15.
(0|0.51
.319x
.69x103 1
22. 5.5 10.4
2x106 106
4.
06
7.9x106
,03
)(-2|1*1.50x
0.62x106
0.84x106
2 0 .04
)(619.8
61 009
)(.2443 19,8 8.6 0 )(3222,16
1.6
.92
3.3 9
,- 3 )(-1.26
.

3 0 .79 )(725.0
.62 715
)(.1378 21.8 5.2 2.5 .68
2,0
)1.98
(2 9.8 -78 ).0(-61
4 0 0.67
)(135.0
95 1724
)(.380 22,5 4,8 1.1 .97
5.2
646
1.
(1)218. -.775 -
)( 1.05
5 0 1.07
3
35. )(10.76 560
)(.1344 0
24. 3.6 7.9 (2 .83
4.7
8.2
)11.
35 .959
)(-708
6 25 .80 10.1 )(3.08 .302 )(.1370 2
23. 1.9 6.2 2.8
.82
(1)234
1.
16.8 .798
-)( 59
7 25 25.7
)(7.95
.83 579
)(.1348 20.3 3.7 4.5 (2
)1257
211.9.8
.6.7 7
.3
- )(-98
8 25 40.0
1,20
2.
)(119 3
. 93 )(.1783 20.0 4.3 8
3. 95
1. 2)( .53 0.2
3()22.3 8
. 5
- .1)(-51
9 65 41
2.89
1)(1.
42,3 710
)(.1377 19,7 2
4. 7.1 7.5
0.4
)(21.66
.25 81
)(-7- 1.06
10 65 3.56
)(144,5
64
1. 656
)(.1365 20.5 3.3 6.8 .25
66
1.
(27.
)20.1 7
.- 43 )(-1.01
11 65 5.06
)(149.4
1.84 3
. 50 )(.1587 21.1 ,4
3 3.7 )1.52
(2
24.7
.06
18. 7
.- 48 )(-1.01
12 65 74
10
2.
),9(149.1 383 )(.1737 20.3 4.2 4.9 1.83
.48
9.0
2()21.4 8
.- 00 )(-1.08
13 65 )(12.35
92
56.
55. 769
)(.1390 21.9 4.4 4.7 (222,4
.54
)31.88
0. 8
.- 81 ).1(-91

* flaps
and
.Gear
down
 TABLE V. - COMPARISON OF FLIGHT AND
WIND - TUNNEL REYNOLDS NUMBERS

M Condition hp , ft ( m) NRE
0.23 Flight Sea level 129 X 106
Wind tunnel 3. 88

Flight 15,000 ( 4,572 ) 291

.80 Flight 30,000 ( 9 , 144) 175
Wind tunnel 3. 55 to 14.93

Flight 25,000 ( 7,620 ) 250

Flight 35,000 ( 10,668 ) 200
.95
. Wind tunnel 3.83 to 5.48
Wind tunnel 9.41
Wind tunnel 21 , 16

Flight 35,000 ( 10,668 ) 227

Flight 45,000 ( 13,716 ) 142
Wind tunnel 4. 10 to 5. 76
1.20
Wind tunnel 9.41
Wind tunnel 18 , 2
O

Wind tunnel 21.16

Flight 45,000 (13, 716 ) 237

2.00 Flight 60,000 ( 18,288) 115.5
Wind tunnel 24,0

Flight 50,000 ( 15 , 240) 233

2.50 Flight 60,000 ( 18,288) 144
Wind tunnel 3.0 to 7.5

Flight 70,000 (21,336 ) 107.5

3.00 Wind tunnel 2.0 to 8.0
Wind tunnel 27.0

31
32
elevons
Segmented

bypass
doors
-air
Engine
surface
Canard
Flap

m
8
)ft
( .78
28.81 m
)ft
( .78
828.81

(58.9
ft
193.4
)m
105
)(3m
ft2
line
hinge
Rudder
Fuselage
reference
plane7
plane
t{hrust
°25 06
°65 ,two
,-dTwin
imensional
inlets
- ompression
cmixed

airplane
X. 0-1
– B
7Figure
-1.
 80x103 Indicated airspeed , knots 24x103
200 300 400
500
70
65 65
бт ,
deg 20

60 600
25 )

16
50

hp
TITTATI

hp 40
ft 12 m

ತ
30
66 ft/ sec (20. 12 m/sec) 8

T
vertical gust limit
20

4
10

0
0 .4 .8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2
M

Figure 2.- Operational limits of the three wing - tip configurations of the XB - 70-1.

33
34
travel
–- tabilizer
sVertical
)°(l+12anding
down
gear
gear
lup
)+3°(anding

sVertical
- tabilizer
hinge
line

t-wo
travel
Flap rates
surface
Maximum
,0
positions elevators
deg
)(a/s28
: sec
Elevons
-sHorizontal
tabilizer 1
ailerons
s)(a56
/sec
deg
t20railing
°edge /s12
deg
:esec
Rudder
0°t–o
travel sde
/4.2
:ecgnard
Ca
down
eading
6°edge
lup tra
Elev on
vel
ed 25
°tup
Pitgech
: rai ling
down
edge
t15
° railing
:
Roll °trailing
15
up
edge
edge
tdown
° railing
15
1 30
up
edge railingum
°tMaxim
down
t30railing
°edge
total

movement
scontrol
0-1
.-3.B
Xurface
-
7Figure s
.
 6

,oc
3
deg

0
16 12 8 4 0 -12 -16 -28
-24
-20
-4
-8

,deg
De

XB
of
Variation
4.-
elevon
with
canard
7.c.25 0-1
deflection
.°-0=2OFigure
150e

35
 OT , deg
0 25 65

Longitudinal data
Lateral - directional data

80 x103
q, lb /ft?2 ( N /m²) 200 300 400 24 x103
100 (9570) | ( 14,360 ) ( 19,140 )
(4790)
70

Descent profile for 600

M = 3.0 flight (28,720) 20

60 800
(38,290)
1000
(47,860 ) 16
50

np. 40
hp hp,
ft 12
Climbout profile for m
M = 3.0 flight

30

8
-
20

4
10
Landing

0
ett .4 .8
configuration

1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2

0

Figure 5. – XB - 70-1 stability and control data points. ( See tables III
and IV for flight conditions . )

36
 OT, deg
0 25 65

OO
Longitudinal data
Lateral -directional data

80x103
24x103
70
XB - 70-1 hypothetical 20
profile
60
Typical climbout profile of proposed 3
supersonic transports 38 "
16
50

1 hp 40
.
ft 12 hip,
-Climbout profile for
m
M = 3.0 XB-70 flight

30
8
20

4
10

0
0 .4 .8
. 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2
M

Figure 6.- Comparison of typical climbout profile of proposed supersonic transports

with hypothetical climbout profile and flight data of the XB - 70-1.

37
 550x103

38
240x103

500
220
Climbout

450
200

Weigh
, t We
, ight
400 180
Ib kg

350 160

140
300

Descent

120
250
0 .4 .8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2

М.

during
.M
flight
.0
=3weight
-70-2
XB
of
Variation
7.-
Figure
number
Mach
with
 560x103

240 x103
520

M
1
220
480

-2
440 200
Weight, Weight,
Ib kg
400 180

360 3
160

320
140

280
19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Center of gravity, percent Ċ
Figure 8.- Variation of center of gravity of XB - 70-2 with
weight during Mach 3.0 flight.

39
 Weight, kg
120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260x103
2.8
Iz x 10-7 3.5
2.4
Iy xx 10

.
-
+3.0
Ix, ly, lz
2.0
slug-ft2 Ix x 10
-6
2.5 'x, ly, Iz
kg -m?
1.6
2.0

1.2
1.5
0

-.4 -.5
Ixz
slug -ft2 -1.0
Ixz
-.8
kg -m2
-1.2 x 106 -1.5x 106
280 320 360 400 440 480 520 560x103
Weight, lb
-

Figure 9. – Variation of moments and product of inertia of XB - 70-2

with gross weight during Mach 3.0 flight.

40
 -2
0
de,
Flight
deg 2 Analog match

9, 0
deg /sec
-15

-2

4
deg
စ°

2.

6
deg
ö

5
4

1.4.
1.2
ani, 1.0
g
.8
.6 1
12

0 2 4 6 8 10 14
t, sec
=

(a) M = 0.79 , hp = 25,000 ft (7,620 m) , ot = 0 ° .

.

Figure 10. – Typical analog matches of pull-up and release maneuvers.

41
 O
Flight
2.
Analog match
de ,
4
deg
6
8

1
q,
deg /sec 0
-1

2
deg
0

-2

4
aj ,
deg 3

1.4

1.2
ani : 1.0
g
.8
.6 I

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
t, sec

( b ) M = 1.81 , hp = 45,000 ft ( 13 , 720 m) , OT = 65 ° .

Figure 10.- Concluded .

42
 8
Flight
da, Analog match
4
deg

0
Or,
deg -2

-4

20

10
4,
deg 0

-10

10
P,
deg/ sec 0
1
r,
0
deg/sec
-1

0
Bi,
deg -1

-2

ati
0
g
-.1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

t, sec

Figure 11.- Analog match of a well-conditioned release - from -sideslip

maneuver . M
M = 1.84 ;; hp = 49,400 ft ( 15,060 m) ; OT = 65 ° .
- =

43
 Incremental
Symbols ,
h "pi (ft
)m t
)(mf,hp

44
fSolid
-light (310,
)A
4O 048 00
0,0000
500
62
,172292
solid
-lexible
airplane
) fHalf
Eplane 020
651()O
,2Q
15096 00 0
0,0,00
40
000
524
-rigid
Open
airplane Predicted
61-
3)(9+
» 0,0
144
500 00
28688
728,2

.06
0
°=OT 3
°= 5
2Of =° 5
6OT
CNa
.04
deg Landing
per configuration 至
.02

0
0
°=OT =
=5
°2OT 6= 5
°OT

-.002

Cma

o
-.
de gr 4
pe00

古
@
L- anding
configuration
-.006

-.008
.4 .8 1.2.4 .8 1.2 1.6
1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8
M. M M

C ma
.)(a: Næ

Figure
12.-
Comparis
7XB
dflight
--of0-1
and on
etermined
longitudin
derivative
.predicted al
s
Weight
and
center
of
gravity
for
individual
data
points
listed
in
.table
III
 Incremental
Symbols )t
'f(m
hp f)m t
(,hp
Solid
f–light 1O
(3)A 0,00
048
500 0
Half 62
4,27() 292
f-solid
airpl le
lexibane olane
]Predicted 250
)(6O 096 0
0,00
40
,1Q5000
524
airpl
Open
-rigid ane 30,00
9()60,08,288
1() 144 0
00 2860
)(2750

0
°0=OT °2= 5
OT =° 5
6OT
Landing
2018
configuration
-.002
'Cmie
1

deg
per
-.004
V

DUO
-.006

모
0 °0=OT °2=OT5 6° 5
=OT

-1
CCmq
+ mů
क

radi
pe r an
L
-2anding
configuration

Oct
-3
.4 .8 1.2.4 .8 1.2 1.6
1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8
M M M

((b mq
).+Cmãe
mą
.
Concluded
12.–
Figure

45
 Incremental

46
Symbols f,)m t
(hp m(
)ft
>

f-Solid
light 4)A 10,000
(37O 0,000
048
2,1292
500
62
solide
flexibl
airplan
Half e Plane
| redicted 520,000
)Q
(6,215000096
524
40
)(150,000
Open
- igid
rplane
rai 975000,000
144
1630,000
)(D 286
)(28,288

000
.03
=0°
OT =° 5
2OT °6=OT5

.02

수
Сто

수
co

.01
8

9
0

40
°0=
DJ P =° 5
2DT °6=OT5

Neutral
88
,point 30
ore

percent
Landing
configuration
20
.4 .8 1.2 .4 .8 1.2 1.2
1.6 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8
М. М. M
M

-and
dC XB
of
– oment
predicted
pitching
etermined
m0-1
flight
omparison
7Figure
13.
Oe neutral
(Oecnd
lift
zero
at
gravity
.W=0)acoefficient
point
of
center
and
eight
for
.
III
table
in
listed
points
data
individual
 Incremental
Symbols ,ft
m()Hp t
)m(f,hp
Solid
f-light ,1A
3)(72O 50
62
04 0 0
0,800
4O292
planelexible
solid
-airplane
] fHalf 1)2,(10
502 00
0,
400,
09
65524 0 0
060000
Predicted
airplane
- igid
rOpen 1)(O 500
630,000
144
0,000
9728,288
286

8
=O0°T =5
2°OT 6=°OT5
P,
4
sec Landing
configuration

4
°0=Of 2°=OT5
Landing
T112 configuration
2
sec

C
°6=OT5
0

.8
d°=0t =5
2°OT °6= 5
OT

Ś4
Landing
configuration

0
.4 .8 1.2.4 .8 1.2 1.6 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8
M M. М.

70-1
XB
of
Comparison
14.–
flight
short
-dFigure
longitudinal
predicted
and
etermined
center
.Weight
damping
period
and
points
data
individual
for
gravity
of
listed
in
III
.table

47
 Incremental
Symbols )t
,f(m
hp f),m(t
hp
fSolid
-light 410,000
2,1(A
)O
048
500
0,000
3)(729262

48
solid
]Half
-flexible
airplane Predicted 52,O20,000
(1)Q
65524 096
0,000
000
40
630,000
71O
)(2Ó
98,288144
500
0,000
286

0
°0=Op =°2O5T =° 5
6OT

DO

DO
Cn
-' .0or
01

cod
deg
per
Landing
configuration
-.002

.0004
O=°0T °=O25T =
6°=O5T

.0002 무

q
A
8

6
Enga
DD

0
A

Landing
DOD
6

deg
per configuration
D

-.0002

-.0004
.4 .8 1.2.4 .8 1.2 1.2
1.6 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8
M M М.

z
C(a) nor Cnoa

control
lateral
and irectional
predicted
dXB etermined
flight
-7of
--0-1
Comparison
15.
Figure
data
for
individual
center
gravity
of
and
weight
) ee
for
IV
table
Sderivatives
.(points
 Symbols m
)(hp
,ft )(m t
f'hp
-light
fSolid 14O)A 0,0
048
50000
62
(3,O-27292
) Half
solid
-flexible
airplane
Predicted 096
0,000
40
15620,000
,2O5524
)(9 000
–rigid
Open
airplane O
)(700,000
144
98,288
21630,000
286
500

000
.0012
°0- 7° 2°O= 5T O6=° 5T

.0008 Y
ci
sa Landing Y
deg
per configuration
.0004

.0002
-
of 0°= 2°=057 O=6°5T

0 +
algi
L
- anding
deg
per configuration
-.0002

-.0004
.4 .8 1.2 .4 .
oo 1.2 1.2
1.6 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8
M M М.

3 00
M

(bC) loa Clo

' r

.
Continued
15.-
Figure

49
50
Incremental
Symbols h (ft
)m )m t
(f,hp
fSolid
-light )(7O
2,1A
410,000 62
500
0,000
048
3292
solid
Half lanpla )2,(1O 000
524
40
0,000
515096
6020,000
-
rpair
–i)igi
Ope nde ne Predicted )(27Ó 500
286
0,000
8,288
16144
930,000

.004
0°=
OT ° =° 5
2OT =5
6°OT

Cyår
.002
deg
per 会

0Q
CD
8
0 $
0004
O=0°T =°2O5T O6=° 5T

0
8 f
Cyga
deg
per
-.0004

Po
q

-.0008 2.8
64 .8 1.2.4 .8 1.2 1.2
1.6 1.6 2.0 2.4
М. M M

E
CСу yor
ба
)(c' yda
Concluded
.15.-
Figure
 Incremental
Symbols )m(f,hmtp )m(' t
fhp
'
Solid
f-light 1410,000
3292
),(A 0,000
048
Hal
soli
fairp
-P| lexi 62
)(72500
redfdlane
ict
ble ed 56020,000
,21)O 0,000
( 5096
40 5000
(1
) 524
-rigid
Open
airplane 6( 144
)O 0,000
1930,000
8,288 7500
2() 286

009
.004
O0=° T =2° 5
OT =5
6°OT
Landing

SI
C'.0n0g2 configuration 4.
deg
per

o
D

.001 6°=OT5
=0O°T O=°2f5

0
DDD
DD

RETI
C' tg Landing
configuration
-.001
deg
per

-.002

-.003
.4 .8 1.2.4 .8 1.2 1.2
1.6 1.6 2.0 2.4
2

M М. М.

E
C)(a:, lßng
>

predicted
XB
of
Comparison
16.-
Figure
flight
0-1
etermined
7irectional
-dand
lateral
derivatives
stability
for
.(See
IV
table
center
and
weight
individual
gravity
of
data
points

51
.)
52
Incremental
Symbols )t
f,(m
hp )m
(f,hpt
fSolid
-light 10 ,O
3412()A 04
0,,08000000
50
solid
fHalf
–lexible
62
7292
airplane Predicted 02 09
0,0,
5(1, 540
62()O 0 0
60000 500
1() 5240
airplane
-rigid
Open Ó 144
0,000
8,288
500
276930,000
1)( 286

000
0
°=0
OT O2=°5J o 6°=OT5

Lol
ao

Co
-.2

DDI
Cape Landing
configuration
ra r an
pedi
-.4

-.6

.2
=
°0OT =5
2°Ot =6° 5
OT

0
Capi
rad
perian
-.2
Landing
configuration

.4 .8 1.2.4 .8 1.2 1.2

1.6 1.6 2.0 2.4
M М. M
M

nr
C)b(: np

Figure
16.-
Continued
.
 incrementar
Symbols f)m t
(,hp )m (t
(f'hp
Solid
f-light 4310
2,1A
)(7O0,
04
50
62
292 000
,00800
-

rplHalf
fsolid
-ane
| airpl le
lexibane Predicted 5620096
(1)A 0,
5, 0000
00
,024
00
524
-rairpl
Open
igid ane 6)(1O
930 8,
50
72() 0, 28
4060080
,000
28
14

ဝဝ ၃
0
0°=Oy °2= 57
10

10
*
-.2
Cp Landing
configuration
radi
pe r an
-.4

°=6d5y
-.6

.2
0°-0 7 °25
=Oy =
O=°65t =

0
Landing 4
configuration
64

Ciri
-.2
radi
per an
1

-.4

-.6
.4 .8 1.2.4 .8 1.2 1.2
1.6 1.6 2.0 2.4
M M M

z
M

:C(c) lr
ip

53
.Continued
16.-
Figure
54
Incremental
Symbols m
'()ft
hp
)(m t
f,hp
Solid
-flight )(
72O
,1(A
10, 62
500
0,0
048
43292 00
000
eplan e
solid
Half
-flexible
airplane Predicted 52)O
20, 000
524
0,0
096
(6,1(15540 00
000
rairplane
Open
-igid 500
286
8,2
0,0
144
721)(6)(930, 88
00
000

609

000
0
O=0° T °2=057 O6=°F5

-.004
Cyp
deg
per
D PD

-.008
DD
^

..012 2.4
.4 .8 1.2.4 .8 1.2 1.2
1.6 1.6 2.0
M М. M.

E
C)d( ybº
.
Concluded
16.-
Figure
 Incremental
Symbols f(m,t
)hp )m
(f,hpt
fSolid
-light )A
1(3O
4O 0,0
048
50000
62
2,7292
solid
Half
airplane
}flexible Predicted (60
2),1O 096
0,0
40 00
000
595524
-rigid
Open
airplane 7162)Ó930,000
(O 0,000
144
8,288
500
286

8
o°=0g =°257
18 O=6° 5T
,P
6
sec

D
ta

CD
D D

DD
4
Landing
configuration
20 °25
O°=0T =OT 6°OT
=5
,T2 Landing
configuration
10
sec
.
q
个
DP

全 本

44
0

.4
=°
0DT 2= 5
°OT °6= 5
IOT

8
Ś.2

Landing B @
个 本

configuration
0
দফা

1.2.4 .8
.8 1.2 1.2
1.6 1.6 2.0 2.4
M M М.
M

period
Dutch
roll
predicted
dand
7C etermined
flight
-of
XB
omparison
-0-1
17.
Figure
data
individual
gravity
of
weight
center
and
for
IV
) ee
(Spoints
table
.damping

55
 Incremental

56
Symbols )m
(f,t
hp f)m t
(,hp
fSolid
-light 4)(72O ,1A 62
048
310, 00
500000
0,0
292
solid
airplane
–fHalf
lexible Predicted )(1Q
5,2O 60552440
000
0,000
096
airplane
rigid
Open 26)(Ó71O0,000
8,288
500
9286
30,000
144
8
O°0= T 2°=O5T O=°6T5

4
B

Landing
configuration
0

100
=0°
OT =5
°2OT °6=OT5

SI
0
Landing
P: oß configuration

deg
-100
모
DD

-200
.8
४ 1.2.4 .8 1.2 1.2
1.6 1.6 2.0 2.4
M M M

3 00
M

P1
),a( ub
phase
ratios
roll
amplitude
Dutch
predicted
flight
and
XB
-7
of0-1
Comparison
18.–
Figure
point
indiv
gravi
of
.)and
cente
weigh
for
(S
IV
table sty
rt
s
. ee idual
angle
 Incremental
Symbols )m t
(f,hp )(m t
f,hp
Solid
-flight 4310,
2,1A
)(7O048
62
292 00
0,0000
500
solid
flexible Pla
air
P|r-igi nedictnesed
rednpla 5620,
,2(1)O540 00
000000
524
0,0
096
Ope 30,
61()0 000
144
0,0
500
286
97(2) 8,2 00
88

1.6
°-0OT =° 5
2OT 5
°6=OT

1.2

Landing D
D

間 configuration
.8

.4

140
O°=0 T =° 5
2OT °6=OT5
Landing
.
Φ configuration
VB 160
deg

180
.4 .8 1.2.4 oo
. 1.2 1.2
1.6 1.6 2.0 2.4
M M M
M

M
图 $,)(b
B
.
Concl
18.-
Figur uded
e

57
 Incremental
Symbols )m(f, t
hp )m

58
t
(f,hp
Solid
f-light 1()A
34O 048
0,000
, 292 2500
7() 62
solid redpla
igi
Pr]-air 096
edrpl0ane
50,00
40 5000
1() 524
Ope ndict21o5(6),2nei 930,000
0,000
)6(1144
8,288 7500
2
() 286

-.12
Stable OL 8=001 2°OT
=5 6=OT5
-.08

,
root
Spiral
1 -.04
Ts
0 L
- anding

8
configuration
.04

=°
0OT 5
°=28T

-5
=
OT
°6= 5

-4
Roll
subsidence
-3
,
root
Landing
/1 -2
configuration

-1
个
KO

0
.4 .8 1.2.4
.8
1.6
1.2 1.6
2.0 2.4 2.8
М. М. M
M
M

Compa
19.-
Figure
-7ubsidence
XB
of
son
s
-
roll
spiral-
predicted
and
flight
0-1
root
data
(S
tabl
wei
for
IV
cent
and
grav
indi
of
.)poin s
. eeght
e
vidu
ity
ts
er al
 ..
Flight
Flexible
airplan
Predicted
Rigid
airplane
.06
°0=Ot ° 8=2° 57 =6° 5
8T

CNa
.04
deg
per

.02

0
°0=
OT °2= 5
OT 6= 5
°OT

-.002

Ст
" а
-.004
deg
per

-.006

-.008
.4 .8 1.2.8 1.2 1.6
1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8
M М. М.

,)(a NQ
:C mą

-
bVFigure
7of20.
–ariation
XB
0-1
ased
-flight
predicted
and
longitudin
derivativeal
with
Mach
number
hypothetic
in s
al
climbout
profile
.

59
 Flight

60
airplan
Flexible
Predicted
Rigid
airplane
0
O0=° f =° 5
2OT =6° 5
07

-.002
C' mge
deg
per
-.004

-.006

0
O=°0T O=°2T5 °6=OT5

-1

+ +Cmå
Cmq .

radi
pe r an
-2

.4 .8 1.2.8 1.2 1.2

1.6 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8

-3
M М. M

Cb() mge .)C maå

mg
+(Cm

.Concluded
20.-
Figure
 q, lb / ft2
de , deg NRe * (N/m2 )
0 9.41 X 106 775 ( 37,100 )
0 21.16 1900 (90,000 )
10 9.41 775 ( 37,100 )
10 21 , 16 1900 (90,000 )
*Based on model 7 = 2.35 ft ( 0,717 m)
.04

.03

.02
8

Cm .01

-.01

-.02
.2

.1

CL 0

..1

-.2
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
a, deg

Figure 21.- Apparent effect of Reynolds number on longitudinal characteristics

of 0.03 -scale rigid model of XB - 70-2 from tests in Ames 11- by 11 - foot
wind tunnel. M = 1.2 ; Of = 30 ° ; Oc = 0 ° .

61
69
Flight
Flexible
airplane
Predicted
airplane
Rigid
.03
0°O= =
O=°25f 6° 5
=DT

.02
Cmo

.01

40
O0=° T =
=2° 5
OT =
=° 5
6DJ

Neutral
0 nt
3,poi
o cent
per

.4 .8 1.2.4 .8 1.2 1.2

1.6 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8

20
M М. M

7Vm-
22.
XB
bof ariation
-Figure
0-1
predicted
flight
and ased
point
-neutral
pitching
oment
de number
Machlift
wcoefficien
=0)zero
(Oatcith
hypothetic
in
.climbout
profile e tal
 Flight
Flexible airplane
Predicted
Rigid airplane
12
=

OTE= 0° OT = 25° OT = 65 °

8
P,
on

sec
4

4
OT = 0° OT = 25° OT = 65 °

I/2 , 2
sec

.8
lor = 0 ° OT = 25° OT = 65°
5 .4

0
.4 .8 1.2.8 1.2 1.6 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8
M М. M

Figure 23.- Variation of XB - 70-1 flight -based and predicted longitudinal period
and damping with Mach number in hypothetical climbout profile.

63
64
Flight
Flexible
airplane
Predicted
airplane
Rigid
0

;C-.n0s01
deg
per
=0°
OT =° 5
2OT =5
6°OT
-.002

0002

0
-

Cnga
deg
per
b

-.0002

=°0
OT =5
2°OT °6=OT5
-.0004
.4 .8 1.2.8 1.2 1.2
1.6 1.6 2.0 2.4
M M М.
M

C(a)O'Сnor
nda
рба

lateral
predicted
dXB
-flight
and
–0-1
ased
b7of
Virectional
24.
Figure
ariation
with
derivatives
control
hypothetical
in
number
Mach
profile
.climbout
 Flight
Flexibl
airplane
Predicted
airplane
Rigid
.0012
°0=OT 2°=OT5 6= 5
°OT

.0008
alda
deg
per
.0004

.0002
.
O=0°T -
=2° 5
OT °6= 5
DT

0
Clor
deg
per
-.0002

-.0004
.4 .8 1.2 .8 1.2 1.2
1.6 1.6 2.0 2.4
M M M
M

Cl 5
()Cb' loa 18

-
.24.
-ontinued
CFigure

65
99
Flight
Flexible
airplane
Predicted
airplane
Rigid
004
0=°OT 2°=OT5 =°5
6OT

Gyor 002
de
pegr

1
7
-
0

.0004
0O=° T 2°O= 5T =° 5
6OT
4
0
Cysa
deg
per
-.0004

-.0008
.4 .8 1.2 .8 1.2 1.2
1.6 1.6 2.0 2.4
M M M

' yö
C’:)(cСyb
убarа

Concluded
.24.-
Figure
 Flight (XB -70-1)
Flexible aircraft , ref. 6
Rigid aircraft , refs . 6 and 8 Predicted (XB - 70-1)
.0003
Langley 7 - by 10 - foot
wind tunnel (XB -70-2 ),
Q , deg NRe = 9.41X 106 ,
5 M = 0.94
0002
3.7
Ames 11- by 11 - foot
wind tunnel (XB -70-2) ,
α = 5°,
NRe = 9. 41x106
.0001 Re = 21 . 16X 106 ,
M = 0.95

0
ensa Reference 8
XB -70-1 ( rigid model),
Q = 3.7 ° ,
per deg =
M = 0.95
-.0001

-.0002
XB - 70-1
NRe = 150x106 ,
Q = 3 , 7º ,
M 0.95
-.0003

-.0004
-4

-8 0 4 12 16

De, deg
Figure 25. - Influence of Reynolds number , angle of attack , and elevator position
on Срб
а at M ~ 0.95 with wing tips at half -deflected position. Included are flight
Cnoa
determined and corresponding predicted values of for one flight test point.

67
 Flight

68
airplan
Flexible
Predicted
airplan
Rigid e
.004
O0=° T =OT5
2°Ot =6° 5
OT

Cn Bi
.002
deg
per

.
/
0

.001
0°= 7 2°=OT5 =° 5
6OT

CLB
-.001
deg
per

-.002

-.003
.4 .8 1.2.8 1.2 1.2
1.6 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8
M М. M

ib
C,)a(: np
Variation
26.-
7Figure
-bXB
dof 0-1
ased
-flight
lateral
predicted
and
irectional
stability
Mach
with
derivatives
hypothetical
in
.number
profile
climbout
 ‫ܙܙܙ‬
Flight
Flexible
airplane
Predicted
airplane
Rigid
0
O=0° T 0°2= 57 6°=OT5

-
-.2
Cnpi
radi
pe r an
:
-.4

-.64

.2
0°=OT 2°=ÔT5 =6° 5
OT

.Спр 0
ra r an
pedi

-.2 2.4 2.8

.4 .8 1.2.8 1.2 1.2
1.6 1.6 2.0
М. M М.

nr
,C)(b. np
.
Conti
26.-
Figur nued
e

69
 Flight

70
Flexible
airplane
Predicted
Rigid
airplane
0
0=
°OT ° =° 5
2OT 6= 5
°OT

-.2

'Cip
radi
pe r an
-.4

..6
.2
=0O°T =5
2°OT OT6°= 5

( c) Clp '
0

1120
Figure 26.- Continued.
Clpe
-.2
ra r an
pedi

-.4

-.6
.4 .8 1.2.8 1.2 1.6
1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8
M M M
 Flight
Flexible
airplane
Predicted
airplane
Rigid
0
O0°= T °=25
OT 6=° 5
OT

-.004
'CyB
deg
per
-.008

-.012
.4 .8 1.2.8 1.2 1.6
1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8
M M M

(dC) ybo

.
Concluded
26.-
Figure

71
 .004

.002
Cn

8
F
-.002

-.004

.006
NRe
9.4 x 106 21.16 x 106
.004 Canard
On
Off -

.002

Сі 0

-.002
a
9

-.004

-.006
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2. 4 6 8
B, deg

Figure 27.- Effect of canard on yawing- and rolling-moment coefficients

as a function of angle of sideslip and Reynolds number from tests in
Ames 11- by 11 - foot tunnel. XB -70-2; OT = 30 ° ; 6c = 0 ° ; De = 0 ° ;
ba
a
=
= 0 ° ; M = 1.2 ; Q
d = 5°.

72
 end
Flight
Flexible
airplane
Predicted
airplane
Rigid
8
°0=
OT =° 5
2DT °5
6=OT

,P
6
sec

-
-

-
4

20
°=0
DJ °2= 5
OT °6=OT5

1,T1
2/ 0
sec

.4
0°=OT =° 5
2OT =6° 5
OT
=

Ś.2

0
.4 .8 1.2 .8 1.2 1.2
1.6 1.6 2.0 2.4
М. M M
M

damping
predicted
and
period
roll
Dutch
flight
0-1
ased
-7Figure
-bof
Variation
–
28.
XB
hypothetical
in
number
Mach
climbout
.with
profile

73
 Flight
Flexible

74
airplane
Predicted
airplane
Rigid

8
°0=
OT ° 2= 5
°OT 6°=OT5

अव
0

100
°0=OT =5
°2OT =6° 5
OT

Φ,
:UB
deg I
I
-100

-200
.4 oo
. 1.8
1.2 1.2 1.2
1.6 1.6 2.0 2.4
М. М. M
M

l)a( alu
PB

amplitude
ratios
predicted
roll
Dutch
XB flight
and
ased
-b-7Figure
of0-1
Variation
29.-
hypothetical
in
number
Mach
with
angles
phase
.and
profile
climbout
 Flight
Flexible
ai
rplane
Predicted
airplane
Rigid
1.6

1.2

|| .8

.4

°0OT
= °= 5
2OT =° 5
6DT
0

180
P' UB
deg 0°=
OT 2°=OT5 =59
6OT
160
.4 .8 1.2 .8 1.2 1.6 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4
M M M

)
(b 周 Quß
>

Concluded
.
29.-
Figure

75
 76
Flight
Flexible
airplane
Predicted
airplane
Rigid
-.08
Stable
Ô=0° T OT°=25 =6° 5
Of

-.04
Spiral
root
,
To 1

.04

-2
0°- 7 2°= 5
OT 0°=657
Roll
subsidence
,
root -1
1
Tr

‫م‬
0
.4 .8 1.2 .8 1.2 1.6 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4
M M M

3
spiral
roll
roots
ofubsidence
nd
-s,aand
70-1
XB
Variation
30.-
Figure
-b
flight
predicted
ased

NASA - Langley, 1968 - 2

number
Mach
with
hypothetical
climbout
profile
.in

H - 492
 1

.
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JUN 4 1968

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

RAREFIED -GAS COUETTE FLOW AND

HEAT TRANSFER BETWEEN PARALLEL
PLATES BY MODEL SAMPLING

by Morris Perlmutter
Lewis Research Center
Cleveland, Ohio

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION WASHINGTON , D. C... MAY 1968

 NASA TN D- 4579

RAREFIED -GAS COUETTE FLOW AND HEAT TRANSFER

BETWEEN PARALLEL PLATES BY MODEL SAMPLING

By Morris Perlmutter

Lewis Research Center

Cleveland, Ohio

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

For sale by the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information
Springfield , Virginia 22151 - CFSTI price $ 3.00
 1

ABSTRACT

A rarefied gas with hard - sphere molecules enclosed between parallel walls is ana
lyzed for the case of couette flow and heat transfer by a model sampling procedure. In
one case , both walls are stationary and at different temperatures . In the other case, the
upper wall is moving in a direction parallel to the lower wall and both walls are at the
same temperature. The wall accommodation factor is taken as unity. The target mole
cule velocity distribution is presumed to be the sum of two different half - Maxwellians.
The parameters describing the half - Maxwellians are assumed constant over a given zone.
By scoring the properties of sample molecules as they pass scoring positions, the mac
roscopic quantities, of interest are obtained . The problem is iterated until these values
agree with the assumed distribution values.

ii
 RAREFIED - GAS COUETTE FLOW AND HEAT TRANSFER

BETWEEN PARALLEL PLATES BY MODEL SAMPLING

by Morris Perlmutter
Lewis Research Center

SUMMARY

A rarefied gas with hard - sphere molecules enclosed between parallel walls is ana
lyzed for the case of couette flow and heat transfer by a model sampling procedure. In
one case, both walls are stationary and at different temperatures. In the other case, the
upper wall is moving in a direction parallel to the lower wall and both walls are at the
same temperature. The wall accommodation factor is taken as unity . The wall tempera
ture ratio and wall velocity are taken large so that linearized solutions are not applicable.
The channel between the walls has been divided into zones with boundary surfaces paral
lel to the walls . The target molecule velocity distribution in each zone is presumed to be
the sum of two different half - Maxwellians. The parameters describing the half
Maxwellians are assumed constant over a given zone . By scoring the properties of sam
ple molecules as they pass scoring positions, the macroscopic quantities of interest,
such as temperature, density, shear , and heat transfer are obtained . Also, the average
hermal velocity and number density in each zone are found and compared with the values
issumed for the target molecule distribution in that zone . The problem is iterated until
hese values agree .

INTRODUCTION

In rarefied gas transport problems the usual macroscopic approach using Newton's
aw of friction or Fourier's equation for conduction is no longer applicable because these
equations are derived assuming small changes of fluid properties over the mean free path
engths of the molecules . Therefore , a microscopic approach based on the kinetic theory
of gases must be used .
The present analysis treats a system consisting of a rarefied gas enclosed between
wo walls . Two cases are treated : in one, both walls are stationary and at different
temperatures; while in the other, both walls are at the same temperature but one wall is 1

moving. In the present model, the molecules are assumed to have hard - sphere colli
sions and a wall accommodation coefficient of 1. The problem is analyzed by a Monte
Carlo technique, that is , a model sampling procedure . The Monte Carlo method has
been extensively used in the field of neutron transport theory. Reference 1 discusses the
!
Monte Carlo method and its various techniques and applications.
Several analytical treatments of the couette flow problem have been carried out
(refs . 2 to 5) . In general , these consisted of setting up systems of moment equations
which are solved to obtain the space dependence of the parameters occurring in the veloc
ity distribution functions . Gross and Ziering used the linearized form of the Boltzmann 1

equation to consider the case where the wall velocities were relatively low and both walls
were at the same temperature (ref. 2) , and the case where both walls were stationary but
at different temperatures (ref. 3) . The local molecular velocity distribution was taken
as two - sided , each side being approximated by a different polynomial, and then half
range moments were formed from the linearized form of the Boltzmann equations. Liu
and Lees (ref. 4) assumed a two - sided Maxwellian velocity distribution and Maxwellian
molecule collisions , that is , the repulsive force between the molecules varied inversely
as the fifth power of the distance between molecule centers. The moment equations led
to the determination of macroscopic quantities of interest such as temperature and heat
transfer . This same approach was used by Lavin and Haviland (ref. 5) for the case of
stationary walls at different temperatures assuming hard - sphere interaction potentials
for the molecular collisions .
In the method of solution based on the Monte Carlo method, sample molecule histo
ries are generated by randomly picking choices at points of decision in the history of the
sample molecule from the appropriate probability distributions . The sample molecules
are followed through the mathematical model of the system, and by averaging molecular
properties at various positions the macroscopic quantities describing the system can be
obtained . This method reduces the complexity of the analysis since the relations in
volved the setting up a single sample molecule history are relatively simple; thus, sim
plifying approximations made in the analytical procedures are avoided . However , the
Monte Carlo method requires extensive calculations on a high - speed computer to obtain
the many sample histories needed to obtain necessary accuracy .
The Monte Carlo method was used by Perlmutter (ref. 6) to treat a collisionless
plasma flowing through a channel with an imposed magnetic field; by Haviland (ref. 7) to
treat a rarefied gas enclosed between stationary parallel plates at different tempera
tures; and by Perlmutter (refs. 8 and 9) to determine the heat transfer through a gas be
tween stationary walls at different temperatures. In the analysis by Haviland (ref . 7) ,
the amounts of time the sample molecule spent in the zone into which the channel had
been divided were noted , and from these values a numerical table could be made up for

2
the molecular velocity distribution in each zone . This distribution constituted the target
“molecule distribution in the next iteration . After three or four iterations, although full
convergence was not obtained, no evidence of the results being nonconvergent was found .
The moments of the distribution for each zone corresponding to the macroscopic quantity
of interest was then found by integration of the last obtained velocity distribution . In the
analysis by Perlmutter (refs . 8 and 9) a full Maxwellian was assumed for the form of the
carget molecule velocity distribution with assumed initial values of the parameters under
investigation . Then by summing properties of the sample molecules as they cross the
zone boundaries, the macroscopic local conditions could be found . These new param
eters of the target molecule distribution served as the basis for the next iteration of the
arget molecule distribution as in Haviland's case . Three or four iterations were needed
o obtain the required agreement.
11
The present analysis also follows a sample molecule traveling through the model .
However, in the present case, the target molecule velocity distribution in each zone
vithin the channel is assumed to be two half -Maxwellian distributions of the form as
sumed by Liu and Lees in reference 4. By averaging properties of the sample molecules
it scoring position across the channel, the parameters of the distribution as well as the
nacroscopic flow properties such as temperature, velocity profile, heat transfer , and
shear stress can be found .

SYMBOLS

1/2
average thermal velocity (2R_T) :/
p
specific heat at constant pressure
channel width

-u2
du

:rf(x ) error function (2 /VT) e

probability density function

quantity obtained by Monte Carlo procedure (appendix F )
Boltzmann's constant

In
Knudsen number, ' M / D = m /V2 PAD702
= m

number of values of g obtained (appendix F )

dimensionless velocity, u /Cwo
2 mass of molecule

3
N number of sample molecules emitted from surface wo in Monte Carlo run,
proportional to flux of molecules leaving surface wo
P
pressure, Pii /3
Pij shear stress, -p
-P {( V V;)
Pr Prandtl number, ucn /K
к
р zone or scoring - position number
1

Pf last scoring - position situated at surface w1

Q property of sample molecule

( Q) average quantity S Qf dºv

)

( Q) average quantity SQF_ dºv

q heat - transfer rate

ar total energy transfer rate

R random number between 0 and 1

Rg gas constant, K / m
S mutual collision cross section 102
S to, S. number of sample molecules through scoring position in positive, negative
X2 -direction
T absolute temperature
t dimensionless temperatures, T / T,wo

ui mean velocity , ith component

Wit; ui ¡ th mean velocity of molecules in positive, negative xz-direction

velocity of walls 0 and 1
Uwo, uw1
Vi molecular velocity , įth component

vi thermal velocity , Vi - ui
V!
Vi' transformed ith component of thermal velocity
vi velocity after collision

VR relative velocity
x

Xi ¡ th coordinate
si dimensionless ith coordinate , x ;/ D
y

γ defined by eqs . (C6) and (C7)

4
E defined by eqs. (C6) and (C7)
ๆ viscosity coefficient
к thermal conductivity

collision rate of sample molecule with target molecules

ө angle
λ path length to collision

λΜ mean free path length through Maxwellian gas with density p and thermal ve
locity C
λ mean free path length
S

dimensionless velocity , V ' / C

UR relative dimensionless velocity , VR / C
UR, A defined by eq. (B10)
p mass density
o diameter of hard sphere molecule
angle
Subscripts:
A averaged across channel
M Maxwellian

M=0 both walls stationary

р zone or scoring position number

Pf last zone or scoring position number , situated at surface wl

R relative velocity

r radial coordinate in cylindrical system

S sample molecule
E target molecule
NO wall o

v1 wall 1

Y, B subscripts used in appendix B

); 1 evaluated in gas adjacent to wall 0 or 1
1,2,3 coordinate directions

5
+, positive or negative X2-direction
collisionless solution
8

ANALYSIS

The problem under consideration is the determination of the properties of a rarefied

gas contained between two parallel walls, each infinite in area . As can be seen from fig
ure 1 , which illustrates the geometry involved, the normal to the walls is in the X2
direction. One wall is located at x2 = 0, the other at x2 = 1. The wall at x2 = 0 is
stationary and at temperature Two; the other wall at x2 = 1 is moving with a velocity
-

w1 in the Xq -direction and its temperature is Twi:

The channel width is divided into zones , with boundary surfaces parallel to the walls.
The zones act to break up the distance between walls into subintervals . Sample molecule
histories are generated by starting out from the wall a molecule picked from a Maxwel
lian velocity distribution corresponding to the wall temperature and following the mole
cule through the various zones where it can collide with target molecules distributed
throughout the space between the walls . In each zone , the velocity distribution of the
target molecules is taken as uniform over the zone and consists of two half -Maxwellians,
each half corresponding to a different temperature, density, and velocity. Thus the
velocity distribution of target molecules per unit velocity space is given by

2P ++ +

pft =
p.f
++
,3/23
3/2c3
FO
exp for V2 > 0

(1)

2p . V
exp
b_f for V2 < 0
, 3 /2c3
ce
where the subscript + refers to molecules moving in the positive V2 direction, that is,
toward the wall wl at x2X2 = 1 and the subscript refers to molecules moving toward
wo at x2 = 0. It is assumed that the molecules reflected from the walls are perfectly
accommodated , that is, the reflected molecules are assumed to have been emitted from a
Maxwellian distribution corresponding to the wall temperature. The velocity of the sam

6
 11
Uwl

P= 0
D

p P
PE DE
p= 1
1
T=,wall
WO

T-,wall
wi
toot

X2 Zone

Scoring positions
( a) Constant property zones .

b
X3
X3"
&

S -X₂"
0

X2

X
***

D (b) Rotation of coordinate axis for sample molecule.

SI
Figure 1. - Analytical model of channel .
llszit
HEER
s
eler '

7
ple molecule leaving the wall ( computer flow chart position 1 , see fig. 2) as derived in
appendix A is given by

1/2
In Rv .
2w
( ca. ve)
W
( 2a)

1/2

(
Viw -cW2
=

(c in Rv.)??? cos 21Ro + uw

R
W
( 2b)

1/2

)
(
Vgw = ((-ci in Rey
Rv
W
) ?? sin 21R r/
(2c)

where R is a random number between 0 and 1 chosen for each sample molecule leaving
the surface.

Path Length to Collision

After the sample molecule leaves the wall it is necessary to calculate its path length
to first collision ( flow chart position 2) to find if it has undergone a collision before pass
ing through the first zone . The probability density function that a sample molecule will
collide in the incremental path length 1 to X + d is given (refs. 9 and 10) as

λ
exp

fa (7 λ
's
(3)

where is is the mean free path to collision of the sample molecule moving at velocity
S
V
S in that zone . A path length to first collision for the sample molecule can be chosen
from this distribution by the same procedure used previously, that is, employing the
random number R, with range between 0 and 1 and relating it to mean free path , by
the equation

λ =
- In Ry ( 4)

In order to pick from this distribution, the mean free path 's for the sample molecule
in the zone must be known. If the undirected velocities of the target molecules were in a

8
 m
ule

ah
a
2:1
No

of
components
Find Find
length
path
increment
through length
path
Find Y
> es
IsMp Score
0n= No emitted
for
velocity Score collision
to (pP+o pop
Is
]+nne +( o
pp y JV
AXI
p p3)(osition
1p+pe
5)
sition
Start +z non
Is from
molecules p2){osition
5)
sition V2
P0= p1)wall
0(osition

FI
Yes Yes
Find
Ax4
Yes
Find
velocity
new No >18
Is1p
0=n of
components 14-12
Z
.6
molecules
target z
Is
PEP AX

ola
velocity
new
Find ) 464-8 No
of
components Find 18-
을

molecules
sample
Go p4)(osition
to Yes
H Yes
Find H
ap >0
IsV2
No
Yes
)(
20-24 non
Is
0.48-18
Δx 4 No
out
Print
No
stop
and
No >18
isnp n+1
ne
0 -1-42
AX na
Yes Find
componen ts
Score
p
No p{ osi of
from
velocity
Yes z
Is
)5tion waller
upp

Yes Score
p Yes 1p>Is Fi^p nd -1ppe Find
4
0=Isp p(5osition

No

text
)in
discussed
positions
designated
Bchart
flow
Carlo re
onte
a51t(2-olocks
MFigure

9
Maxwellian distribution with an average thermal velocity C and density p , the mean
free path for the sample molecule 'm
M as shown in appendix B (eq. (12)) , would be given
by

λΜ V21 KnyS

=
(5
D

*****
срехр
РА c2
erf
С С
с

2V
8/

where Kn is the usual definition of Knudsen number for a gas in a Maxwellian distribu
tion with hard - sphere molecule collisions .
However, the target molecule velocity distribution has been assumed to be two half
Maxwellians (eq. (1 ) ) . The direct calculation for a collision for a sample molecule with
a target molecule picked from this distribution would be very complex . One method of
treating the collision that introduces no additional assumptions and allows the calcula
tions to be greatly simplified , although at the expense of additional calculations, is to re
sort to the following artifice .
The assumption is made that the distribution of target molecules consists of two full
Maxwellian distributions :

pft = 2P fm + + 2p_fM
= (6 )

where fM+ and

fm-
M are Maxwellian distributions with densities 224
+ and 2p_ and
thermal velocities of C.+ and C. , respectively . ( It is realized that the molecules cor
responding to fM+ with V2 < 0 and the molecules corresponding to fm- with V2 > 0
are in actuality not present in the present model . ) This assumption permits the calcula
tion of the mean free path using the Maxwellian distribution relations ( eq. (B13) of appen
dix B ). Thus, the mean free path for a sample molecule moving through the two full
Maxwellian gases is given by

1.1 + 1
a
S `M+ 'M

where `M+ and `M-

a are determined by equation (5), appropriately modified by + and
>

subscripts, respectively.
The mean free path is calculated in this manner will be shorter than for the case
for the assumed two half - Maxwellian target distributions (eq. (1)) , since collisions with
the nonexistent target molecules are now included . These collisions with nonexistent

10
urget molecules are made to have no effect on the sample molecule, by taking the path
nd velocity of the sample molecule as unchanged after a collision with a nonexistent tar
et molecule. In essence, then, the nonexistent target molecules do not interact with the
ample molecule .
After a path length to collision is picked for the sample molecule from equation (4) ,
: is compared with the distance the sample molecule must travel to cross the zone (flow
hart position 3) . If à is greater than this distance, the sample molecule is started at
he beginning of the next zone with its velocity components unchanged and the procedure
s before . If it is not, there is a collision in the zone and new velocity components must
e calculated for the sample molecule after collision.

19
Sample Molecule Velocity After Collision
E
To find the new sample molecule velocity components after collision, the velocity
omponents of the target molecule collision partner must first be found . Since there are
vo distributions of target molecules locally, fM+ and fM- , the distribution from which
ie target molecule collision partner is to be picked must first be decided. The fraction
f all the collision partners that come from the fM + distribution is given by 1s AM+: S

hen, for a picked random number, if R < 15S AM+, the collision partner velocity com
onents are picked from the fM + distribution . Otherwise, they are picked from the fm
istribution . The equations for obtaining the velocity components of the target molecule
ollision partner are given in appendix C.
If the Vêt picked from the fM + distribution is negative or, if the Vêt picked from
1 is positive, a collision does not occur because these target molecules are nonexis
int, as discussed previously . In these cases, the sample molecule continues on from
le point of no collision with its original velocity.
After collision of the sample molecule with the chosen collision partner, the new
=
omponents of velocity VI
is , i = 1 , 2, 3, of the sample molecule (flow chart position 4)
>

re given (ref . 7) by
(
8
)

V 1* s (V1V 8 + V1d) + VR(1 - 631/2

+ H
a

V
(

- 1 V2s + V R
V ( + V2t) + (1 - 263
-

(8b)
N
*

2 2
8)
(c

V3s =1 (V35 + V3e)+) VR1(2-63172

*
2
V (

11
where VR is given by equation (B2) . The values of H and E are obtained by picking
two random numbers which are used in the following equations:

H = 2RH 1

E = 2R
2RE 1 (9

b2 - H2 + 32
where b?2 must be less than 1 , or a new set of random numbers must be chosen to find
H and E.
The sample molecule history is then continued from the point of collision with its new
velocity components. The sample history is completed when the sample molecule is re
turned to the surface from which it had been emitted . The numbers of sample molecule
histories originating at the two walls were taken equal.
The reason for emitting sample molecules from both walls was to improve the ac
curacy of the results . Especially for the cases involving small mean free paths, not
enough of the sample molecules emitted from one wall reach the other wall to give suf
ficiently large sample sizes . This problem was avoided by emitting sample molecules
from both walls .

Scoring to Find Macroscopic Flow Properties

The macroscopic fluid characteristics needed are density, temperature, velocity,
and heat transfer across the channel . These properties are obtained at scoring positions
located at various distances across the channel, as shown in figure 1 ( flow chart posi
tion 5) . If some property of the molecule is designated by Q, the average quantity of Q
transported per sample molecule across the scoring cross section p in the positive x2
direction can be written as

1869) 6.saya
St , P
р
(6+ SQQVvzf!dºb) (0.ca(QV2v2).)
р
+

( 10)

(es
+ / Vol: ,
dºv) p ( V2)

12
is where SStep is the number of sample molecules passing across the scoring cross section
+,
p in the positive x2 direction . Similarly , the average quantity Q transported per
sam ple molecule in the negative x, direction is

(દો, (2-cev).)
p
р
(11 )

(6_V2_)
S
-, p P_ ( V2 )
- р

Since there is no net flow across the channel and all sample histories start and end
at the same wall, s = S and
+, P -,p

(+ s vg! dºv).--60-S v21_dºv),

р р
(12)

Then
E , since p{( V2Q ) = P+( V2Q ) + p_ (V2Q )
P+ /V2Q
s S
p ( v2Q) 1
ΣQ - ΣΩ (13)
S
PXXV2) +

can be obtained .
The number of sample molecules s.+ that pass the scoring cross section in the posi
tive X, direction at p divided by the total number N of sample molecule histories
leaving wall 0, can be related to the mass flux passing in the positive X, direction at p
by

S
+, P
N
(2.02.) р
(14)

(_V2 w0

Com
vhere
0(8+<02).) +
wo
the mass flux leaving wall wo, is equal to PP+, wwoCw, o/11/2.
pining equations (13) and (14) results in

13
 S
Ptowo

1750,42.14750 . ((2013)
p ( < .),+(0.50) - N71 / 2
Σ
p
( 15)

If Q is taken as 1 /V2, equation ( 15) gives

S S
+

P
р
+
Cwo

2:02:4( 7:) C :)
P+ p
р
+0

and P
р
+

+0
р N71 /

Thus, summing the inverse V2 velocity of the sample molecules as they cross the scor
the local densities of the molecule with positive and neg.
( 16)

ing positions yields P +

ative components of V2, respectively, and also the local density, p. These values are
used in the assumed form of the target molecule velocity distribution in the next iteration.
The average density across the channel is then obtained by averaging the density of all the
scoring cross sections

PF -1
PA - 11 leo PE
Рp (17)
P+ 0 Pf 2
PPt+o0
+

2)
P +O )/
+

Σ P +0

If Q is taken as V1 /V2, equation (15) becomes

S S

(ouul p, P+p +p . p
pinu P--ppla
-cp 1

PtoCwo ProCwo ProCwO

+

-İM;
Na1/2
p Σ 2
(18)

Dividing by the appropriate densities obtained previously gives the local mean velocity
for the molecules with V2 > 0, which is 41+, the local mean velocity for the molecules !
with V2 < 0, which is u1-, and the local mean velocity uz : These values are also used
in the target molecule velocity distribution in the next iteration .
The kinetic energy per unit mass of a monatomic gas measured relative to the mean
flow velocity is equal to the number of degrees of freedom times (1/2)RT. With this as

14
 the definition of temperature, the following equation can be written for three degrees of
freedom :

3 R
2 RT = {(v.2)
V 2)= 1 (v2) - 1 u?
2
=

2 2
(19)

Then, from equation ( 15)

P
zuig 2

2(
)0
Te. . 2 p 1p

E
古 TIwo
3N71 /2cwo 1P+0/
MË0:30)
Σ 302
'

-
The thermal velocity of the molecules with V2 > 0 is given by
S
(c2)р 2
-1
2
2

爱 2
man 3CWON ,1/2
'a o
eml +, P

P +0 V.
2
3
(21 )

0
and similarly for the molecules with V2 <
S
(c2)p 2
2

25
(8 )
2
'w0 3CWON71 /2
p
P +0 V
2 " 1- , P
2 2
'
Como (22 )

These values are used in the target molecule velocity distribution in the next iteration .
=
The shear stress across the channel is given by P12 = P ( Viv ). This can be shown
to be equal to

S S
P +0C + 0
2(
)3
V

(P12)р = [p(VV ) p
N71 /2
Σνη -Σ
The rate at which total energy is transferred across the channel is given by
3 ). р

15
 S + S

95, 1 « ,( 3931 Pto

Qт
p 2
Cwo
2N71 / 2
р
=
+0
(v2)
)
Šmi
- (v2) (24)

The transfer of the undirected kinetic energy across the channel is q = 1/2 p {v }(v.2))
so that equation (24) becomes

q = 9T - 4u, P12 (25)

The macroscopic quantities of interest are found by using these equations. The
values of Pp, P_ C_, U14, and un-. are then compared to the assumed values used
P. , CT C.
in the target molecule distribution , and the problem is iterated until they are in agree
ment. (The initial assumed values are taken from the collisionless solution. ) Also ob
tained at the same time from equations (16) to (25) are the local temperature, density ,
shear , and energy transfer. Twenty zones of equal size across the channel were used,
and it was found that increasing this number had no effect on the results of the present
calculations .

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

First the case of stationary walls with a temperature ratio tw11 of 0.25 was treated..
The local gas temperature divided by the temperature of the hot wall is shown in figure 3.
The local density divided by the average density across the channel is given in figure 4.
Figure 5 shows the heat flux transferred divided by the heat flux for the collisionless
case , which is derived in appendix D.
These results are in good agreement with the results of another Monte Carlo solution
by Haviland (ref. 7) . The linearized solution of Gross and Ziering (ref. 3) gives very
good agreement with the present results except for the temperature profile. In the lin
earized solution of reference 3 the centerline temperature is taken midway between the
wall temperatures. The present results have their centerline temperature significantly
below this value for the Knudsen number of 2 ; hence the large disagreement in the results.
The nonlinear results of Liu and Lees (ref. 4) of the temperature and density are of
the correct magnitude but of a somewhat different gradient. The nonlinear heat - transfer
results fall somewhat above the other solutions .
Also shown are the slip continuum results. These results are obtained by using the
fluid temperature near the wall (slip wall temperature) rather than the wall temperature
in the continuum equations (appendix E) . By using the slip wall temperatures that gave

16
 Monte Carlo results,
Knudsen number

ΔΟ
1.0
1x1020

Ο
2
.5

.9 Open symbols denote results of present study

Solid symbols denote results of ref. 7
Analytical solutions
.8
Ac 4 Moment nonlinear ( ref. 5 ), kn - 2
an 8 Moment linear ( ref. 3), kn = 2
ature
/T,ratio
wo

a. Continuum, Kn - 0
Collisionless, Kno
Slip continuum, Kn - 0.5, 2

.4

.3

.2
1 11 11 I
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
O

Nondimensional distance from wall, x/ D

Figure 3. - Temperature distributions. Wall-temperature ratio, 0.25; wall Mach number, 0.

2.3
Monte Carlo results,
Knudsen number
ДОО

2.1 1x1020
2

1.9 Open symbols denote results of present study

Solid symbols denote results of ref. 7
Analytical solutions
lPavgy

1.7
Densit
p,ratio

Collisionless, Kn
8 Moment linear ( ref. 3) , kn - 2
1.5

4 Moment nonlinear ( ref. 5) Kn - 2

Continuum, Kno
Slip continuum, Kn - 0.5, 2
1.3

1.1

.9
‫ کا‬- ‫کک‬.
‫ک‬

.5 11
0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
Nondimensional distance from hot wall, xD
Figure 4 - Density ratio for various Knudsen numbers. Wall -temperature ratio, 0. 25;
wall Mach number, lo

17
 1.6H
/2()pa!?.-on4acio
ratio
Heat
AKcflux CWO
1.0H

.8

Monte Carlo results

Present
Ref . 6
Analytical solutions
Δ Slip continuum
Collisionless, Kn -
8 Moment linear ( ref. 3)

HI
4 Moment nonlinear ( ref. 5 )
.2
Continuum, Kn - 0

04
‫للا‬ ‫لیلا‬ I I 1

.01 .02 .04 .06.08.1 2 .4.6.81 2 4 6 8 10 20 40

Knudsen number, Kn
,

Figure 5. - Dimensionless heat flux as function of Knudsen number. Wall -temperature ratio, 0.25;
wall Mach number, 0.

the best fit to both the temperature and the density results of the present solution , the re
sults shown were obtained . However, when the heat transfer was calculated using these
same slip wall temperatures and the continuum thermal conductivity the heat - transfer
rate was considerably above that from the other solutions. Since the slip solutions with
the continuum conductivity are only expected to apply close to continuum conditions, this
result is to be expected .
The heat -transfer rate at various positions across the channel is shown in figure 6 .
Theoretically this should be constant at each point across the channel (appendix E) , al
though the present method does not impose this condition by its method of solution. This
condition, however, is satisfied by the present results, as can be seen from this figure.
To check the confidence limits of the present results, the solution was carried out
for a Knudsen number of 0.5 using 50 000 sample molecules . The temperature and den
sity had a value of 6 , the 95 percent confidence interval, of close to 1 percent of their
value, while the value of 0 for the heat - transfer rate across the channel was about
2 percent of its value. The derivations and equation used in obtaining o are given in ap
pendix F.
The second case treated is for that in which both walls are at the same temperature
but one wall is moving at a wall Mach number , M. W = Uw1 / Cwo,
' of 4. The velocity pro
file is shown in figure 7. Since the profile is antisymmetric about x / D of 0.5, the re

18
 Knudsen
number
Kn

1x1020
1.013
,Heat
ratio

10
flux

O
2

c .5
a?a(lpac

.4 1 i 1
0 .1 .2 .3 4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1

Nondimensional distance from wall, WD

-
Figure 6. - Dimensionless heat flux distribution for various Knudsen numbers. Wall
temperature ratio, 0.25; wall Mach number, 0.

4
Monte Carlo results ,
DOO

Knudsen number

1
2
1x1020
Analytical solutions
1. 우 | Linearized ( ref. 2) Kn - 1
Continuum , Kn - 0
Collisionless , Kn
u, luwl ty
Veloci
ratio

.
‫م‬
‫م‬

.6 aa
be bod A.
.5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0

Nondimensional distance from centerline

of channel, wD
Figure 7. - Velocity ratio distribution for
various Knudsen numbers. Wall Mach
number, 4; wall temperature ratio, l.

19
 Monte Carlo results,
Knudsen number

DOO
1x1020
2
1
Analytical solutions
Collisionless, Kn
Continuum, Kn -0

pogi
3.8H

3.

o A
Temperature

o
O
3.04

O
Tratio
,/ wo

2.61 A

2.21

1.84

1.4

1.04
.5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1
Nondimensional distance from centerline
of channel, xD
Figure 8 - Temperature distribution for vari
ous Knudsen numbers. Wall Mach number,
4; wall - temperature ratio, l.

sults are only shown for x / D from 0.5 to 1.0. The linearized solution (ref. 2) departs
significantly from the present result obtained herein for the nonlinear large wall Mach
number case .
The temperature profile across the channel is shown in figure 8. There is a sub
stantial rise in temperature for larger Knudsen numbers because as the strongly directed
stream of molecules leaves the moving wall it encounters the undirected stream . This
gives a lower value for the average directed motion of the fluid . This decrease in di
rected kinetic energy is now included in the thermal motion giving the higher temperature.
The shear stress for the channel is shown in figure 9. This has been nondimension
alized by the shear stress for the collisionless case ( eq . (D5)). The results fall above
the linearized solution of reference 1. The total energy transfer across the channel non
dimensionalized by the total energy transfer for the collisionless case ( eq . (D6 )) gave the
same values as the dimensionless shear stress for the cases studied . This is also shown
in figure 10, where shear stress and total heat transfer at various positions across the
20
 1.0r O
Analytical solutions Kn - lx1020
Kn

Continuum , Kn - 0
CLWolk

Linearized ( ref. 2)

O
Collisionless , Kn -o0
10m
d217d/2"v)
stress
Shear

.24
,

04 ‫اللا‬ 1 1 1

.01.02 .04 .06.08.1 .2 .4 .6.8 1 2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 80

Knudsen number, Kn
Figure 9. - Dimensionless shear stress. Wall -temperature ratio, l; wall Mach number, 4.

Monte Carlo results,

POO

Knudsen number
1x1020
2
1
Closed symbols denote shear stress
(712P1,2/ acxo)/(712 P1,2/paco),Kno
Open symbols denote total energy transfer
(57/29/pacủo)/(m2/24 /PACWO)xn-
stress
Shear
enersfer
total
gy
or

1.07
tran

.8

0 .1 .2 .3 4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
N

Nondimensional distance from wall, xD

Figure 10. - Dimensionless total energy transfer and shear stress. Wall - temperature
ratio, l; wall Mach number, 4.

21
channel are plotted . Again, from the laws of conservation and the moment equations, it
can be shown that the shear stress and total heat transfer at various positions across the
channel should be constant. Although this condition is not imposed by the present method
of analysis, the results in figure 10 indicate that the shear stress and total energy trans
fer are nearly constant at the different positions across the channel.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The Monte Carlo method gives reasonable results for the present problems without
the necessity of extreme assumptions. The major drawback to the method is the increas
ing amount of computer time necessary to carry out the calculations as the Knudsen num
ber becomes smaller .
Some typical running times for 50 000 sample molecules on an IBM 7094 are 40 min
utes for Kn = 30, 50 minutes for K
=
kn 2 , and 75 minutes for Kn = 0.5. The large in
crease in running time as the Knudsen number is reduced shows that the procedure as
presently formulated is not suited to very small Knudsen numbers. Generally , three it
erations of 50 000 samples were needed .
The present method is very flexible and can readily be used in other transport prob
lems not readily solved by the more usual procedures.

Lewis Research Center ,

National Aeronautics and Space Administration ,
Cleveland, Ohio, February 20, 1968 ,
129-01-11-05-22 .

22
 APPENDIX A
:

VELOCITIES OF MOLECULES LEAVING THE WALL

The normalized Maxwellian distribution of the molecules at the wall wo with com
ponent V2 > 0 is given by
112
fro dyr3 2
| exp
wo
Id 113 (A1)
TT 3/2c3
wo
2O
cW

(Note that integration of eq. (A1) over all velocity space with V2 > 0 will give unity. )
The distribution of velocities of the molecules leaving the wall wo per unit time per
i
unit area is given by Vzy /(v2) This distribution can be transformed to cylindri
.

+w0
cal coordinates Vi = Vr cos 0 , V2 == V2,
V
V3 == Vr sin o as

V2 wo arr3 2V2Vr V2 + V2
4
exp
2
de dV2 dvr (A2)
( V2) +w0 пC .
W chCWO
Equation (A2) can be written as the product of the following three single variables distri
bution functions :

de
fode =
=
(A3a )
201
và

2V2
= exp dV2 ( A 3b)
V 2 dV2 = C
,2
wo
( 'w 0
Balog

2V v2 a
aVs =
r
exp vs
dv (A3c)
fv.r r

c2'W0 'w

The velocity components of the sample molecule leaving the surface must be picked from
these distributions. A convenient way of picking from a distribution for the high - speed

23
computer is to transform the distribution to a uniform distribution by setting the random
number R equal to the cumulative distribution function . For example,

R9 = 6 °.
=
fe , de ' = 211
(A4)

Then, by using a high - speed computer to generate a random number R between 0

and 1 , 0 can be obtained from equation (A4) such that for a large number of samples
>

picked in this manner the distribution in equation (A3a) will be satisfied . This technique
is more fully discussed in reference 1 .
Similarly, V2 can be picked from

V2
Rua2
2V2 VŽ

ff le
Ma =

CO
W
exp

w0
w
dv2 (A5)

Or , since picking R is equivalent to picking 1 - R,

2 1/2
Rval
V2 = (-CO wo In
" (A6)

so that by picking a random number R.

Rv, V2 can be obtained from equation (A6 ). Sim 1

ilarly

1/2
v;-- ( in Rya)17
V
r
=

2 W
R
V.
r
(A7)

A similar procedure is used to generate sample molecules from wall wl using in

stead cCw1 and V, < 0 .
V2

24
 APPENDIX B

EVALUATION OF MEAN FREE PATH

The incremental number of collisions per unit time do of a sample molecule moving
at velocity V through target molecules in velocity space increment av:
S
for hard

sphere molecules is given, in reference 9 , as >

də = off VRS av (B1 )

m

where VR is the magnitude of the velocity of the target molecules relative to the sample
molecule velocity before collision, VR, ii = Vt, i - Vs, i. The term VR can be written as
12

)
Vr= [( 1 - V16)2? + (V2t - Vezy2) + (V3 - V3102]??? (B2)
-

If the local mean velocity u = uz (which is along the xq -direction) is subtracted from
both the sample molecule and the target molecules, the collision rate for a Maxwellian
distribution of target molecules can then be written as

HOM =
ps
exp
t
VedVit dV2t dV 3t (B3)
mi 3 /2c3 c2

In order to carry out the integration to obtain ©M, the reference coordinate system
is rotated so that V's lies along the new 2 - direction . This is accomplished by employ
ing Eulerian angles (refs . 9 and 11) (see fig. 1 (b )). The rotation can be considered to be
a two - step process whereby the coordinate system is first rotated by the angle « coun
terclockwise with axis along the 3 -direction , where
V25
Vis

COS & sino

Vr
Vrs s

1/2
Vrs = (vis + vão)"/?
and V vžs)
+
2s After this rotation of the 1,2 - reference plane, the plane
containing the velocity vector V's of the sample molecule and the new 2 -direction is
perpendicular to the new 1 -direction so that another rotation counterclockwise about an
axis along the new 1 - direction by the angle e where
25
 V V 35
V.
cos e
V"
rs

S
sin e =

A v =(vés + v )?' 2
V'
S
V's 3s,

places the 22 -direction along Vs. The matrices corresponding to the preceding trans
formation and its inverse are

-1
Vit = AAij !!
Vit (B4a)

where

3s is
V.
2s Vis -Vgsv
V V V. V
rs V'S rss

-1
-Vis V2s -V . V.
3s 2s
A.
ij
(B4b)
V
rs
V" V.V '.
S rss

V3
3s9
0 15
V"
S

and

T
V !!ix = A..V !
ij Vit (B5a)

where

V25
- Vis 0
V Vrs
rs

vis
1s V33sS
uslo

A.
Ajji (B5b)
11

V's V's
-

- V3s Vis -V28V35 Vrs

V. V V.Vs'
rs's rs

Then equation (B3) becomes

26
 dom pS wa ,
[v:2 2
2

mt3 /2c3
exp
c2
1t + (\ - vy2 + vi??? avpiva
-
+ V
avere (B6)

Transforming into spherical coordinates

Vit = V cos é sin &4 , Vvt

!!
=- Vť cos Q, V3t = Vi
Vť sin o sin o ( B7a)

results in

HOM
are some [exp(-x2)x{ sin o dødy do du
cps
mi3/
2
2
HEUR (B7b)

where u is the nondimensionalized velocity V ' / C and where

2 1/2
HR = (+*+M - 21h this cos 06)
=
μ
-

2ut S
(B8)

To obtain the total collision rate for the target molecules over all velocities, equa
tion (B7b) must be integrated over 4, 8, and Mt: Integrating over from 0 to 291 and
oyer ø from 0 to a gives

ddoemM (Mt) = 4pcs 2

ma
1/2 (exp(-42)«fuR,A
EUR AA dut u (B9)

where MHR,A
R =6 " *p(sin o/2ydp or
2
M

ht
IM S + if us > Mt
3s

" R ,A (B10)
2
u
Mt +
Зpt
s if Mt >> " Ss

Integrating equation (B9) over Mt from 0 to - yields the total collision frequency
through a Maxwellian gas :
Om for a sample molecule moving at velocity Hs

27
 2
exp -us
өм PSC 1
(B11)

7. -06 ) m
, 1/2
+ (erf u S

The nondimensional mean free path is then found, as discussed in reference 10, by
+
arsl

dividing the sample molecule velocity by the total collision rate and using the hard - sphere
definition of Knudsen number Kn to give for the dimensionless mean free path

^AMM VS V2 vV Kn S
(B12)
D
өмр 1 1
ce exp(-x2)) ++ (ert rafina
ve
PA TT 1/2

If there were two different Maxwellian gases in the incremental volume in space,
+

.
2μ /
s

distributed over velocity space by the functions fMa and fmp, respectively , the total
collision rate would be given by the collision rate for the molecules from fma plus the
collision rate for the molecules from fMB, 0 = ©Ma ++0MB where MQ and o© MB are
given as in equation (B11) with appropriate densities and mean thermal velocities . Since
As is given by Vs /0,
1 1
λ (B13)
II
11

S BE OMB 1 1

. V
S
V
s
λγα MB
*Ma

28
 APPENDIX C

TARGET -MOLECULE COLLISION PARTNER

The distribution of target -molecule collision partners in velocity space for a sample
molecule passing through target molecules in a Maxwellian distribution is given by divid
ing equation ( B7b ) by equation (B11) :

2
do
M [
exp(-x2)) MEHR sin o do do dut
(c1 )
өм
1
=[exp(-x2)] +73/2 ( erfwa
TT us (ws
21s)
S
+

The distribution in @ for the target -molecule collision partners is readily seen to be

de
fode = 21 =
(C2)

where the value of 0 can be picked from this distribution as discussed in appendix A by
employing the relation

0 = 2TRO (C3)

The distribution of Mt for the target molecule collision partners is obtained from
the marginal distribution

2
f
Mt dut
= 4[exp(-x2)- FOR,Adie
MR A dut A
(C4)

exp(-43) werden
1
+71/2 ( erf Hs)(us S
2μ

The value of Ht from this distribution is found from

y (u' So' Mt) + € (u sSo' Mt) (C5)

ROMA
1

[(exp(-2)]+ +71/2 (erfus Ιμ

lu
akantet)
' S
24

29
where

s' ght -- ] + Hg Vu (erf med)

Ml45, H2) = -24344[exp(-43)
=
ls en[forel-2])
2
3 's

Mt VI when Hs > thy (C6)

(
a Cexp(-2)]- Lacere ved
Is
+
24S
)

E = 0

and

Yugo' Hz) = x(4g,s ' HS)

2 2 when Hs Mt (C7)
р
s 2
4MS '
E = -2 exp (-u
[ ( 106). )
3 + 1 + H?) +{2exp(-43)]
+ 2
3
1

To find o for the target molecule, the distribution of target molecules can be writ
ten as a product of a marginal times a conditional distribution

do (ht; ) (C8)
f(up)f(olu )

Then 6 must be found from the conditional distribution

MR sin y o
f(flol|u)ux = “R ,d (C9)
2MR , A

The value of ø for a given it is found from

3

R =
MŘ - lky - KsMs13 (C10)
φ 3/2
2 2
(x} +x ++ 2444
μS2Mths)972-14 - Mg13

30
where

3 2 2
24e4hs so )8/2
MB = ( * + x3 - 24t COS

After 4, Ht, and a are found, the velocity components Vit Vt,
2t and Vät are found
by using the relations given by equation ( B7a) . Then, from equation (B4)

V
2s
+ V2t
1s
V !!
V
3s Vis (Cila)
Vit = Vit V V
3t
V.V '
+ U1
rs / V's rs's

--Vi
vi
1s tvis 2s
V.
2s3s
t

3
t -
V !! (C11b)
V2t V. V. V V'
rs / S rss

V
3s rs
V3t =
V !!
2t + Vät
3t. (C11c)
V' V.
S S

31
 APPENDIX D

COLLISIONLESS SOLUTION

For the case of negligible molecular collisions the local distribution in the channel
is given by

2P++0 trwao
exp

pfc
RE , 3/2'wo
3

22_1
2
'WO
w
V2 > 0

(D1)

w1
Texp : V2 < 0
3/23

‫ها‬
TT 2c 3
'w1 'w1

where P +0
is the density of molecules with ,
V2 > 0, while P- 1 is the density of mole
cules with V , < 0. The local density is then given by
P (V2Q) = P ( 1)
Q = 1 /V2

=
= p = P +0 + P - 1

Since there is no net flow across the channel ,

=
( 6 +0Cwo - P - 1Cw1) = 0
p[Vz) 12 п P
From the first relation

P +0

( 1 ... ‫ܘ‬
( р p
( D2a)

where , from the second relation

32
 +0 1 1 1

(0:0).
p
=

1 +
P -1
1 +
Cwo 1 + tt--1/2
'w1
1 /2
(D2b)

P +0/00 Cw1

The flow parallel to the channel wall is given by

P +0 P -1
u = ( V) : 41 , wo + (D3)
р р
41 , w1

The local temperature as can be seen from equation (19) is given by

T 2
( Ve)
v2 - 223 MP
M

Two 302
'WO

which when evaluated gives

2 р 1 p+0 1/2
t = +0 m2 M2w1 (D4)
3
C0 р
wo
р Men - M2), 2,50 (1+247)
+
р
1
w1

The shear stress (eq. (23)) P12 = P ( V1 V2) can be found to be

11/2P12 PрA
TT
+
M (D5)
(Mwo - Mwi)
p2R g,Two р

The total energy transferred is given by equation (25) as qr = p/2 (vı2v2) + u, P12 =

:
For the collisionless case, the relation becomes

„\/?9Tar P+0 -0-1-3/22P+O M2LO P -11 MM2w11,1/2

+ t (D6)
'w1 'w1
2
Tgwwo)3/2 P
P (2R,
р p 2 р

33
 APPENDIX E

CONTINUUM SOLUTIONS

Maxwell's equation of transfer for the steady - state condition can be written

a
oxi(P ({ V Q )) = m A ( Q ) (E1)

where the convention is used that repeated subscripts are to be summed over . Here,
A (Q) denotes the rate of increase in some molecular quantity Q due to molecular col
lisions . This term is zero for cases where Q is conserved during collision. This is
true when Q is equal to 1 , V, or v?, corresponding to conservation of mass, momen
tum , or energy , respectively :

Q = 1:

a
(ou;) = 0 (E2 )
axi

Q = V:

a
0
дX i.
60 / V ;V;))

a
[ { v} + uz)(V} 1,1
+ u;)]
Il

дX .,
ax

a
V ;V ;) + pu;u;)
og 6X6 <v?Vp
дX .
i

a du; alou :)
дX .
( {V V;)) + pui
vp) + дхі
+ u;
axi

Inasmuch as p {VIV; = P.
ij
and =
O(ou;)/ ax , = 0 by equation (E2) , the preceding equation
can be written as

34
 ӘР . au.
ij
+ pui
;1- 0 =
(E3)
ax , ax ,

Q = v2 :
a
=
ob, (o«v;v2)
=

ax
,
a
[p<(V} + uz)(V° '+ wu)2]
o; vəx
+

a a а a

-ex (Cocvivis) “vi

дX i.
+
дX
ax .
(u ;lP.j:)i +
дX.' i (
2u.P.
*ag, 23,Py) *,(ou,y
*** uij +
дX .i

By equations (E2) and (E3) the sum of the last two terms of the preceding gives
(2P; du ; /əx ;), so that
a au.
a

to; (be« vivi 27) har

ax
+
дX.
i
* jj + 2Pij
(4i P.) 11
+2 ax,
= 0 (E4)

In addition, there exist the two well - known relations for a fluid, namely,

aT
vV ;V1v22,
9; = 1 px = -K

axi
(E5)

toj
oui , 1 ди.
" ; дикk /
---
Pij == 0δ .ijP -- 2μ
2441 2 дX. 2 ax :
O

3 afk (E6)

Equations ( E5) and (E6) serve to introduce the gas conductivity K , the viscosity H ,
and the static pressure P into the relations. In this context, note that the introduction
of equation (E6) into equation (E4) yields the Navier - Stokes equations.
With respect to the problem treated herein, where the only changes occur in the X2
or across - channel -direction, equations (E2) to (E4) become

35
(E2) :

au 1
= 0 (E7a)
ax
or uy = g(x2)

(E3) :

aP2 )] = 0 du 1 = Constant
-M
or P 12 = -4 (E7b)
дх2 ах,

where equation (E6) has also been employed,

(E4) :

aX2 (92 + P2141) = 0

so that by equation (25)

at = 92
=
+ U1P12 = Constant (E70)

For hard - sphere molecules, the temperature - dependent conductivity and viscosity
can be written for the continuum case as (ref. 6)

1/2
K
= k071/2
K

where

C
75m K
kgC wo (E8)
ко
6402 (27) 1/2
and

H = Hot 1/2

36
 where

-
5mCwo
ро (E9)
1602(21)1/2
For the case where both walls are stationary , equation (E7c) becomes

кат
K
= = Constant (E10)
92
D ax2

where the dimensionless coordinate Xz = XZ / D has been introduced . Substituting equa

tion (E8) into equation ( 10 ) and integrating give

*M=0 = [1- (1 - 342)x72/3

] Xo (E11)

Because the pressure across the channel is uniform , the ideal gas law becomes

ptm =0 = Constant

=
1
,
Then, employing the relation PA * 6* pp dx, shows that
$
1 + t 1w/12 + tw1
p
(E12)
PA 3tM=0
M=0

Also the heat - transfer rate across the channel is

(92)M =0
к aT Kot 7/27woT at
ot M =00
D 2x2 D ax2
비에

which upon evaluation becomes

92

(...)4.26-27
03
С
'AwO
'
3

M=0
25 (m)2/241( - 42/2)(Kn) w (E13)

37
 For the case where wall wl is moving at velocity 4w1e equation (25) applies :

at
Чт = 92 u
42 + U1P12
aul
к AT - 쓰
u1
одх2 р дх2

ис . au
к ат 'p 1

Inasmuch as C , R
pр = 5/2 Rg
6 р ax2 к

and Pr = ucp /kK = 2/3 for a gas, this equation becomes

2 дX2

a
C. T +
u1 =
CP DIT (E14)
ax2 3 к

The right side can also be written as a partial derivative with respect to X2 by
making use in turn of the relations ucp /k = 2/3 and equations (E7b) and (E7c) :
EL DIT 2 1. DIT
к - 3 μ.

2 Чт диа 1

3 P12 əx2
1

a 2 9T
u1
дх2 3 P12
1

Thus, equation (E14) is transformed to

WN

2
u
a
C.T
P v dj = 0
터.

3
ax2 3 P 12

Dividing through by cpTwo = 5/2 Rºg w 2

T o 5/4 c%0
w0 yields
=

38
 a
4 M2 8 Чт
t + -
M = 0 (E15)
дх2 15 15 P12Cwo

For the case where both walls are at the same temperature, that is, two == tw1 = ,1,
integration of equation (E15) gives

4
t
15
M (Mw1 - M ) + 1
MM (E16)

and the relation

ar Mw1P 12Cwo (E16a)

If equation (E9) is substituted into equation (E7b) , the result is

P12 Hot7/2CWO w0 AM
Constant (E17)
D дх2

Substitution of equation (E16) yields

4 aM
M (MW1 = Constant
15 w1 - M) + 1
2x2

Integrating the preceding equation gives

M2
- Mw1+ (15)1/2 Mw1 M w1
1/2 + 15 M 2M
w1

.: (༡༠,
X2

,***
wM - M2
+ Mw1
,- м
42) 2M - M
2 2
sin

(15 + M2 „.)???
M
w
1/2

Mwl
M .
2M Mw1
-1
(15)1/2Mw1 +Mw%1
1 + 15
+
sin- 1
-- མ་ བྱས 3) བརྩམ། །)
sin

|(15 +
15 + M
w1 ) „ /2
|(15 + M2..)
+ M4
w1
1/2 (E18)

39
and the relation

12/281
TT P 2 511 (MX2+ 15)
w1
+
-1
M
w1

PA wo
р
2

safari
=

32
KnM
w1
+

( 15) 1/2
sin

(meM + 18)72
71

Equation (E18) gives the velocity profile across the channel and may be used in conjunc
15
(E19)

tion with equation (E16) to give the temperature distribution across the channel. The
shear stress is given by equation (E19) and the total heat flow by equation (E16a) .

40
 APPENDIX F

CONFIDENCE LIMITS OF RESULTS

Following the derivation in reference ( 1) , the confidence limits on the present re

sults can be obtained as follows. For some number of sample molecules a quantity g is
obtained . Repeating this process k times will give a sample set of g values . The av
-

erage of the k values would give g, which is the average value of the sample set . If an
infinite number of values of g were obtained, the average value of g would be the true
average denoted as ( g ) . It is necessary to determine a value of 0 such that the absolute
value of the difference between ( g) and g is less than 0 with a 95 percent probability .
The central limit theorem states that the distribution of sample means flī) approaches a
normal distribution with a mean value equal to the population mean ( g) and with a vari -
ance equal to the population variance divided by k, the number of measurements used to
determine g. Since the 95 percent confidence interval ó corresponds to twice the stan
25/(k )1/2, where
dard deviation for the average of k values, == 25/(k)1/2, sa is the approxima
where s2
tion to the variance of the population obtained by finding the variance of the sample set

2
s2 62 - ( 2]k
8 8)
( F1)
II

k - 1

This gives the 95 percent confidence interval as

2 -2 1/2
kg) - g ) 70 = 2
- (F2)
-

k 1

41
 REFERENCES

1. Shreider, Yu . A. , ed. (scripta technica , inc . , trans. ) : Method of Statistical Test

ing , Monte Carlo Method. Pergamon Press , 1966 .
2. Gross , E. P .; and Ziering, S.: Kinetic Theory of Linear Shear Flow . Phys .
Fluids, vol . 1, no . 3 , May- June 1958 , pp. 215-224 .
3. Gross , E. P.; . and Ziering, S. : Heat Flow Between Parallel Plates . Phys . Fluids ,
vol . 2 , no . 6 , Nov. - Dec . 1959, pp . 701-712 .
4. Liu , Chung- Yen; and Lees, Lester : Kinetic Theory Description of Plane, Compres
sible Couette Flow . Rarefied Gas Dynamics . L. Talbot, ed . , Academic Press,
1961 , p. 391 .

5. Lavin , M. L.; and Haviland, J. K. : Application of a Moment Method to Heat Trans

fer in Rarefied Gases . Phys . Fluids, vol . 5, no. 3 , Mar. 1962, pp. 274-279 .
6. Perlmutter , Morris : Monte Carlo Solution for the Characteristics of a Highly Rar
efied Ionized Gas Flowing Through a Channel with a Transverse Magnetic Field .
Rarefied Gas Dynamics. Vol . 2. , J. H. de Leeuw , ed . ,> Academic Press, 1966 ,
pp . 1-21 .

7. Haviland, J. K.: The Solution of Two Molecular Flow Problems by The Monte Carlo
Method . Applications in Hydrodynamics. Vol. 4 of Methods in Computational
Physics . Berni Alder , Sidney Fernbach and Manuel Rotenberg , eds . , Academic
Press , 1965, pp . 109-209 .
8. Perlmutter , Morris : Solution of Rarefied Gas Transport Problems. Paper No.
65 - WA /HR - 38, ASME , Nov. 1965.
9. Perlmutter , Morris : Rarefied - Gas Heat Transfer Between Parallel Plates by a
Monte Carlo Method . Proceedings of the 3rd International Heat Transfer Confer
ence, Chicago, Ill . , Aug. 7-12 , 1966. Vol. 1. AICHE , 1966 , pp. 225-234 .
10. Kennard, Earle H .: Kinetic Theory of Gases with an Introduction to Statistical Me
chanics . McGraw - Hill Book Co. , Inc. , 1938 .
11. Goldstein , Herbert : Classical Mechanics . Addison-Wesley Press, 1950 .

42
-

NASA -Langley, 1968 12 E - 3361

다.

2
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TLAS -CENTAUR FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

OR SURVEYOR MISSION A

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 NASA TN D- 4580

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 ABSTRACT

The first operational Atlas - Centaur launch vehicle AC - 10 , with Surveyor space
craft SC - 1, was launched May 30 , 1966. Surveyor was the first Earth - launched space
craft to soft land, under controlled conditions, on the lunar surface. Landing on the
lunar surface occurred on June 2 , 1966. This report includes a flight performance
evaluation of the Atlas -Centaur launch vehicle systems from lift - off through spacecraft
separation and Centaur retromaneuver .

STAR Category 31

ii
 CONTENTS

Page
I. SUMMARY 1

I. INTRODUCTION by John J. Nierberding . 3

I. LAUNCH VEHICLE DESCRIPTION by Eugene E. Coffey . .

5

1. MISSION PERFORMANCE by William A. Groesbeck . . . 11

ATLAS FLIGHT PHASE .
. . . 11
CENTAUR FLIGHT PHASE . . . . . . . 12
SPACECRAFT SEPARATION . . . . 13
CENTAUR RETROMANEUVER 14

SURVEYOR TRANSIT PHASE 15

LAUNCH VEHICLE SYSTEM ANALYSIS . . 19

PROPULSION SYSTEMS by Ronald W. Ruedele, Steven V. Szabo, Jr. ,
Kenneth W. Baud , and Donald B. Zelten . . .
19

Atlas . . 19
Centaur Main Engines . . . 21
Centaur Boost Pumps . 24
26
Centaur Hydrogen peroxide Attitude Control Engines . .

PROPELLANT LOADING AND PROPELLANT UTILIZATION

by Steven V. Szabo , Jr. 37

Level Indicating System for Propellant Loading . . . .

37

Atlas Propellant Utilization System . . . . . . 38

Centaur Propellant Utilization System . 39

48
PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS by William A. Groesbeck and Merle L. Jones
Atlas . 48
Centaur . . . . . . . .
49
HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS by Eugene J. Cieslewicz . . .
61
Atlas . 61
Centaur . 62

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS by John P. Quitter , James Nestor , and

John M. Bulloch . . . 67

Power Sources and Distribution . . . . 67

Instrumentation and Telemetry . 68
Tracking 71

Flight Termination System (Destruct) 72

iii
 VEHICLE STRUCTURES by Robert C. Edwards, Theodore F. Gerus,
>

8C
and Dana H. Benjamin . .

System Description . 80
Vehicle Structural Loads 80
Vehicle Dynamic Loads . . 82

SEPARATION SYSTEMS by Thomas L. Seeholzer . 96

System Description . . O 96
System Performance . . . . 96

GUIDANCE AND FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS by Donald F. Garman ,

William J. Middendorf , Edward R. Ziemba, and Theodore W. Porada 102

Guidance System 104

Flight Control Systems 108

APPENDIXES
A - SUPPLEMENTAL FLIGHT, TRAJECTORY, AND PERFORMANCE DATA
by John J. Nieberding . . 120

B - CENTAUR ENGINE PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS

by William A. Groesbeck, Ronald W. Ruedele , and John J. Nieberding 136

REFERENCES .

iy
 I. SUMMARY

The Atlas - Centaur launch vehicle AC - 10 with Surveyor spacecraft SC - 1 , was

iccessfully launched from Eastern Test Range Complex 36A on May 30 , 1966 , at
141 : 00.99 hours eastern standard time . It was the first operational Atlas -Centaur
hicle and the first attempted launching of an operational Surveyor spacecraft into a
nar intercept trajectory. The mission was a complete success with the spacecraft
ing the first Earth launched vehicle to accomplish a successful controlled soft landing
I the lunar surface . The Surveyor was injected into its lunar intercept trajectory in a
ngle burn (direct ascent) mission . Landing on the lunar surface occurred on June 2 ,
66 .
Lift - off of the launch vehicle was achieved within 1 second after the launch window
ened. It was launched on a flight azimuth of 102° . The flight profile through boost
ase , Centaur main engine firing , spacecraft separation , and Centaur retromaneuver
.s accomplished without incident. Spacecraft injection for lunar intercept was
cellent and only a very slight midcourse velocity correction was required to place the
rveyor on target. Flight time from lift - off to lunar touchdown was about 64 hours .
This report includes an evaluation of the flight performance of the Atlas -Centaur
inch vehicle systems from lift -off through spacecraft separation and Centaur retro
.neuver .
 II. INTRODUCTION
by John J. Nieberding

Atlas - Centaur launch vehicle AC - 10 , which boosted Surveyor SC - 1 into a direct

ascent lunar trajectory , was the first operational flight (Mission A) in a series of seven
planned for 1966-1967 .
Centaur was developed as a second stage for a modified Atlas D missile and was
first flight tested, unsuccessfully, on May 8 , 1962. A major redesign and institution of
>

z program of extensive ground testing made a significant contribution to the subsequent

success achieved by AC - 2 on November 27 , 1963. Seven months later, the flight of AC - 3
on June 30 ,> 1964 , demonstrated the ability of the Atlas -Centaur to jettison the insulation
panels and the nose fairing. This flight also firmly established Centaur's flight capability .
This capability was further confirmed on December 11 , 1964 , by the success of AC - 4 .
Despite the failure of AC - 5 on March 2 , 1965 , caused by a premature shutdown of an
Atlas engine , the Centaur single -burn development program was completed on August 11 ,
1965 , with the flight of AC -6 . This flight successfully demonstrated the ability of
Atlas - Centaur to support the Surveyor mission using a direct ascent flight profile .
AC - 10 was subsequently launched on May 30 , 1966 , with the objective of injecting
he Surveyor spacecraft on a lunar trajectory with sufficient accuracy that the midcourse
orrection , required at 20 hours after injection , would not exceed 50 meters per second .
'he Centaur was also required to perform a retromaneuver after spacecraft separation to
revent impact of Centaur on the Moon and to avoid the possibility of the Surveyor star
ensor mistaking Centaur for the star Canopus .
An evaluation of the results of the Atlas -Centaur flight AC - 10 in support of the
bission objectives is presented in this report . Both Atlas and Centaur systems and sub
ystems are described , and their performance is evaluated .

3
 III. LAUNCH VEHICLE DESCRIPTION

by Eugene E. Coffey

The Atlas - Centaur AC - 10 was a two - stage launch vehicle consisting of an Atlas
first stage and a Centaur second stage. Illustrations of the general arrangement of the
Atlas , Centaur, and Surveyor are shown in figures III - 1 , III - 2, and III - 3. Both stages
-

were 10 feet in diameter and were connected by an interstage adapter . The composite
vehicle was 113 feet in length and weighed 302 248 pounds at lift - off. The Atlas and the
Centaur stages utilized thin -wall, pressurized, main propellant tank sections of mono
coque construction to provide primary structural support for all vehicle systems .
The first -stage Atlas vehicle was 65 feet long . It was powered by a standard
Rocketdyne MA - 5 propulsion system consisting of two booster engines with 328 600
pounds thrust total, a single sustainer engine of 57 000 pounds thrust, and two small
vernier engines of 670 pounds thrust each . These engines , which burned liquid oxygen
and kerosene , were ignited simultaneously on the ground . The booster engines were
>

gimba led for roll and directional control during the booster phase of the flight. This
phase was completed when the vehicle acceleration equa led 5. 68 g's and the booster
engines were cut off. The booster engines were jettisoned 3. 1 seconds after booster
engine cutoff. The sustainer engine and the vernier engines, which were ignited at
ift - off, continued to burn after booster engine cutoff for the Atlas sustainer phase of the
light. During this phase, the sustainer engine gimbaled for directional control while the
rernier engines gimba led for roll control . The sustainer and vernier engines burned
intil propellant depletion, at which time the sustainer phase was completed. The Atlas
vas separated from the Centaur , after sustainer engine cutoff , by the firing of a shaped
harge severance system . The firing of a retrorocket system , required to back the Atlas
nd the interstage adapter away from the Centaur, completed the separation of these
tages . Other major systems of the Atlas first stage included flight control , structures
nd separation, propellant utilization , telemetry and instrumentation , flight termination
destruct) and electrical.
The second - stage Centaur vehicle , including the nose fairing, was 48 feet long.
Centaur , a high - specific - impulse (433 sec) vehicle was powered by two Pratt & Whitney
L - 10A3CM - 1 engines which generated 30 045 pounds thrust total. These engines burned
iquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen .. The Centaur main engines gimbaled to provide direc
ional and roll control during Centaur powered flight. Hydrogen peroxide engines (3.5 ,
, and 50 lb thrust) mounted on the aft periphery of the tank , provided attitude control
5
and additional thrust for vehicle reorientation after Centaur main engine cutoff. The
Centaur was equipped with four insulation panels ( 1 - in . - thick glass fabric sandwich con
struction with a polyurethane foam core ) for insulating the hydrogen tank . The insulation
panels and nose fairing were jettisoned during the Atlas sustainer phase. A fiberglass
nose fairing was used to provide an aerodynamic shield for the Surveyor spacecraft,
guidance equipment , and electronic packages during launch . The Centaur used an inertial
guidance system . Additional major systems of the Centaur included flight control,
structures and separation , propellant utilization, telemetry and instrumentation , flight
termination (destruct) , C - band radar tracking beacon , guidance, and electrical.
The Atlas - Centaur launch vehicle AC - 10 , which injected Surveyor SC - 1 into a lunar
>

intercept trajectory , was substantially similar to AC - 6 , the final launch vehicle flown in
the single -burn, direct -ascent development program (see ref . 1 ) . The only exception was
.

the removal of instrumentation not necessary for an operational vehicle .

The major systems , as they were configured for the Atlas -Centaur launch vehicle
AC - 10 , are delineated in the subsequent sections of this report.

6
1
E

: -Oxidizer boi loff valve

: Forward bulkhead

Oxidizer tank
pressurization line -Liquid oxygen tank

Wiring tunnel

Antislosh
baffle assembly
Intermediate
bulkhead
-Equipment pod
(upper pod in flight)
Equipment pod Fuel tank
( lower pod in flight)
Oxidizer duct

Antivortex
Retrorockets (8) baffle

Vernier thrust
chamber 1

B -2 booster
thrust chamber

Gas generator B - 1 booster

exhaust thrust chamber

Down range or Sustainer thrust

--
down - in -flight chamber
у
-X

Figure III -1 . - General arrangement of Atlas launch vehicle.

7
 -Nose fairing

-Surveyor spacecraft

Insulation panels - -Fuel tank structure

Intermediate bulkhead
Oxidizer tanka
-Engine thrust barrel

Interstage adapter
C -2 engine
thrust chamber
-C-1 engine thrust chamber
Quadrant II
Down range or
down in flight -Y Quadrant I

Quadrant III -Y
Quadrant IV

Figure III -2. - General arrangement of Centaur vehicle.

1
8
 High -gain planar antenna
Solar panel

-Survey television
camera

Omnidirectional
antenna 7

Descent radar antenna

-Attitude jet

Vernier thrust chamber

Figure III -3. - Surveyor spacecraft in landing configuration .

9
i
 IV. MISSION PERFORMANCE

by William A. Groesbeck

ATLAS FLIGHT PHASE

The first operational Atlas Centaur launch vehicle AC - 10 , with Surveyor I, was
launched from Eastern Test Range Complex 36A on May 30 , 1966 , at 0941 : 00.99 hours
eastern standard time. AC - 10 was programmed to fly a single -burn direct -ascent lunar
intercept trajectory from which the first operational Surveyor spacecraft would attempt
i controlled soft landing on the lunar surface. Countdown for the launch proceeded with
put a single interruption, and lift- off was achieved within 1 second after the launch window
opened . Weight of the combined vehicle at lift - off was 302 248 pounds , which gave a
hrust to weight ratio of 1.28 . A compendium of the AC - 10 mission profile and the
Surveyor -Earth -Moon trajectory is shown in figures IV - 1 and IV - 2 . For reference also ,
he postflight vehicle weights summary , atmospheric sounding data , Surveyor launch
vindows, flight events record , and trajectory data are given in appendix A.
Vehicle lift - off was normal and, from lift - off (T + 0 sec) through Atlas booster
staging , the vehicle was flown without guidance generated steering commands on a pre
program med trajectory . The guidance system inertial reference , however , was locked
n at T - 7.5 seconds . The Atlas flight control system initiated the preset roll program
t T + 2 seconds in order to realine the vehicle from the launch pad azimuth of 105 ° to
. flight azimuth of 102.285° . With the roll attitude stabilized on the flight azimuth , the
.

light programmer initiated the booster pitchover program at T + 15 seconds. Winds

loft and maneuvering requirements were not severe and the maximum booster engine
imbal deflections during the ascent did not exceed 3.6° .
The programmed Centaur hydrogen tank nonventing period following lift - off was
nterrupted at T + 53. 8 seconds as tank pressure reached the relief pressure of the high
ange secondary vent valve. The valve cycled once emitting a momentary puff of hydro
en .. A few seconds later , at T + 69.3 seconds and an altitude of 25 500 feet , the primary
ent valve was programmed to the relief mode allowing tank pressure to blow down . The
llage pressure was then controlled at a lower pressure within the regulating range of
le primary vent valve .
Thrust buildup and vehicle acceleration during boost phase proceeded according to
le mission plan , and at an acceleration of 5.68 g's , which occurred at T + 142.04
econds , the Centaur guidance issued the booster engine cutoff signal. Three seconds
11
later , at T + 145.04 seconds , the staging command was given by the Atlas programmer
and the booster engine separated from the vehicle. Staging transients were mild , and
momentary vehicle rate excitation in pitch , yaw , or roll did not exceed 1.0 degree per
second. Low amplitude slosh was excited in the Atlas liquid oxygen tank but it was almost
completely damped out within a few seconds . When guidance steering commands were
first admitted to the Atlas flight control system 8 seconds after booster engine cutoff, the
vehicle was 18 ° nose low and 1.0° nose right of the required steering vector . These dif

ferences , however, were not serious and were corrected in approximately 11 seconds;
the guidance system continued to command a pitchover during the Atlas sustainer phase.
Insulation panels were jettisoned during the sustainer phase at T + 175. 84 seconds.
All panels were completely severed by the shaped charge and cleared the vehicle within
0.2 second . Similarly, the nose fairing unlatch command was given at T + 202. 26 seconds
and the thrustor bottles , firing 0.5 second later, rotated the fairing halves clear of the
vehicle within 0.28 second . Vehicle angular rates due to the jettisoning of the insulation
panels and nose fairing were low and did not exceed 0.25 degree per second in pitch or
yaw , or 1.5 degrees per second in roll. Sustainer and vernier engine systems performed
satisfactorily, building up from a rated sea level thrust of 58 340 pounds to a total vacuum
thrust of 81 000 pounds at engine cutoff . This thrust boosted the vehicle to an Earth
referenced velocity of 11 428 feet per second and an acceleration of 1.8 g's at engine
shutdown . The propellant utilization system operated satisfactorily throughout the Atlas
flight phase, and the sustainer shutdown sequence was initiated in a normal manner with
!
a gradual thrust decay due to depletion of usable liquid oxygen. Sustainer and vernier
engine cutoff occurred at T + 239.4 seconds .
Coincident with sustainer engine cutoff, the guidance steering was disabled allowing
the vehicle to coast on a noncontrolled flight mode. The guidance disable prevented
gimbaling the Centaur engines under nonthrusting conditions and helped maintain required
clearances between the engines and the interstage adapter during staging .
The Atlas staging command from the flight programmer was given at T + 241.3 sec
onds and the shaped charge fired severing the two vehicles. Eight retrorockets on the
Atlas then fired and pushed the Atlas stage clear of the Centaur . The Centaur stage ,
however , did experience some slight disturbances during the Atlas sustainer engine shut
down and vehicle staging sequence , which caused the vehicle to drift off the steering
vector . The angular rates did not exceed 0.2 degree per second, and the drift error was
quickly corrected after the start of Centaur main engines when guidance steering was re
admitted .

CENTAUR FLIGHT PHASE

Centaur stage boost pumps were started prior to sustainer engine cutoff and were
12
deadheaded through staging until main engine start. Required net positive suction pressure
during the near -zero -gravity period from sustainer engine cutoff until main engine start
at T + 250. 9 seconds was provided by pressure pulsing the propellant tanks with helium .
Ullage pressures were increased from 29. 8 to 39.8 psia in the oxygen tank and from
-19 . 7 to 21.2 psia in the hydrogen tank . Eight seconds prior to main engine start, the
Centaur programmer issued preparatory commands for main engine firing. Main engines
were gimbaled to the zero position . Cooldown valves were opened to flow liquid propel
lants through the lines and to chill down the engine turbopumps . Chilldown of the lines
ensured liquid at the pump inlets and enhanced a uniform and rapid thrust buildup at
engine ignition . At T + 250.9 seconds, the ignition command was given by the flight
control programmer , and the engine thrust increased to full flight levels . The difference
between engines in start total impulse during the first 2 seconds following engine ignition
vas only 1289 pound -seconds.
23 Guidance steering for the Centaur stage was enabled at T + 254.9 seconds , when the
engine thrust was fully established . During the main engine start sequence , guidance
-teering was disabled temporarily to allow the engines to be centered and to prevent ex
- essive vehicle angular rates induced by correction of vehicle position errors . However ,
without steering control during this interval, residual angular rates and disturbing torques
aused the vehicle to drift off the steering vector 1° nose high and 4° nose right. These
rrors were corrected within 4 seconds , and the steering commands again provided the
equired pitchdown rate to home in on the injection velocity vector .
The propellant utilization system controlled the mixture ratio during main engine
iring to an average value of 5.06 . Propellant consumption was controlled so that the
urnable residuals at engine cutoff were within 12 pounds of hydrogen at a mixture ratio
f 5.

About 60 seconds prior to the end of Centaur powered flight the pitchover rate de
reased as the vehicle homed in on the desired orbital injection conditions for the
irveyor lunar transfer intercept. At T + 689.2 seconds, the guidance computed velocity
1 -be - gained was zero , and the main engines were cut off. The injection velocity was
1 496 feet per second at an altitude of about 90 nautical miles . At injection , approxi
ately 1700 nautical miles southeast of Cape Kennedy, the vehicle had pitched over a
tal of 135º from its inertial attitude at lift -off. Engine cutoff occurred with 189 pounds
5. burnable propellants remaining, or enough for 2 more seconds of engine firing.

SPACECRAFT SEPARATION

Coincident with main engine cutoff, the guidance steering commands were disabled
d the coast phase hydrogen peroxide attitude control system was activated . Rates im

13
parted to the vehicle at main engine cutoff were mild (not in excess of 0.76 deg /sec ), and
were quickly damped by the attitude control system to rates less than 0.2 degree per
second . The residual motion below this threshold allowed only a negligible drift in
vehicle attitude . This drift did not interfere with the subsequent spacecraft separation.
The Centaur with the Surveyor spacecraft then coasted in a near - zero - gravity field for
about 68 seconds . This coast period allowed for canceling the residual vehicle rates and
preparing the spacecraft for separation. Signa ls from the Centaur programmer were
given to the spacecraft to extend landing gear and omniantennas, to turn on spacecraft
transmitter high power , and to arm the spacecraft for separation. All commands were
received and executed by the spacecraft.
Separation of the spacecraft was commanded at T + 756.9 seconds . Pyrotechnically
operated latches were fired , and the spring loaded mechanism pushed the Surveyor to
impart an approximate 0.75- foot- per- second separation velocity. Full extension of all
three springs occurred within 2 milliseconds of each other . Maximum turning rates
imparted to the spacecraft were only 0.34 degree per second , which was well below the
maximum allowable of 3.0 degrees per second .. The attitude control system had been
disabled at spacecraft separation in order to minimize vehicle turning rates which could
have caused interference between the two vehicles.

CENTAUR RETROMANEUVER

The Centaur vehicle was required to execute a turnaround and retrothrust maneuver
after spacecraft separation in order to eliminate the possibility of the Surveyor acquiring
the reflected light of Centaur rather than the star Canopus . A second objective was to
avoid impact of Centaur on the Moon. A guidance vector for the turnaround was selected
which was the reciprocal of the velocity vector at main engine cutoff . Execution of the
turnaround was commanded at T + 761.9 seconds , 5 seconds after spacecraft separation.
Guidance system logic accounted for any vehicle drift since main engine cutoff and steer
ing commands were given which rotated the Centaur in the shortest arc from its actual
position to the new retrovector . Turning rate during the reorientation was limited, for
structural considerations, to a maximum of 1.6 degrees per second .
About half way through the turnaround at T + 801.9 seconds , two 50 -pound - thrust
hydrogen peroxide engines were fired for 20 seconds to provide lateral as well as addi
tional longitudinal separation from the spacecraft. The lateral separation was necessary
to minimize particle impingement of residual propellants on the spacecraft during the
subsequent Centaur propellant tank blowdown . During this lateral thrust maneuver , the
impingement forces on the vehicle from the engine exhaust plumes were unexpectedly
high and produced a clockwise roll disturbing torque .. These impingement forces required
the 3.5- and 6.0 - pound - thrust attitude control engines to operate 50 percent of the time in
14
order to maintain vehicle orientation .
The turnaround maneuver was completed at T + 860 seconds after rotating the
Evehicle through 161º . Once the retrovector was acquired , the attitude control maintained
the vehicle position on the vector within 1.5º .
The retrothrust maneuver was initiated by programmer command at T + 996.9 sec
onds. The main engines were gimba led to a line the thrust vector with the vehicle center
of gravity , and the engine prestart valves were opened in order to allow the residual
propellants to blow down through the engines . Expelling the residual propellants provided
sufficient thrust to alter the Centaur orbit, and the relative separation distance from the
spacecraft at the end of 5 hours was 1054 kilometers . This distance was more than
three times the required minimum . At completion of the retromaneuver at T + 1246.9
-econds, all vent valves were enabled to the relief or normal regulating mode . Flight
control and all other systems were deenergized allowing the spent vehicle to continue its
orbit in a nonstabilized flight mode .

SURVEYOR TRANSIT PHASE

EL

The Surveyor spacecraft was injected into its lunar intercept trajectory with such
ccuracy that lunar impact would have occurred without any midcourse correction . To
mpact on its preselected target, a slight midcourse velocity correction of only
.8 meters per second for miss only , or 6. 4 meters per second for miss plus time of
rrival would have been required. However , the Surveyor Mission Manager elected to
hange the landing site during the flight to optimize the landing configuration . A new
Irget, as shown in figure IV - 3, was established at 2.33° South latitude, and 43. 83°
est longitude , and the actual midcourse maneuver was executed at T + 16 hours 4 min
tes from lift - off. A total correction of 20. 35 meters per second was made . This cor
-

ection was the vector sum of 3. 74 meters per second for miss only, 5.7 meters per
econd for time of flight, and 15. 66 meters per second for optimizing fuel margin and
irnout velocity .
On June 2 , 1966 at 0117 : 37 hours eastern standard time , after an elapsed flight time
63 hours , 36 minutes, and 36 seconds , the Surveyor spacecraft successfully touched
own on the lunar surface . The touchdown point, only 9 miles off the revised aiming
bint, was at a position of 2.58° South latitude and 43. 35º West longitude . This location
is approximately 60 miles North of the crater Flamsteed . The Surveyor touchdown,
d the subsequent pictorial data transmission , was completely successful and the

st controlled soft landing of an Earth launched interplanetary space vehicle on the

bon . An eva luation of the Surveyor spacecraft performance is given in reference 2 .

15
16
,
initiated
turnaround
Centaur
avector
eversed
"" dmitted
rguidance
;
reference
attitude
retromaneuver
for
; 61.91
T+7sec
separation
Surveyor
56.91
7T+sec
Sveis
12
for
pitch
admitted
Guidance 10
13
control
steering
;and
yaw mission
Centaur
T+2sec
54.88 ;
completion
246.92
1T+sec
Atlas
-C entaur ;<Centaur
initiated
blowdown
;
separation T+996.92
sec
T+41.31
2sec
Main
engines
,
off
;
enabled
engines
attitude
T+689.21
sec
Chill
Jettison
nose
;fairing down
engine
Main
;ignition
s)(8ec
T+2sec
02.76 2T+50.86
sec

Jettison POT vernier

and
Sustainer
engine
insulation
panels
; ,dguidance
;cutoff
isable
75.84
+1Tsec T+239.38
sec

for
admitted
Guidance
;
steering
yaw
and
pitch
T+150.04
sec

Booster
jettison
;
T+145.04
sec
Programmed
pitchover
- ooster
cutoff
B;engine
T+142.04
sec

;
roll
Programmed
T+2t1o5
sec

-8555
CD
-oLift
ff
T+0
sec
compendium
.-1,A 0C
-Flight
IV
Figure
sequence
 Position of Moon at impact
To Sun
Goldstone To Sun Touchdown
Launch 51

Launch
through
separation

Sun acquistion -Midcourse correction

Canopus

Position of Moon at launch

Figure IV -2. - Surveyor -Earth -moon trajectory: 1 , injection and separation: 2, star acquistion and verification ;
3, reacquisition of Sun and star after midcourse correction ; 4, retrophase initiated about 60 miles from Moon ;
5, vernier descent initiated 35 000 feet above surface of Moon .

Area of possible impact around final

aim point after midcourse correction --Final aim point

2 --- Landing site

eg hude
d,latit
Sout

༢
nitial aim point

le

8
50 48 46 44 42 40 38
West longitude, deg
Figure IV - 3. - Surveyor I landing location.

17
18
 V. LAUNCH VEHICLE SYSTEM ANALYSIS

PROPULSION SYSTEM

by Ronald W. Ruedele , Steven V. Szabo , Jr. , Kenneth W. Baud , and Donald B. Zelten
>

Atlas

System description . - The Rocketdyne MA - 5 engine system used on the Atlas vehicle
consisted of two booster engines , a sustainer engine, two vernier engines, an engine
start system , a logic control package , and associated electrical equipment . The system
schematic is shown in figure V- 1 . All engines were single start and used liquid oxygen
and kerosene (RP - 11) as propellants. The engines were hypergolically ignited through the
use of pyrophoric fuel cartridges. The pyrophoric fuel preceeded the RP - 1 into the
thrust chamber and initiated ignition with the liquid oxygen . Combustion was then sus
tained by the RP - 1 and liquid oxygen .
All thrust chambers were regeneratively cooled by using the fuel as the coolant. The
engine acceptance test thrust values are given in the following table:

Engine Thrust,
lb

Booster (2 ) 328 600

Sustainer 57 000
Vernier (2 ) 1 340

Total thrust | 386 940

(sea level )

The booster engine system consisted of two gimbaled thrust chamber assemblies and
common power package consisting of a gas generator , two turbopumps , and a support
>

ng control system . The sustainer engine was a single gimba led engine assembly con
isting of a thrust chamber , gas generator , turbopump and a supporting control system .
he vernier engines consisted of thrust chamber assemblies , propellant valves, gimbal
odies , and mounts . The self - contained engine start system consisted of an oxidizer
art tank , a fuel start tank , and the associated control system .

19
 TABLE V - I . - ATLAS ENGINE SYSTEM PERFORMANCE DATA , AC - 10

Parameter Flight time, sec

T + 10 Booster engine Sustainer engine
cutoff, cutoff ,
T + 142.04 T + 239.38

Booster engine 1 :
Chamber pressure , psia 577 577
Pump speed , rpm 6 368 6 339
Oxidizer pump inlet pressure , psia 57 79

Fuel pump inlet pressure , psia 67 51

Booster engine 2 :
Chamber pressure , psia 575 579
Pump speed, rpm 6 300 6 300
Oxidizer pump inlet pressure , psia 58 82

Fuel pump inlet pressure , psia 67 53

Booster gas generator combustion 534 528

chamber pressure , psia
Booster liquid oxygen regulator 629 619
reference pressure , psia
Sustainer engine chamber pressure , 707 692 682
psia

Sustainer pump speed , rpm 10 080 9 958 10 080

Sustainer oxidizer injector 812 812 802

manifold pressure , psia
Sustainer fuel pump discharge 917 932 924

pressure , psia
Sustainer oxidizer regulator 831 821 821
reference pressure , psia
Sustainer gas generator discharge 643 643 643
pressure , psia
Sustainer fuel pump inlet pressure , 70 63 40
psia
Sustainer oxidizer pump inlet 63 87 32
pressure , psia

Sustainer oxidizer pump inlet -284 -281 -281

temperature, °F
Vernier engine 1 chamber pressure , 267 265 265

psia
Vernier engine 2 chamber pressure , 264 260 264
psia

20
 Engine performance . - All engine system operations were satisfactory during flight .
The total calculated lift - off thrust was 387 500 pounds (acceptance test value was
386 940 lb ), well within the limits of allowable engine performance . All system param
eters displayed values indicative of proper engine operation . Engine performance data
for T + 10 seconds , booster engine cutoff, and just prior to thrust decay at sustainer
engine cutoff are summarized in table V -I.

Centaur Main Engines

System description . - Two Pratt & Whitney RL 10A3CM - 1 engines were used to
provide thrust for the Centaur stage on AC - 10 . These were high energy hydrogen-oxygen
engines with a nozzle expansion ratio of 40. Rated vacuum thrust of each engine was
15 000 pounds (acceptance test values were 14 994 and 15 051 lb of thrust for the C - 1 and
C - 2 engines, respectively) at a design thrust chamber pressure of 300 psia and an
oxidizer to fuel mixture ratio of 5.0 . The specific impulse was 433 seconds.
The engine system , shown schematically in figure V- 2 , utilized a regeneratively
cooled thrust chamber and a turbopump -fed propellant flow system . Pumped fuel , after
cooling the thrust chamber , was expanded through a turbine , which drove the propellant
pumps . By regulating the amount of fuel bypassed around the turbine as a function of
combustion chamber pressure , it was possible to vary turbopump speed and thereby
>

control engine thrust. The oxidizer was pumped directly to the propellant injector
through the propellant utilization (mixture ratio control) valve. Ignition was accomplished
by a spark igniter recessed in the propellant injector face . Engine start and stop se
quences were controlled by pneumatically operated valves actuated by electrical signals
from the vehicle . The engines were gimbal mounted to permit thrust vector control for
steering the vehicle .
System performance . · Main engine performance appeared normal throughout the
Centaur flight. Eight seconds prior to main engine start, the engine inlet valves were
opened to flow liquid propellants through the lines and to chill down the engine pumps .
Command for engine ignition was given by the flight control programmer at T + 250.9
seconds , and thrust increased normally to full flight levels. The thrust chamber pres
sure rise for the engine start is shown in figure V - 3 . Ignition of the C - 1 engine required
-

approximately 0.28 second, which was somewhat longer than normal. The time , how
ever , was within the limits of previous experience , and it did not produce any adverse
effect on the engine start transient. No thrust overshoot, as experienced on AC - 6 , was
-

observed from either the chamber pressure or oxidizer pump speed rise data , which are
presented in figure V- 4 . The start total impulse to 95 percent of rated thrust was calcu
.

lated to be 1970 and 2373 pound- seconds for the C - 1 and C - 2 engines , respectively . Cor

21
responding engine acceleration times were 1. 11 and 1.21 seconds . The start total im
pulse from engine start to 2 seconds was calculated to be 15 073 and 13 784 pound - seconds
for the two engines, respectively . The difference in these total impulse values was ac
ceptable.
Liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen pump inlet temperature and pressure data are
presented in figures V- 5 and V - 6 . The pump inlet pressures remained well above
saturation for any fluid inlet temperature. The margin between the steady - state operating
limit and the actual inlet conditions ensured satisfactory values of net positive suction
pressure .
Steady - state engine operating conditions are summarized and compared with cor
responding predicted values in table V- II . All actual flight values were within the
allowable tolerances .

TABLE V - O . - CENTAUR PROPULSION SYSTEM DATA

Parameter Expected range Time from main engine start, sec

90 200 435

Engine

C-1 C -2 C-1 C -2 C-1 C -2

Hydrogen total pressure at pump inlet, psia 21.9 to 48.1 35.7 36.2 35.6 35.2 33. 3 33.4

Hydrogen temperature at pump inlet, ' R 34 to 39.8 38.5 38.6 38.2 38. 1 37. 3 37.1

Oxidizer total pressure at pump inlet , psia 45 to 77 63.0 65.3 64.3 66.1 61.1 63.8

Oxidizer temperature at pump inlet, ºr 171 to 182.5 176.6 176.4 176.0 175.9 172.5 172.3

Oxidizer pump speed , rpm 11 140 to 11 676 11 569 11 420 11 569 11 340 11 460 11 510

Hydrogen pressure upstream of venturi , psia 647 to 695 657.8 666.7 653.7 665.7 6527 665.7

Hydrogen temperature at turbine inlet , 'R 302 to 348 318. 2 329.5 311.5 327.3 312.8 324.3

Oxidizer injector differential pressure , psid 43 to 59 58.4 55. 3 58.9 54. 4 57. 7 55.3

Engine chamber pressure , psia 292 to 300 297.3 295.2 296.0 295.8 295.5 294.5

Engine performance values of thrust, specific impulse, and mixture ratio during
main engine firing were within specification. Engine performance values at T + 90 sec
onds are shown in table V- III . Performance values in table V - III are based on the Pratt &
Whitney C * method . From the guidance acceleration data , the calculated vehicle spec
ific impulse was a little lower at 431.6 seconds . This agreement is very good consider
ing the accuracy of the telemetry data used in the C * calculation . A more complete
summary and discussion of these performance calculation methods is given in appendix B.
22
 TABLE V - III. - CENTAUR ENGINE PERFORMANCE

SUMMARY AT T + 90 SECONDS , AC - 10

a
Parameter Expected value C - 1 engine C - 2 engine
Engine thrust , lb 14 700 to 15 226 14 997 15 069

Specific impulse, sec 429. 7 to 438.3 433.7 434.8

2

Mixture ratio 4.921 to 5.079 5. 102 5. 124

It a Tolerances apply only for zero angle of propellant utilization

valve .

The overall variation in performance with time was slight. Normally , the main
reason for any performance change can be related to control movement of the propellant
utilization valve. However , on AC - 10 , the movement of the propellant utilization valve
was less than usual, and the engine performance remained relatively constant .
Engine shutdown appeared normal . Chamber pressure began to decay 0.05 and
0.07 second following the main engine cutoff signal for the C - 1 and C -2 engines , respec
tively . These values compared favorably with those obtained on previous vehicles .
Vehicle shutdown impulse was calculated to be 3304 pound - seconds which was higher
than the predicted level of 3050 pound - seconds. This difference was a big contributor to
the required midcourse correction of 3.8 meters per second . However , 3.8 meters per
second was much smaller than the allowable specification , as discussed in the GUIDANCE
AND FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS section of this
Engine burn time was 3.1 seconds longer than predicted , but this difference was
within the allowable engine operating limits . If the Atlas performance was assumed to be
normal, three possible causes for the longer Centaur burn time were ( 1) low engine
>

thrust, ( 2) high specific impulse, and (3) high propellant loading. Any of these factors
would have the effect of increasing vehicle weight at any given time during the ascent . A
longer burn time would thus be necessary to drive the heavier vehicle to its required
energy level at engine cutoff .
A computer investigation was conducted to determine the effect of slight changes in
engine thrust, specific impulse , and propellant loading on engine burn time . These
values of thrust, specific impulse , and propellant loading were varied separately while
: holding the other two constant. With thrust 400 pounds low , specific impulse 3 seconds
! high , and propellant weight 300 pounds high , engine burn time was increased by 5.94 ,
>

0 1.90 , and 3.63 seconds, respectively. The assumed low thrust level of 400 pounds
caused the residuals following main engine cutoff to be only 6 pounds low , while the high
specific impulse and high propellant loading increased the residual level by 74 and
50 pounds , respectively. The variation of these parameters was within specification
23
limits , and yet the combination , when root sum squared , could increase engine burn
time by approximately 7.2 seconds . When all factors are considered , the preflight
uncertainty for engine burn time was +8.4 , -10.4 seconds .

Centaur Boost Pumps

System description . - Boost pumps were used in the liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen
tanks on Centaur to supply propellants to the main engine pumps at required inlet pres
sures . Both pumps were a mixed flow type and were powered by gas driven turbines as
shown in figures V- 7 to V - 10 . Superheated steam and oxygen from the catalytically de
composed products of hydrogen peroxide were supplied to drive the turbines. A constant
turbine power on each unit was maintained by metering the hydrogen peroxide through
fixed area orifices upstream of the catalyst bed .
Boost pump performance. - Performance of the boost pumps was satisfactory during
the entire flight. Boost pump start command was initiated at lift -off + 203. 7 seconds and
was terminated simultaneously with main engine cutoff at lift - off + 689.2 seconds . First
indications of turbine inlet pressures were evident 1.0 and 3.2 seconds after boost pump
start for fuel and oxidizer boost pumps , respectively . The slow pressure response on
the liquid oxygen turbine relative to the liquid hydrogen turbine was unusual. Normally ,
the first indication of pressure occurs on the oxidizer pump because it has a shorter
hydrogen peroxide supply line. The most common causes for delay in pressure rise are
( 1 ) gas trapped in the hydrogen peroxide bottle and supply lines to the boost pump tur
bines , and (2 ) slow catalyst bed reaction due to a cold or slightly contaminated catalyst
bed . However , ground test experience has shown that less than 1 second of differential
response time can be expected due to gas trapped in the bottle and supply lines . The
principal cause of delay has been one catalyst bed being slightly contaminated or colder
than the other (up to 2.5 sec of differential response time has been observed in ground
tests ) . Prior to lift - off, the AC - 10 landline turbine bearing temperature data did in
dicate that the oxidizer turbine was 10° colder than the fuel turbine (64° and 74° F ,
respectively ). The longer oxidizer de lay therefore was probably caused by a cold or
slightly contaminated catalyst bed . The 3.2 - second delay was well within the time
allowed in the start sequence , which was 16 seconds .
Steady - state turbine inlet pressures are shown in table V-IV. Average values were
within 2 psi of the expected values with up to 32 -psi peak - to - peak pressure oscillations
superimposed . Oscillations of 100 psi peak to peak have been experienced on previous
flights and in ground tests with no apparent effect on turbine performance .
Steady -state oxidizer boost pump headrise , oxidizer turbine speed, and fuel turbine
speed data , as shown in figures V- 11 to V - 13 , were all higher than the expected values

24
 TABLE V- IV . CENTAUR BOOST PUMP TURBINE INLET PRESSURE, AC - 10

Parameter Expected range Time from boost pump start,

sec

40 100 200 300 400 485

Oxidizera turbine inlet pressure , psia 96 to 108 100 100 101 102 103 104

Fuelb turbine inlet pressure, psia 128 to 140 132 135 135 135 135 136

a values are averages of oscillations which started 30 sec after boost pump start and
continued throughout boost pump operation with maximum amplitude of 32 psi
peak to peak .
: bvalues are averages of oscillations which started immediately after boost pump
start and continued throughout boost pump operation with maximum amplitude
of 20 psi peak to peak.

calculated from ground acceptance test data . The differences were attributed to the
inability of the ground tests to simulate correctly the actual flight conditions .
Oxidizer boost pump headrise, oxidizer turbine speed , and fuel turbine speed data
! indicated that the propellants moved away from the boost pump inlets immediately
following main engine cutoff . This liquid displacement was expected for a single -burn
mission as no means were provided or were necessary to retain the propellants in a
settled condition . The fuel turbine speed began a linear decay 2 seconds after main
: engine cutoff, and the oxidizer pump headrise decayed to zero by main engine cutoff
1 + 5 seconds with a corresponding linear decay in oxidizer turbine speed. Linear turbine
! speed decay and zero headrise are typical coastdown characteristics without liquid in the
pump .
Oxidizer temperatures at the boost pump inlet, as shown in figure V- 14 , were normal
throughout the flight. Temperature data indicated the presence of liquid at the pump
inlet from lift - off through main engine cutoff . At booster engine cutoff, the reduction in
vehicle acceleration reduced the static head pressure causing some local boiling and a
slight drop in temperature as the liquid oxygen equilibrated at the lower saturation pres
sure .

Fuel boost pump turbine bearing temperature data are shown in figure V- 15 . The
temperature dropped 6° F from lift - off through boost pump start and then increased to
338° F by main engine cutoff at an average rate of 0.56 degree per second , which was
normal .

25
 Centaur Hydrogen peroxide Attitude Control Engines

System description . - Attitude control of the Centaur vehicle during the coast phase
after main engine cutoff and during the Centaur reorientation and retromaneuver was
provided by a combination of fixed -axis constant - thrust hydrogen peroxide engines . The
system is shown in figure V - 16 . Propellants were fed to the engines from a positive
expulsion , bladder type storage bottle which was pressurized to about 300 psia by the
pneumatics system . Firing commands to the engines were given by the Centaur autopilot
in response to guidance steering information .
On AC - 10 the attitude control system was composed of four engines with 50 pounds
thrust each , and two clusters of three engines each . Each cluster contained one 6 -pound
thrust and two 3.5 -pound - thrust engines. These engines were used for attitude control
and vehicle reorientation after main engine cutoff and spacecraft separation . The
50 -pound engines provided thrust midway through the Centaur reorientation to provide
lateral as well as increased axial separation distance from the spacecraft. These
engines were also called upon by control logic if attitude errors exceeded the control
capability of the cluster engines .
Engine performance. - All engine systems operated satisfactorily throughout the
flight . Engine chamber temperature data were all normal , and there was no indication of
propellant leakage. The hydrogen peroxide consumption for the attitude control system
was computed to be 17.5 pounds from ground - test flow rates and actual engine firing
times. With 49. 4 pounds of hydrogen peroxide used by the boost pump turbines , 66.9
pounds of propellants were consumed during the flight.. At lift -off, 132 pounds of propel
lants were tanked .

26
 Main
liquid
oxygen Liquid oxygen
Booster prevalve
fuel supply
prevalve -Main Vernier
fuel i engine 1
Sustainer fuel prevalve
supply i r Fuel
Vernier start
engine 2 tank
Sustainer fuel
- Liquid fill and check
oxygen valve
start tank
-Sustainer
Sustainer oxidizer fill
gas generator and check
valve

Sustainer Staging Liquid

Fuel turbopump valves oxygen
staging Igniter Booster staging
valve valve į liquid valve
Propellant oxygen
utilization fill and
valve check valve
Sustainer engine Booster
gas
Head suppression valve
generator
Booster fuel fill
and check valve

B - 1 turbopump

-B-2 turbopump Liquid

Fuel fill oxygen fill
and drain Main liquid Main and drain
- Main liquid
valve oxygen valve fuel oxygen valve valve
valve
Main
fuel Limited Check valve
flow - Full flow
valve Igniter Kerosene ( RP-1 )
fuel valves Liquid oxygen
Booster Booster
engine 2 engine 1 8 Mechanical drive
CD -8104
Figure V-1 . - Atlas propulsion system schematic drawing, AC -10.

27
 Fuel inlet Oxidizer inlet
shutoff valve shutoff valve
Fuel pump
interstage
cooldown valve

Oxidizer
pump
Fuel pump
Fuel pump
discharge
cooldown valve
Gearbox

4Fuel/oxidizer speed ratio, 2.5)

Turbine

Thrust
control
valve Mixture ratio
and propellant
utilization valve "
Main fuel
shutoff valve
Venturi --Spark igniter

Thrust chamber

Figure V-2. - Centaur gine system schematic drawing, AC -10.

28
 350
Engine
C- 1
O C-2
300
RE
ppressure
chamber
Thrust

250
, sia

200

150
100

50

0 .8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2

Time from main engine start, sec
Figure V-3. - Centaur engine chamber pressure start transient, AC - 10.

12x103
Abo

Engine
o C-1
10 0 C -2
Oxidizer
pump
rspeed
, pm

2.

4 8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2

Time from main engine start, sec
Figure V -4. - Centaur engine oxidizer pump speed start transient, AC - 10.

29
 13
Engine

ОО
C-1

Temperature
C-2
42

pump
inlet
fuel
,PR
at
41
Main engine
Saturation start - 7 sec 7
line
40 Steady- state Main engine

0
operating start - 6 sec
line

39
1. 1 sec -1.6 sec K Main
1
Main engine engine
e

1.7 sec start

start + 90 sec
38

37
20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48
Fuel pump inlet total pressure, psia
Figure V - 5. - Centaur fuel pump inlet conditions, AC - 10.

180
Engine Main engine start - 7 sec
Oo

4 sec
C-1
Main engine'starit
Temperature

C-2 1.2 sec

oxidizer

178 -1.3 sec 1.0 sec

pump
inlet

-1.5 sec
at
,°R

3.0 sec Main

Saturation
-10 . O sec
176

line engine start

Main engine
start + 90. O sec

174

172

Steady - state
170 operating line

168
20

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 110 120
Total pressure at oxidizer pump inlet, psia
Figure V - 6. - Centaur oxidizer pump inlet conditions, AC - 10.

30
 To attitude
Turbine TTT control engines
Hydrogen peroxide
rotor overboard vent
-Catalyst bed
Gear
train -Orifice

-Filter
-Speed limiting valve
-Hydrogen peroxide vent valve
-Orifice
Liquid oxygen -Filter
-Filter -Boost pump
boost pump feed valve

Fill and drain port

Filter
Liquid hydrogen -Filter
boost pump 7 -Orifice Expulsion
bladder
-Speed limiting
valve -Relief valve
Gear
I train
--Orifice
1000 RRE

-Catalyst bed Hydrogen peroxide -Filter

supply bottle -Ground pressurization port
Turbine IT
rotor -Filter

Pressurization valve LPneumatic supply CD-9515

helium gas

Figure V-7. - Schematic drawing of Centaur boost pump hydrogen peroxide supply, AC -10.

Liquid hydrogen tank

Volulte bleed
I return line

-Sump

Pump
Liquid oxygen tank
-Turbine
Pump Sump
Turbine exhaust

To engines

To engines CD -9516
Turbine - -Exhaust
-

Figure V-8. - Centaur tank -mounted boost pumps , AC- 10.

31
 Liquid hydrogen sump
- Volute bleed return line

Liquid
hydrogen
inlet

-Inducer

Impeller

Liquid hydrogen
discharge

Coupling

Electrical dis
tribution box
Speed
limiting
valve

LCatalyst
bed
CD-9512
Turbine exhaust

Figure V -9 . - Centaur liquid hydrogen boost pump and turbine cutaway, AC - 10 .

32
 Liquid oxygen
discharge

-Volute

Liquid oxygen
inlet--
Impeller
-Inducer

-Liquid oxygen sump

-Coupling

-- Turbine exhaust

-Speed limiting value

Electrical
distribution box
< Turbine rotor
CD - 9513

Figure V-10. - Centaur liquid oxygen boost pump and turbine cutaway, AC-10.

33
 differential
100

pressure
pPump
, sid
80

60

40

20
Expected headrise ( steady state)
Start Main Main
in - flight engine Note change engine
chilldown start in scale cutoff
20 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 500
Time from boost pump start, sec

Figure V - 11. - Centaur oxidizer boost pump headrise, AC - 10 .

40x103
Turbine
speed

_Expected headrise ( steady state) .

pm

30
,r

20

Sustainer Start in- flight

10 engine chilldown Main
Note change
cutoff in scale engine
Main engine start cutoff
1

20 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 500 600

Time from boost pump start, sec
Figure V- 12. - Centaur oxidizer boost pump turbine speed, AC - 10.

60x103

50
.
Turbine

Expected steady- state speed

speed
, pm

40
r

30

20

-Sustainer
10 enginel Start in- flight
cutoff chilldown Main
Note change
Main engine in scale engine
start cutoff
20 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Time from boost pump start, sec

Figure V - 13. - Centaur fuel boost pump turbine speed, AC - 10 .

34
 -280

-281

-282

be
Temperature

-283
F,°

-284

-285

-286
Booster engine cutoff
Boost pump start
-287
Sustainer engine cutoff Main
1
Main engine start engine
-288 ||| cutoff
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time from lift- off, min

Figure V - 14. - Oxidizer temperature at Centaur boost pump inlet, AC - 10.

380

340

300
Temperature

260
,°F

220

180

140

100 Boost pump start Main

engine
D

cutoff
60
14

-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time from lift- off, min
i Figure V - 15. - Centaur fuel boost pump turbine bearing temperature, AC - 10.

35
 Convergent
divergent
hozzle 1
Steel flange -Solenoid valve

200
Catalyst bed
Heat barrier
T 13.5-1b thrust 1 Typical,
Typical 3.5- or 6 -pound -thrust attitude control engine. i !
i iro -lb thrust 2 places

A4 / Plll Al

50-1b thrust
SUC
(4 places)
V4 Vi

Main engine, C - 1

Boost pump 1
I liquid oxygen
| sump
Pressure port
( helium )
Hydrogen
peroxide
tank

Main engine, C -2

Bladder -
- Ait O

Helium V3 V2
Hydrogen
peroxide
- Hydrogen
BO peroxide
manifold
A3 P2 1 A2
Attitude control engine
cluster (2 places)
View looking forward

Hydrogen peroxide positive expulsion

bladder type storage bottle

CD - 9517
Catalyst bed
- Solenoid valve

50-1b thrust engine

Figure V- 16. - Centaur hydrogen peroxide engine system, AC - 10.

36
 PROPELLANT LOADING AND PROPELLANT UTILIZATION

by Steven V. Szabo , Jr.

Level Indicating System for Propellant Loading

System description. - Atlas propellant levels in the tanks before flight were deter
mined by using liquid level sensors located at discrete points in the fuel (RP- 1 ) and liquid
oxygen tanks, as shown in figure V- 17. The sensors located in the fuel tank were vibrat
ing piezoelectric crystals . The sensors in the liquid oxygen tank were the platinum hot
wire type .
The associated control circuitry for the fuel level sensors was an oscillator circuit
ising the resonant characteristics of the piezoelectric crystal to maintain oscillations .
When the sensor was immersed in liquid, the vibratory oscillations of the crystal were
lamped causing the control circuit to stop oscillating. This cessation of oscillations
caused a control relay to deenergize and provide a signal to the propellant loading
perator.
The control unit for the platinum hot -wire liquid oxygen sensors was an amplifier
hat detected a change in voltage level (similar to a Schmidt trigger circuit) . The liquid
oxygen sensors were supplied with a near constant current source (approximately
? 00 mA) . The voltage drop across a sensor reflected the resistance value of the sensor .
Che sensing element was a 1 -mil platinum wire which had a linear resistance temperature
oefficient. When dry or warm , the wire had a high resistance and therefore a high
oltage drop; when it was cold, as immersed in a cryogenic , the wire had a low resistance
nd a low voltage drop. When the sensor was wetted , a control relay was deenergized ,
nd a signal was transmitted to the propellant loading operator.
The Centaur propellant level indicating system is shown in figure V- 18 . It utilized
ot -wire level sensors in both the liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen tanks. The sensors
rere similar in operation to the ones used in the Atlas liquid oxygen tank .
Propellant weights. - Atlas fuel (RP - 1) was 76 951 pounds at lift - off at a density of
9.75 pounds per cubic foot. Atlas liquid oxygen at lift - off was 173 426 pounds at a
ensity of 69.27 pounds per cubic foot .
Centaur propellant loading was satisfactorily accomplished with 5277 pounds of liquid
ydrogen and 25 520 pounds of liquid oxygen on board at lift - off. Data used to determine
ropellant weights at lift - off are given in table V- V.
-

37
 TABLE V - V . - CENTAUR PROPELLANT LOADING DATA , AC - 10

Quantity or event Propellant

Hydrogen Oxygen

Sensor required to be wet at T - 90 sec , percent 99.8 100. 2

Sensor station, in . 174.99 373. 16

1256.69 370.94
Volume at sensora, cu ft
11.22 6.58
Ullage volume at sensor , cu ft
Liquid hydrogen 99.8 percent sensor dry, sec T - 71

Liquid oxygen 100. 2 percent sensor dry , sec Wet at T - 0

Ullage pressure , psia 20.5 30. 3
Propellant densityb , lb/cu ft 4.215 68.8
Weight in tank at time sensor goes dry , lb 5297 Sensor wet at lift - off
Liquid hydrogen boiloff to vent valve lock , lb 20
Ullage volume at lift - off, lb/cu ft 15.8 6.58

Weight at lift -off, lb 5277 25 520

a Volumes include 1.85 cu ft liquid oxygen and 2.53 cu ft liquid hydrogen for lines
from boost pumps to turbopump inlet valves .
bDensities are taken from vapor pressure against density curves for effective
density of boiling hydrogen and oxygen .

Atlas Propellant Utilization System

System description . The Atlas propellant utilization system (fig . V- 19 ) was used to
-

1
ensure near simultaneous propellant depletion and minimum residuals at sustainer engine
cutoff. This was accomplished by controlling propellant mixture ratio (ratio of oxidizer
flow rate to fuel flow rate) to the sustainer engine. The system consisted of two mercury
manometer assemblies which sensed fuel and oxidizer head pressures , a computer
comparator package, a hydraulically actuated propellant utilization ( fuel) valve , sensing
lines , and associated electrical harnessing . During flight, the manometers sensed
propellant head pressures which were indicative of propellant mass . The mass ratio was
then compared with a reference ratio in the computer - comparator , and if needed , a
correction signal was sent to the valve controlling the main fuel flow to the sustainer
engine. The oxidizer flow was regulated by the head suppression valve . This valve
sensed propellant utilization valve movement and moved in a direction opposite to that of 1

the propellant utilization valve. The head suppression valve thus varied propellant
mixture ratio , but maintained a constant total propellant mass flow to the sustainer
engine .
System performance . - The Atlas propellant utilization system performance during
the AC - 10 flight was satisfactory. The propellant flow rates were controlled to a nearly
simultaneous depletion of usable propellants. The fuel valve responded properly to the
38
 system error signal given by the error demodulator output, as shown in figure V- 20 .
During sustainer flight , the system was controlled to a full oxygen - rich position to reduce
- residuals . This caused a characteristic liquid oxygen depletion mode , as shown in fig
ure V - 21 . Sustainer liquid oxygen pump inlet pressure began to decay approximately
6 seconds prior to sustainer engine cutoff . The engine cutoff signal was given by the
pressure switches on the sustainer fuel injector manifold . Approximately 0.2 second
after the engine cutoff signal, the fuel depletion sensors indicated dry , corroborating the
nearly simultaneous propellant depletion .
Propellant residuals . The nearly simultaneous depletion of usable propellants
: resulted in residuals of 369 pounds of liquid oxygen and 137 pounds of fuel . These values
are based on densities of 68.6 pounds per cubic foot for liquid oxygen and 50 pounds per
** cubic foot of fuel at this time in flight . The liquid oxygen residual was calculated by
using the propellant utilization head sensing port uncovery (see fig . V - 19) as a reference .
The fuel residual represents the amount between the fuel depletion sensors and the sus
tainer engine pump inlet .

LE

Centaur Propellant Utilization System

System description . - The Centaur propellant utilization system was used during
flight to optimize propellant consumption for minimum residuals . The system is shown
schematically in figure V - 22 . It was also used during tanking to indicate propellant
levels . In flight, the mass of propellant remaining in each tank was sensed by a capaci
* tance probe and compared in a bridge circuit. If the mass ratio of propellants remaining
in the tanks varied from a predetermined value (oxidizer to fuel ratio , 5.0) , an error
: signal was sent to the proportional servopositioner which controlled the liquid oxygen flow
control valve . If the mass ratio in the tank was greater than 5.0 , the liquid oxygen flow
was increased to return the ratio to 5.0 . If the ratio in the tank was less than 5.0 , the
liquid oxygen flow was decreased . Since the sensing probes did not extend to the top of the
tank , system control was not effected until approximately 90 seconds after main engine
Eg start. For this 90 seconds of engine burn, the liquid oxygen flow control valves were
nulled (locked at a propellant mixture ratio of 5.0) .
System performance . - Prelaunch checks and calibrations of the system were within
specifications. The in - flight operation of the propellant utilization system was satisfac
tory . The system liquid oxygen valve positions during flight are shown in figure V -23 .
The valves were unnulled by the programmer at approximately main engine start +
90 seconds . Probe uncovery (liquid levels passing the top of the probe) occurred as
expected also at approximately main engine start + 90 seconds . The valves were
placed in a null position by the programmer at approximately 30 seconds prior to engine

39
cutoff . This nulling was done because the probes do not extend to the bottom of the tank.
System accuracy. The Centaur propellant utilization system controlled propellant
consumption so that the burnable residual propellants were within 12 pounds of hydrogen
of a mixture ratio of 5.0 at engine cutoff. This error accounts for the system bias which
was used to ensure that liquid oxygen would deplete first .
Propellant residuals . - The propellant residuals remaining at engine cutoff were
calculated with end sensing times as reference points. The residuals were as follows:
Oxygen :
Total residual weight, lb 199 + 20
Burnable, lb.
lb .. 131 + 13
Available burn time, sec . 2.3

Hydrogen :
Total residual weight, lb . . 130 + 13
Burnable, lb ... 58+ 6
Available burn time, sec 5.2

Oxidizer top high

Top high
Oxidizer top low Top low

Level high
Liquid Oxidizer level high Level low
oxygen
95 percent
Oxidizer level low Oxidizer

90 % 95 % 100% OIF
Oxidizer 95 percent ОС
Fuel
Fuel overfill

Propellant topping panel

Fuel 100 percent

Fuel
Fuel 95 percent

Fuel 90 percent
CD - 9518
Control units

Figure V- 17 . - Level indicating system for Atlas propellant loading, AC - 10 . (Percent levels are indications of required flight levels and not
percent of total tank volume. )

40
 Liquid
hydrogen
tanking
panel
control
Flow
valve
of
Percent
Station level
hydrogen
Liquid
level
flight 100.2 100.2
171.5 100.2 Dry Wet
174.5
99.8 99.8
99.8
194.4 95
Dry Wet
95 95
Dry Wet
Close Open

System
power
Full
open
On
D Control
close
Power
on Closed
Off switch
Liquid
hydrogen switch
Light Lights

Control
Blockhouse
unit

Propellant
utilization -Liquid Umbilical
Transfer
probe oxygen disconnect
room
standpipe oxygen
Liquid
topping
panel

373.2 100.2 valve

control
Flow
Overfill level
oxygen
Liquid
374.0 99.8
s( tation
380.1 95 )
371.4 Overfill Overfill
,
Liquid ,
wet dry
oxygen
100.2 100.2
Dry Wet
Thrust
barrel
99.8 99.8
Dry Wet
Close Open
to
95 95
Dry Wet
System
power
On ope
Full n
Power
on Q Control
close
Off Close switch
switch
Light Lights
element
dual
are
sensors
point
All
Blockhouse

Vll
,ALFigure
loading
propellant
Centaur
for
system
.(A-1indicating
dual
are
sensors
point
evel
08C
Percent
.)element
volume
tank
total
percent
not
and
levels
flight
required
of
indications
are

41
42
Surge
tank
package
control
Hydraulic

Head
pressure
measurement
o id
Liqu oxyge
Liquidn
oxygen manometer Computer utilization
Propellant
tank
Surge comparator valve
servocontrol
canister
-Constant
Station valve
flow
937.33 Hydraulic
Check
valve pressure
Helium Error Valve
detector controller
assembly assembly
Close
tank
Surge Head

o
Fuel suppression
Head o suppression
valve
servocontrol
valve
Check press
Head ure valve
Close Open
Station measurement Lintegrated
Constant

oo
1179.55 valve
flow start
system
w
1194,22 tank
Surge Open
regulator
-
1198.00
depletion
Fuel Feedback
Fuel Liquid
sensor
manometer oxygen
sensing
line

valve
utilization
Propellant
Fuel

Fuel
oxyge
Liquidn line
sensing
Fuel thrust
Sustainer
bubble
Ewwwww
Heliumr chamber
Hydraulic
pressure
Ullage
pressure
Mercury

DIMIT
propellant
Vtlas
system
utilization
.-1,AAFigure
09C
 demodulator
voltage
output
Error

8
,V

.
Propellant
utilization

20
angle
valve

Valve limit
d, eg

Oxygen rich

40
0 WS 40 80 120 160
Flight time, sec
200
Fuel rich

240

Figure V - 20. Atlas propellant utilization valve angle and error demodulator
output, AC - 10.
280

43
 p, sia ure
800

Press
400

0
Pressure

Sustainer fuel injector manifold pressure

800
,psia

400
O
Pressure

Sustainer gas generator discharge pressure

800
,psia

400

0
e

Sustainer thrust chamber pressure

Pressur

50
p, sia

40

30
indication

Sustainer liquid oxygen pump inlet pressure

Sensor

Dry

Wet
Sustainer
-engine
cutoff
233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240
Flight time, sec
Fuel depletion sensor indication
Figure V - 21 . - Sustainer engine system data at engine cutoff,
AC - 10.

44
 utilizati
electron
package nt
on
Propellaic Valve
position
oxyge
Liquidn
servopotentiometer
Continuous drive U
capacitance
propellant Station
235.0 Servopositioner
utilization e(C)-1 ngine
probe
oxyg d
Liquien
brid
quange
tity
ampli
and fier
Liquid
hydrogen Error
signal Valve
sensor
conditioner servobridge
amplifier e)-1(Cngine
dif
Propellant
ference
comput
(bridge
)er
Inertia Valve
oxy id
Liqugen
tubes Null
relay servobridge
sensor
372.5
e-2(C) ngine
Continuous
392.9
hydroge
Liquid n
capacitance
quantity
bridge
propellant
and
amplifier
utilization
probe
Servopositioner
e(C)-2 ngine
Thrust
443.4 utilization
Propellant
Propellant barrel
utilization liquid
valves
oxygen Liquid
hydrogen
electronic propulsion
(see servopotentiometer
package schematic
drawing
) drive

Valve
Programmer position
Proportional command
signals
e1C-ngine e-2Cngine servopositioners

propellant
Autilization
,Figure
C
C2.-1system
V20entaur

45
 20
Fuel rich
et la
0 Bod
No. 1 engine valve
Oxygen rich
-20
Valve
angle

Propellant Propellant
,deg

-utilization utilization

-40
not controlling controlling

20
Fuel rich

0
No. 2 engine valve
Oxygen rich

-20 Main engine start

240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420
Time from lift -off, sec
(a) Time, 240 to 420 seconds.

20
Fuel rich

000
00008
Oxygen rich No. 1 engine valve
dValve
,angle
eg

-20

20
Fuel rich

ਚੀ boobs
bolo

Oxygen rich No. 2 engine valve

-20
420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600
Time from lift -off, sec
( b) Time, 420 to 600 seconds.

Figure V- 23. - Propellant utilization valve angles, AC- 10.

46
lict

20
Fuel rich
No. 1 engine valve
da to
0 oposed boot
Oxygen rich opellant Propellant
utilization utilization not
d,angle
Valve

controlling
eg

controlling
Ž -20

20
Fuel rich Null valves

No. 2 engine valve

obsed
Main
Oxygen rich engine
cutoff
-20
600 620 640 660 680 700
Time from lift-off, sec
(c) Time, 600 to 700 seconds.
Figure V - 23. - Concluded.

0 47
 PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS

by William A. Groesbeck and Merle L. Jones

Atlas

System description . - The Atlas pneumatic system , shown in figure V- 24 , supplied

>

helium at regulated pressures for several pressurization and control functions . The
propellant tanks were pressurized to provide sufficient pressure to prevent propellant
pump cavitation and to maintain stability of the pressure supported tank structure.
Pressurized helium was bled off the fuel tank pressurization duct to pressurize the
hydraulic reservoirs and turbopump lubrication tanks. Helium was supplied to these
systems from six bottles mounted in the jettisonable booster section . Prior to launch.
the bottles were chilled with liquid nitrogen to increase the stored mass of helium . The
cold gas was heated and expanded by a heat exchanger in the booster engine turbine ex
haust duct before being supplied to the tank pressure regulators.
A separate system provided pressurized helium to pneumatic regulators in the
booster and sustainer engine control systems. Helium for this purpose was supplied
from a bottle mounted in the sustainer section . Helium for actuation of the ten staging
latches was supplied from a storage bottle mounted in the jettisonable booster section . 1
Propellant tank pressurization . - Control of propellant tank pressures was switched
from ground to airborne systems at T - 60 seconds . At this time the liquid oxygen boil
off valve was locked closed , and the airborne pressure regulator began controlling tank
pressure. Pressures were held within requirements . At lift -off the oxygen tank pres
sure was 24.2 psig, and the fuel tank pressure was 60. O psig . 1

Ullage pressure history , shown in figure V - 25 , indicated that tank pressures were
maintained satisfactorily during flight. The fuel tank pressure was stable at about
60.0 psig until termination of pneumatic control at booster staging. From about T - 2 -

minutes to T + 20 seconds , the liquid oxygen pneumatic regulator was biased by a slight
helium bleed flow into the ullage pressure sensing line . This bias caused the regulator
to control oxygen tank pressure at a lower level than the regulator setting . Reducing the
oxidizer tank pressure caused an increase in the differential pressure across the inter
mediate bulkhead. The increased differential pressure ensured against bulkhead reversa
due to launch transient loads and an initially large liquid oxygen head pressure . At
T + 20 seconds, when the launch transient loads had passed and the liquid oxygen head
pressure was less , the bias was removed and the regulator increased tank pressure to
within the normal control range of 28. 5 to 31. O psig. This pressure provided sufficient
vehicle structural stiffness to withstand bending loads during ascent.
Liquid oxygen tank pressure increased above the regulator control band at T + 70
seconds due to normal gas boiloff. At T + 109 seconds and a pressure of 33. 1 psig, thë
48
 em relief valve opened and slowly bled tank pressure down to 31.3 psig at booster
ne cutoff. Immediately after booster engine cutoff, the ullage pressure rose abruptly
Luse of a reduction in liquid oxygen consumption rate , and also an increased boiloff
resulting from a decrease in hydrostatic head caused by a reduction in vehicle ac
ration .

The total helium usage for tank pressurization during the boost phase was 74.4
Bds. At lift -off, 159. 8 pounds of cold helium were tanked . A summary of tank pres -
zation data is given in table V - VI. -

* Engine control regulators. - The booster and sustainer pneumatic regulators pro
zod the required helium pressures for engine control throughout the flight. Perform
e values are shown in table V - VI.

TABLE V - VI . - ATLAS PNEUMATIC SYSTEM DATA , AC - 10

Parameter Time , sec

5
T - 10 Specification Actual Booster engine Sustainer engine
T - 0 T.0 cutoff cutoff
T - 142.04 T - 239.38

Oxygen tank ullage pressure , psig | 26. 1 23. 3 to 28.5 24.3 31.1 32.1
Fuel tank ullage pressure , psig 59.5 57.8 to 61.5 58.3 58.2 48. O
Intermediate bulkhead differential 17.2 12.5 16.1 14.9
pressure , psid
26 746
Booster controls pneumatic 715 to 785 746 740
regulator outlet , psig
. Sustainer controls pneumatic 590 565 to 635 600 593 593

regulator outlet , psig

Controls bottle pressure , psig 3330 2900 to 3400 3220 2875 2775
Booster bottles pressure , psig 3345 3100 to 3400 3210 985
Booster bottles temperature, °F -316 -309 (max) -317 - 365
Staging bottle pressure , psig 3354 2900 to 3400 3354

Centaur
er

4:21
System description . The Centaur pneumatic system , as shown in figure V -26 ,
used to supply helium gas at regulated pressures for propellant tank pressurization,
‫ت‬
‫مایم‬lation of engine control valves, pressurization of hydrogen peroxide storage bottle ,
purge systems .
Propellant tank pressure control was necessary to prevent rupture of the tank , to

49
maintain sufficient pressure at the boost pump inlets, and to provide stability of the
pressure supported tank structure . Tank pressures were regulated by a dual vent valve
configuration on the hydrogen tank and by a single vent valve on the oxygen tank . Two of
these valves, one on each tank, were solenoid controlled and on programmer command
could be positioned in either a locked closed or normal regulating mode . The second
vent valve on the hydrogen tank , however , was able to regulate at all times but at a
higher control range about 4 psi above the regulating range of the primary vent valve.
The control range for this secondary valve was selected to guard against overpressure in
the tank when the primary vent valve was locked closed . The primary vent valve was
programmed locked closed to (1 ) allow tank pressure buildup for increased structural
strength during the atmospheric ascent; (2) restrict hydrogen venting to nonhazardous
times ; (3) allow pressure pulsing of the propellant tanks, required during the near -zero
gravity conditions of stage separation , to prevent liquid boiling and boost pump cavitation
(4) sustain tank pressure during main engine firing; and (5) avoid vehicle disturbance as a
result of venting during the interval from main engine cutoff through execution of space
craft separation , Centaur turnaround , and propellant tank blowdown. The pressure
pulsing of the propellant tanks was effected by a controlled injection of helium gas into
the ullage.
Pneumatic pressure supplied by the engine controls regulator was used to actuate
the propellant inlet valves and the engine cooldown valves during operation of the main 1

engines . The engine controls regulator also supplied helium to a second regulator for
pressurization of the bladder - type hydrogen peroxide storage bottle .
The purge system , as shown in figure V -27 , was separate from the pressurization
>

system . This system supplied helium gas until T - 9.7 seconds from a ground so
for purging the cavity between the hydrogen tank and the insulation panels , the seal and
cavity between the nose fairing and forward bulkhead insulation, the propellant feed lines
and boost pumps , engine chilldown vent ducts and thrust chambers, and hydraulic power
packages. Purging of the cavities under the nose fairing seal and under the insulation
panels was vital to prevent cryopumping nitrogen or air which could freeze the jettisonable
fairings to the tank . At T - 9.7 seconds, just prior to lift - off, the purge was transferred
-

to an airborne bottle which blew down and extended the purge through the atmospheric
ascent.

Propellant tank pressurization . - The flight pressure profiles for the hydrogen and
oxygen tanks in support of the AC - 10 flight are shown in figure V -28 . There were no
unusual incidents or anomalies noted throughout the flight. Pressure regulation was
within specification and there was no evidence of leaking or malfunctioning vent valves.
Overboard discharge of the propellant boiloff gases during boost flight phase was also
accomplished without incident.
Tank pressures just prior to lift - off were stable at 30.3 psia in the oxygen tank and
50
-20.5 psia in the hydrogen tank . At T + 7.1 seconds , the primary hydrogen vent valve
was programmed to a closed, or nonventing mode and the tank pressure began increasing
at an average rate of 5. 62 psi per minute . Closing the primary vent valve just prior to
lift - off was necessary to provide increased tank pressure buildup for minimum required
structural strength during the atmospheric ascent , and to avoid possible fire hazards of
hydrogen venting . A hydrogen plume from the vent early in flight, while the vehicle
velocity was low , could wash back over the vehicle and possibly be exposed to some
ignition source . Wind tunnel tests on Centaur hydrogen venting are reported in refer
Fence 3 .

The first scheduled blowdown of the hydrogen tank occurred at T + 69.3 seconds as
the primary vent valve was programmed back to the open or normal regulating mode .
Prior to the blowdown , however , at T + 53. 8 seconds , the tank pressure had reached the
control range and was being regulated by the secondary vent valve . The secondary valve
egulated the pressure between 26.2 and 25.5 psia . This range was well within the
required specification of 24. 8 to 26.8 psia . Following the blowdown , tank pressure was
egulated by the primary vent valve at 21.3 psia . This valve was within the required
control range of 19 to 21.5 psia .
The primary hydrogen vent valve was again locked closed at T + 142.04 seconds to
prevent vented hydrogen gas from mixing with the residual gaseous oxygen which en
elopes a large portion of the vehicle during booster engine staging. During this non
enting period , which lasted until T + 149.04 seconds, the hydrogen tank ullage pressure
ncreased from 20.2 to 21.6 psia .
Oxygen tank pressures were controlled normally throughout the boost flight phase
ith the vent valve in the unlocked or normal regulating mode . The liquid oxygen was in
near - thermal -equilibrium state and venting was regular . During booster engine shut
own , a sudden perturbation in the ullage pressure was generated causing the pressure to
ise from 30.3 to 32.2 psia . This pressure change resulted from the decrease in hydro
tatic head , due to a sudden reduction in vehicle acceleration , causing an increase in the
iquid oxygen boiloff..
The ascent heating of the Centaur propellants could also have resulted in boiling of
ie saturated liquids at Atlas sustainer thrust termination for stage separation . How
ver , to prevent this boiling and avoid boost pump cavitation (boost pumps were started
rior to sustainer engine cutoff), helium gas was injected into the propellant tanks to
tep up the pressure . This pressure pulsing of the tanks, also called " burping " , was
ontrolled by metering helium flow through a 0.089 - inch - diameter orifice in the line to
e hydrogen tank , and a 0.043 - inch- diameter orifice in the line to the oxygen tank .
a The primary hydrogen vent valve was closed at sustainer engine cutoff, T + 239.4
econds, and the tank pressure was pulsed for 1 second . This pressure pulse increased
e ullage pressure from 19. 9 to 20.6 psia .

51
 Oxygen tank pressure pulsing, however , was more complex because of a small ullage
volume , 11 cubic feet, and a much higher pressure pulse requirement. Reduction in
hydrostatic pressure in the oxygen tank at sustainer thrust cutoff was more pronounced
because of the greater density of the liquid oxygen . Consequently, a higher ullage pres
sure was necessary to hold pressure well above saturation during staging. To guard
against overpressure in pulsing the small ullage, the pressure pulse was limited by a
regulator which controlled between 38 and 40 psia .. The oxygen tank vent valve was
closed and pressure pulsing of the tank was enabled coincident with boost pump start at
T + 203. 7 seconds . Ullage pressure increased abruptly from 29.8 to 39.8 psia and was
controlled well within the specified range of the regulator .
Ullage pressures in both propellant tanks decayed normally during main engine firing
due to fuel consumption . At main engine cutoff,> the ullage pressure in the hydrogen tank
was down to 14.7 psia and to 23. 8 psia in the oxygen tank . Shutdown transients at main
engine cutoff were sufficient to geyser the liquid residuals upward throughout the tanks.
This action was verified by the ullage temperature probe at the top of the hydrogen tank
which sensed a liquid hydrogen temperature, as shown in figure V- 29, a few seconds after
main engine cutoff. Holding the propellants in the bottom of the tanks, following engine
cutoff on this direct ascent mission , was not attempted or required. Actually, the mixing
and splashing of the liquid residuals throughout the tank cools the ullage and favorably
depresses the pressure rise rate. The average pressure rise rate after engine cutoff
was 1. 19 psi per minute in the hydrogen tank and 0.274 psi per minute in the oxygen tank.
Predicted and actual tank ullage pressure histories during the final Centaur retro !

maneuver are shown in figure V - 30 . The pressure rise prior to start of tank blowdown
(residual propellants forced out through the engines to provide retrothrust) was normal.
At the start of retrothrust, the oxygen tank pressure was 25. 2 psia and the hydrogen tark
pressure was 20. 6 psia . Initially, the propellant discharge was liquid or two - phase flow,
and the volume of this liquid - gas discharge had little effect on reducing tank pressure.
However, 30 seconds later, the liquid hydrogen residuals were depleted as evidenced by
the rapid decrease in tank pressure due to a pure gas flow . The liquid oxygen residuals,
however , were not depleted until 80 seconds after start of blowdown . At T + 1246.9
seconds , the retrothrust maneuver was terminated, the engine propellant valves were
closed, and both the oxygen and hydrogen solenoid controlled vent valves were commanded
from the closed to the normal regulating mode. The ullage pressures at this time had
decreased to 20.2 and 14. 1 psia in the oxygen and hydrogen tanks, respectively . A
summary of the pneumatic tank pressurization data is given in table V - VII.
Engine and hydrogen peroxide control regulators. The engine and hydrogen peroxide
-

bottle control regulators maintained required system pressures throughout the flight.
The engine controls regulator provided helium to the engine valves at a steady pressure
of 460 psia . The hydrogen peroxide regulator maintained a nearly constant bottle pres

52
 TABLE V - VII. - CENTAUR PNEUMATIC SYSTEM DATA , AC - 10

Parameter Time , sec

Specification Actual Booster engine Main engine Main engine Start retro- End retro
T - 10 T - 10
-
cutoff start cutoff thrust thrust
T + 142 T + 251.7 T + 689.2 T + 996.9 T + 1247

Engine control regulator 455 to 490 468 464 460 460 460 460
output, psia
Hydrogen peroxide bottle 312 to 330 320 320 306 306 305 305
regulator output , psia
Helium bottle pressure , 2615 to 2965 2763 2760 2500 2400 2380 2380
psia
3 Helium bottle temper 69 67 53 46
90 (max ) 48 44
ature, ° F
Helium supply 4. 78 4.47 4. 35
( 4650 - cu in . bottle) , lb

----
Insulation panel purge 0.03 (min ) 0.17
1 differential pressure ,
psid
20.5 20.2 19.8 14.7 20.6 14.1
• Hydrogen ullage pressure , 19. 7 to 22.0
psia
11
Oxidizer ullage pressure, 29.2 to 32.3 30.3 30.3 38.5 23.8 25.2 20.2
psia

'sure of 306 psia .. These pressures were well within the required control range. A
summary of the regulator pressure data for various flight times is given in table V - VII.
The pneumatic purge system was controlled by ground support
Pneumatic purges . -

quipment to provide the necessary component conditioning prior to launch . The required
Felium environment during the prelaunch was maintained for a purge rate of 110 pounds
der hour . This purge rate provided an insulation panel differential pressure of 0. 17 psid,
hich was well above the minimum allowable of 0.03 psid required for launch . The
neumatic purge was switched from the ground to airborne system at T + 9.7 seconds
y enabling blowdown of the airborne helium purge bottle . The purge then continued
ntil the helium supply was depleted , by which time the vehicle had cleared the atmos
here .

53
 Boiloff
valve

8080
Manual valve
868
Relief valve

Regulator Liquid
oxygen
Explosive valve

Motor valve
Check valve Sustainer
Orificed check valve

Orifice
Vent to atmosphere

Sustainer en Oxygen tank

gine controls Fuel
pressurization
line

Sustainer hy
4650
cu in .
draulic reservoir Oxygen tank
pressure
Sustainer
Sustainer regulator
control bottle
turbopump
lubrication tank

Ten - piston
Booster staging
disconnect line
operated staging
1

Tatches
0.004 in .
Electric
signal
opens valve Closed at
Exhaust heat
Fuel tank T + 20 sec
at engine exchanger
cutoff pressure
regulator
សាលា

870 Staging 0.025 in .

OP
cu in.bottle Booster Booster
hydraulic package
reservoir
Booster
engine Booster
controls turbopump
lubrication
tank
Fuel tank
Helium pressurization
charge line
line Helium
Liquid -nitrogen charge
line Vehicle
cooled helium bottles, -Liquid -nitrogen
7965 cu in , each duct
Riseoff disconnect panel
Ground equipment
-

Figure V-24. - Atlas vehicle pneumatic system, AC-10.

54
pressure
Oxygen
ullage

36
Relief valve operating range ,
,

27
32
psig

Pneumatic regulator control range

28
H H
End of regulator control.
End of regulator bias
24

62
pressure
ullage
Fuel
,psig

58

54

50

46
differential
Bulkhead

30
ppressure
, sid

20

10
Booster Sustainer
engine engine
cutoff cutoff
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320
Time from lift-off, sec

Figure V - 25. - Atlas oxidizer and fuel tank ullage pressure, AC - 10.

55
 Primary vent valve -Secondary vent valve

Nose fairing
seal purge

Helium
Liquid hydrogen purge
Helium bottle
storage Pressure supply
bottle Insulation switch
Pressure pulsing panel purge
Normally closed
solenoid valve
solenoid valves
11 0.089 - in .-diam z Liquid
oxygen
a
Pressure Relief Normally
switch and open
HRE-0.043- in . shutoff solenoid
Engine
valves valve
-diam
Hydrogen Flow control controls
peroxide orifices Engine
storage Relief purges
bottle valve 1
IR Relief
Low syvalve Hydraulic
pressure system
regulator
Two- position purges
Pneumatics
three -way valve panel
コート
T - 4 disconnect T - 4 disconnect T -O disconnect

Figure V-26. - Centaur pneumatics system , AC -10. CD - 9519

-Nose fairing
--Forward bulkhead insulation
--- Forward seal ( station 208.4)
-Forward purge ring
--Upper purge seal bag
Liquid
hydrogen
tank skin
Station 219
-Seal Insulation
IV III
panel
Insulation panel

< Liquid hydrogen

tank skin Helium purge passages
-Insulation panel
-Lower purge ring
--Lower helium purge manifold
Purge vent Station 408.72
configuration

Purge -Tank skin ( liquid oxygen)

Figure V-27. - Helium purge and nose fairing jettison systems, AC - 10.

56
 34

Liquid oxygen Specifiedcontrol range oxygen ventvalve -

30

26 Specified controlrange, att

secondary hydrogen vent valve

Liquid hydrogen
22

WWW
Specified control range primary hydrogen vent valve
18 Primary hydrogen Primary hydrogen
vent valve
llocked closed
TTTT
Secondary hydrogen
Primary hydrogen
-vent valve opened
vent valve
Close Open
vent valve relieved
14
Pressure

-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Time from lift-off, sec
p, sia

(a ) Time, -20 to 160 seconds.

42

w
38

34

Liquid oxygen
30

Oxidizer tank pressure pulsed

26
Vent valve
closed
22 Hydrogen tank vent valve closed
and tank pressure pulsed
Liquid hydrogen

18 Sustainer engine cutoff Maine engine start

160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340
Time from lift-off, sec
( b) Time, 160 to 340 seconds.
Figure V-28. - Centaur fuel and oxidizer tank ullage pressure histories, AC - 10.

57
 32

Liquid oxygen

28
Pressure
,psia

24

20

Liquid hydrogen
Start End
16 -Centaur tank
blowdown
Main

12
engine cutoff
350 450 550 650 750 850 950 1050 1150 1250
Time from lift-off, sec
(c ) Time, 350 to 1250 seconds.

Figure V- 28. - Concluded .

58
 200

Oxidizer tank

160

120

80

40 Hydrogen tank .
Temperature
,PR

40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360

Time from lift-off, sec
(a) Time, 0 to 360 seconds.

200

Oxidizer tank

160

120 Hydrogen tank

80

40

Main engine cutoff Start End

0
Centaur tank blowdown
350 450 550 650 750 850 950 1050 1150 1250
Time from lift-off, sec
( b) Time, 350 to 1250 seconds.

Figure V - 29. - Centaur fuel and oxidizer tank ullage temperatures, AC - 10.

59
 34

30
Maximum predicted
,ppressure
ullage
Tank
sia

26 Oxidizer tank

!! Actual

Minimum predicted
22 20 21
1

Maximum predicted

18
-Hydrogen tank
14

Minimum predicted.

| Main engine Start tank Power change

cutoff blowdown over , end blowdown
10
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
Time from lift- off, sec

Figure V -30. - Centaur propellant tank ullage pressure profiles during retroma
neuver , AC - 10.

60
 HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

by Eugene J. Cieslewicz

Atlas

System description . - Hydraulic systems on the Atlas vehicle , as shown in fig

e V - 31 , were used to supply fluid power for operation of sustainer engine control
lves, and for thrust vector control of the engines . Two separate systems were used ,
le for the booster stage and one for the sustainer stage .
The booster hydraulic system provided power solely for gimbaling the two thrust
lambers. System pressure was supplied by a single pressure - compensated , variable
splacement pump driven off the engine turbopump. Additional components of the system
cluded a safety relief valve, two pressure accumulators, and a reservoir . Engine
mbaling in response to flight control commands was effected by servocylinders provid
g separate pitch and yaw control for each thrust chamber . Maximum booster engine
mbal angle capability was + 5° in a conical pattern.
The sustainer stage used the same type hydraulic components . System requirements ,
wever , were to provide power for sustainer engine control valves as well as gimbaling
e sustainer and two vernier engines . The sustainer thrust chamber was gimbaled in
ich and yaw by two servocylinders and had a maximum displacement capability of +3º.
le sustainer engine , however , was not enabled for thrust vector control until after
oster staging. Vernier engine gimbaling was for roll control only during the Atlas
stainer flight phase, and the actuator limit travel was +70°.
System performance . - Hydraulic system pressures in both the booster and sustainer
ccuits , as shown in figure V- 32 , were stable and successfully maintained throughout
2 boost flight phase . The transition from ground to airborne hydraulic systems follow
; engine ignition was normal. Pressures increased from about 1800 psia up to flight
iels in less than 2 seconds . Starting transients produced a normal overshoot of about
percent with the pump discharge pressures stabilizing at 3140 psia in the booster
: cuit and 3110 psia in the sustainer circuit .
Engine gimbaling requirements during flight were generally less than 1° with one
ception during the period of maximum dynamic pressure. At this time, maximum
oster engine gimbal angles of about 3. 6° were required in the pitch plane to correct for
nd shear . For similar requirements in the yaw plane, the engine booster gimbal angles
I not exceed 1.5º . These excursions were normal and were well within the engine
nbal limits of + 5°.

61
 Centaur

System description . - Two separate but identical hydraulic systems, one for each
engine , as shown in figure V- 33 , were used on the Centaur stage to gimbal the engine
thrust chambers for pitch , yaw , and roll control . Each system consisted of two servo
cylinders, high and low pressure pumps , reservoirs , accumulators, and relief valves
for pressure regulation. Hydraulic pressure was provided by a constant -displacement
vane- type pump driven off the liquid oxygen turbopump drive shaft. A secondary elec
trically powered recirculation pump was also used to provide low pressure for engine
gimbaling requirements during prelaunch checkout, to a line the engines prior to main
engine start, and for limited thrust vector control during the propellant tank blowdown
portion of the Centaur retrothrust maneuver . Maximum engine gimbal capability was
+30 .

Systemperformance. - Performance of both hydraulic systems on the Centaur stage

was satisfactory throughout the flight . Thermal conditioning of the system prior to lacr.ch
was maintained by ambient helium purges and by operation of the low pressure recircula
tion pumps . The hydraulic manifold temperature at lift -off, as shown in figure V- 34 , was
66° F. This temperature was well above the minimum required limit of 20° F. During
the Atlas flight phase, the system temperatures cooled only slightly to 62 ° F at time of
main engine start. Then , with activation of the main pumps , the hydraulic manifold
temperatures increased normally to 170° F at main engine cutoff.
Pressure supply and regulation were normal and supported all system requirements.
At T + 239. 4 seconds , the electrically driven hydraulic pumps were activated to provide
low pressure hydraulic power for alining the engines prior to main engine start. System
pressures , as shown in figure V - 34 , came up to 133 and 122 psia in the C - 1 and C - 2 hr
draulic manifolds , respectively . At main engine start, with increasing turbopump speed
the system pressures increased rapidly to flight levels of 1159 psia on the C - 1 and 1130
psia on the C - 2 engine system . Pressures were steady throughout the Centaur engine
firing , although a slight decay amounting to about 2 percent was noted by main engine
cutoff . This decay was not abnormal as pressures were within the required control limits ;
of 1100 to 1180 psia .
After main engine cutoff, the hydraulic system was inactive until start of the propel
lant tank blowdown at T + 996.9 seconds . The electrically driven recirculation pumps
were then turned on to provide low pressure hydraulic power for alining the engines and
providing limited thrust vector control during the retrothrust blowdown maneuver . This
limited control supplemented the primary hydrogen peroxide attitude control system and
helped to reduce the duty cycle on these engines .

62
 LEGEND

Pressure switch, release ladder circuit

High pressure hydraulic line
Low pressure hydraulic return line
Low pressure gas from fuel tank
V2 roll
Vi roll pressurization duct actuator
actuator Check valve control
control
Motorized shutoff valve package
package
Manual flow -limiting valve

Filter Filter

Manifold Accumulator

Sustainer engine!
control package 1
Relief 1
valve
Accum
ulator
Sustainer Sustainer
yaw pitch
actuator actuator 1
control control
Sustainer Servovalvel Servovalve Shutoff
package package hydraulic
valve
1
pump Sustainer
oxidizer Propellant Gas
Reservoir head sup utilization generator
O pression fuel valve fuel valve
I valve actuator actuator
Return
actuator
manifold
Booster staging disconnect

Manifold

B2 yaw B2 pitch
Bl pitch Bl yaw Accum
actuator actuator
actuator actuator ulator
Accum control control
control control
ulator package package
package package
3000 psig
Relief
valve

Booster
hydraulic
pump

Reservoir

Riseoff disconnect line

Figure V-31 . - Atlas hydraulic system , AC- 10.

63
 Sustainer
hydraulic
system

4x103
pres

Sustainer pump line

3
sure
p, sia

Sustainer return line

-

0 -----
hydraulic
pressure
Booster
system

4x103
,

Booster pump line

3
psia

Sustainer
1 Booster engine cutoff enginet
cutoff
Booster return line
0E
1

-80 -40 0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280

Time from lift -off, sec

Figure V - 32. - Atlas hydraulic system pressures, AC - 10.

64
 Engine driven pump Check valve ( typical)
. Ground pressure disconnect
‫רי‬
Hydraulic power
package

-Accumulator

-Main relief valve

CR1
Ground return
disconnect

Reservoir -Overboard
assembly -Return line
relief valve
LE
-Bootstrap Pressure line
-Thermostat
L - Electrically driven pump ㅏ -Manifold assembly

Feedback
transducer (typical)

Pitch actuator Yaw actuator

assembly assembly
O

Servovalve ( typical) -Thermostat

Figure V-33. - Centaur hydraulic system, AC- 10. ( System shown is typical for each engine. )

65
 Hydraulic
pressure
power
pack
sia
p,age

2000

C - 1 hydraulic package
1000
Start low C -2 hydraulic package Start low
-pressure -pressure
pumps pumps
temperature
Hydraulic
manifold

200 ,
C-2 engine
°F,

100
C -1 engine

Engine start Engine cutoff Start blowdown

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Time from lift-off, sec
Figure V -34. - Centaur hydraulic system pressures and temperatures, AC - 10.

66
 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

by John P. Quitter , James Nestor , and John M. Bulloch

Power Sources and Distribution

Atlas system description . - The Atlas power requirements were supplied by one
hain missile battery, one telemetry battery , two range safety command batteries , and a
00 -hertz rotary inverter . Transfer of the Atlas electrical load from external to internal
attery power was accomplished by the main power changeover switch at T - 2 minutes .
-

Atlas system performance . - The Atlas main missile battery supplied the require
nents of the dependent systems at near normal voltage levels .. The battery voltage was
8.2 volts at lift - off, rising to 28. 4 volts at sustainer engine cutoff . A small decline to
7.9 volts occurred after retrorocket firing .
The three batteries which supplied the telemetry and range safety command systems
rovided normal voltage levels throughout Atlas flight . The voltage at lift -off was
8.2 volts for the telemetry system , 28. 9 volts for range safety command system 1 , and
3.0 volts for range safety command system 2 .
E
The Atlas rotary inverter , supplying the airborne 400 -hertz power operated within
stablished voltage and frequency parameters . The voltage at lift - off was 115.2 volts
-ith a decline to 114.9 volts at end of data acquisition . The inverter frequency at lift - off
as 402.5 hertz and rose to 403 hertz at the end of programmed Atlas flight. The gradual
-se in frequency is typical for the Atlas rotary inverter and has been noted on earlier
fights and during ground testing. The required difference of 1.3 to 3. 7 hertz between
tlas and Centaur inverter frequencies was properly maintained to avoid generation of
desirable beat frequencies in the autopilot system . If a beat frequency occurred in
sonance with the slosh or natural frequencies of the vehicle , false commands would be
ven to the autopilot resulting in possible degradation of vehicle stability.
Centaur system description . - The Centaur electrical power system consisted of a
a in missile battery, two range safety command batteries , two pyrotechnic batteries , a
ain power changeover switch , and a 400 -hertz solid - state inverter . This inverter
pplied 400 hertz power to the guidance , flight control , and propellant utilization systems.
-

Centaur system performance. - System operation was satisfactory throughout the

ght . Transfer of the Centaur electrical load from external power to the internal battery
s accomplished by the power changeover switch within 250 milliseconds. Transient
ltages were small . The umbilical disconnects operated satisfactorily on command.
The main power battery voltage level at lift -off was 28.2 volts . It dropped to a low
27. 7 volts at main engine start then recovered to 28.2 volts during Centaur powered
ght .
Comparison of the preflight battery load profiles with the actual AC - 10 flight recorded

67
profile shows close correlation between sequential events . Battery current at lift - off was
46 amperes reaching a peak of 64 amperes at T + 240 seconds , as shown in the load
profile (fig . V - 35 ) .
Both pyrotechnic battery voltages were 35.2 volts at lift - off (minimum specification
limit is 34. 7 V) . Proper operation of the pyrotechnic batteries and relay system was
verified by the successful jettison of the insulation panels and nose fairing.
Performance of the two range safety command batteries was satisfactory as verified
by proper command receiver operation during launch and flight. The battery voltages
were 32.1 and 32.3 volts , respectively , with the receivers in operation (minimum
specification limit is 30 V) .
The temperature of the staging disconnect was not monitored during the launch or
flight. Temperature measurements obtained during propellant tanking tests showed that
a warming gas provided adequate heating for proper operation of the disconnect.
The solid - state Centaur inverter operated satisfactorily throughout the flight. Tele
metered voltage levels compared closely with values recorded during preflight testing.
The inverter phase voltages at lift - off were as follows : phase A , 114.5 volts ; phase B ,
>

115.0 volts ; and phase C , 115. O volts . Only minor voltage changes occurred during
flight.
The inverter frequency remained constant at 400.0 hertz throughout the flight.
Inverter skin temperature was 100° Fat T - 180 minutes and rose as expected to a high u
111. 6° Fat T - 60 minutes . Inverter temperature was monitored to verify that adequate
cooling was present . Temperature rise of the inverter paralleled the rise in ambient
temperature in the electronic compartment from 52° to 66° F. The inverter temperature
decreased during propellant tanking to 94° F at lift -off. Flight temperature was not
monitored because of satisfactory experience on earlier flights. Figure V- 36 is included
to show the marked dependence of inverter temperature on its changing environment due to
propellant tanking and panel purging. Lift - off temperature of 94° F is 10° less than that
noted at T -0 during the tanking test . The difference is attributed to cool gas leaking
-

through the nose fairing seal at station 208 (see fig. V- 27) .

Instrumentation and Telemetry

Atlas system description. The Atlas telemetry system consisted of a single

PAM / FM / FM unit, identified as RF 1 , transmitting at 229.9 megahertz . The letter
designation PAM refers to Pulse Amplitude Modulation, a technique of sampling data to
allow better utilization of the data handling capacity of the telemetry system . The letter
designation FM/FM (Frequency Modulation /Frequency Modulation) refers to the technique
of frequency modulating a transmitter with the output of several subcarrier oscillators

68
"

TABLE V - VIII . ATLAS MEASUREMENT SUMMARY, AC - 10

Airborne systems Number and type of measurement

‫ܟܬ݁ܽ܂‬

Accel- Rota - Cur- Deflec- Pres - Rate Tem - Volt- Dis - Total
era- tion rent tion sure per - age crete
tion rate ature

--
Airframe 3 2 -
24 29
Range safety 3 1 4

3
--

--
Electrical

--
1 1 O
3 4
Pneumatic 7 2 9
Hydraulic

-
6 6

--
Axial acceleration

--
-
1 1
Propulsion 3 2 19 2 -

6 32
Flight control
-

11 3 -
2 12 28
Telemetry 1 1
13

4
--
--

-
Propellant

-
1 2 -

Total 2 3 1 13 37 3 7 9 43 118

which , in turn , have been frequency modulated by data signals. All operational measure
nents were transmitted by two antennas, one in each pod . Locations of ground and ship
>

stations are shown in figure V- 37. Telemetry coverage was continuous as shown in
igure V - 38 .
Atlas system performance. - A summary of the 118 Atlas instrumentation measure
nent transmissions is given in table V - VIII. Of these measurements , the following five
Failures occurred :
( 1) The angle - of - attack pressure transducers in the pitch and yaw planes operated
satisfactorily; however , the nose cap angle of attack calibration measurement, by which
lynamic pressure was to be obtained , was invalid . To compute angle of attack dynamic
ressure was obtained from trajectory data .
(2) Three insulation panel breakwire measurements indicated " open " at shaped
charge firing . These measurements should not indicate " open " until the panel has
raveled 5 feet from the tank . It is presumed that debris from the shaped charge
severed these three breakwires causing an open circuit .
(3) The transducer measuring Atlas thrust compartment temperature opened elec
rically at booster jettison . The period of interest for this measurement is the time up to
booster jettison. The exact cause of the failure is unknown; however , it is probable that
he staging sequence damaged the instrumentation harness or transducer. In addition to
che preceding failures, the following measurements failed partially but yielded usable data :
( 1) The transducer measuring main liquid oxygen valve position showed intermittent
lata from T + 35 to T + 42 seconds, from T + 65 to T + 112 seconds, and from T + 210 to
69
T + 220 seconds causing intermittent degradation of the data . This degradation is
characteristic of discontinuities in the wiper arm circuit and has been observed on
several previous Atlas flights .
(2 ) The transducers measuring sustainer hydraulic pump line and booster hydraulic
pump discharge pressures exhibited intermittent degradation of data during the flight .
This degradation is characteristic of discontinuities in the wiper arm circuit and was
observed on previous flights .
(3) Quadrant II insulation panel separation measurement indicated anomalous
behavior during the panel separation sequence . Normally , this measurement indicates a
sustained electrical open circuit at that time . In this case , however , the circuit closed
briefly and then reopened . It is hypothesized that the breakwire was momentarily dis
engaged by the shaped charge firing or by vibration as the panel separation started .
Further movement may have caused momentary contact between the pin and socket of the
breakwire , until final separation severed the breakwire completely .
-

Centaur system description. - For the AC - 10 operational flight , Centaur telemetry

consisted of one PAM / FM / FM unit transmitting at 225. 7 megahertz . A block diagram of
the Centaur telemetry system is shown in figure V - 39 . All measurements were trans
mitted by the Centaur telemetry antenna mounted on a ground plane atop the umbilical
island . Figure V -40 shows the location of antennas on the Centaur .
Centaur system performance . - Reception was virtually continuous throughout the
programmed flight to T + 5940 seconds with one exception . Range instrumentation ship
General H. H. Arnold was unable to track the vehicle . The received signal was weak
and no usable data were recorded . The two receiving stations, one uprange and one
downrange of the Arnold , received data for the entire period except for 5 seconds from
T + 775.5 to T + 780.5 seconds . Analysis before and after loss of signal indicates that
no significant data were lost . Centaur telemetry coverage is shown in figure V - 41 .
A summary of the 140 Centaur instrumentation measurement transmissions is given
in table V -IX . Of these measurements , the following failures occurred :
( 1 ) The five thermocouples indicating attitude control engine chamber temperatures
yielded qualitative data only because the original reference junction on the liquid oxygen
sump was defective . Because of the inaccessibility of this reference , a new reference
was located in the vicinity of the sump . However , since the actual temperature of this new
reference was not known, the data from these five measurements were qualitative only.
(2) The A - 3 attitude control engine temperature transducer became intermittent
from T + 698 seconds to the end of the flight . The data suggest that the thermocouple
may have had an intermittent ground within its metallic sheath .
(3) The thermocouple measurement on the A - 4 attitude control engine was erratic
throughout the flight .
(4) The signal indicating liquid hydrogen tank ullage pressure exhibited cyclic

70
 TABLE V - IX . - CENTAUR MEASUREMENT SUMMARY, AC - 10

Airborne systems Number and type of measurement

Rota - Cur - Deflec- Vibra- Pres Fre- Tem - Volt Dis - Digi - Total
tion rent tion tion sure quency per age crete tal
rate ature

--
--

-
-

Airframe 1 1

Range safety 2 5 7
Electrical 1 1 4 6
Pneumatic 5 3 2 10

!
‫جب‬

--
Hydraulic 2 2 4

3
--
Guidance 1 18 1 23
-

Staging separation 1 1

--
Propulsion 4 13 13 8 38

MA
-

Flight control 3 -
4 28 35
-
-

Propellant 2 -- --
2 4

a Spacecraft 3 5 1 1 1 11

Total 7 1 6 5 21 1 20 30 47 140

N
variations as high as 4 percent (peak to peak) during the first 250 seconds of flight. This
condition has been observed on previous flights and is believed to be caused by a boiloff
$ and condensation cycle of liquid hydrogen in the sensing line . No data were lost as a re
sult of this irregularity .

Tracking
:
System description . The airborne tracking beacon was a C - band radar transponder
providing real-time position and velocity data to the range safety tracking system impact
predictor . The tracking system provided data for use by the Deep Space Network for
acquisition of the spacecraft and for guidance and flight trajectory analysis. The airborne
system included a lightweight transponder, circulator (to channel receiving and sending
signals ), power divider, and two antennas located on opposite sides of the tank . The
locations of the Centaur antennas are shown in figure V - 40 . The ground and ship stations
are shown in figure V- 37 .
!
System performance. - Overlapping coverage was obtained to main engine cutoff.
-

The C - band ground station radars at Merritt Island and Grand Turk Island, however ,
experienced numerous disturbances of the angle track caused by balance point shifts
attributed to the vehicle beacon antenna pattern . Ba lance point shifts result from radio
frequency phase front distortion in the signal propagated from the beacon and simulate a

71
fictitious (relative to true ) target position . Radar reaction to this phenomenon is charac
terized by
( 1 ) Pronounced nulls (usually ) in the received signal strength
(2 ) Angle servoerror signals which indicate an off -target direction while the radar is
still pointed properly
(3) Servocommands following item (2 ) which drive the antenna according to the
fictitious target position
The Antigua station tracked to T + 690 seconds , at which time it abruptly lost track .
The station had been committed to T + 729 seconds. Loss of track resulted from the
instrumentation ship General H. H. Arnold overriding Antigua . The ship acquired the
beacon at T + 690 seconds and attempted to track several times but could not hold it .
Therefore , C - band radar coverage was not obtained between T + 690 and T + 1109. The
Centaur was again acquired by the Ascension tracking station at T + 1109 seconds . Radar
coverage is shown in figure V - 42 .
1

Flight Termination System ( Destruct)

System description . - The Atlas and Centaur stages each contained independent
vehicle -borne flight termination systems which were designed to function simultaneously
on receipt of command signals from the ground stations. These systems included redun
dant receivers and batteries whose operation was entirely independent of the main vehicle
power system . Block diagrams of these systems are shown in figures V - 43 and V - 44 .
The Atlas and Centaur flight termination systems provide a highly reliable means of
shutting down the engines only , or shutting down the engines and destroying the vehicle .
1
When the vehicle is destroyed in the event of a flight malfunction, the tank is ruptured
4

with a shaped charge , and the liquid propellants of the first and second stages are dis
persed . In addition , the upper stage system has the capability to destroy the Surveyor
spacecraft engine prior to spacecraft separation. These functions can be commanded by
the range safety officer .
System performance . - The Atlas -Centaur - Surveyor range safety command systems
-

were prepared to execute termination commands throughout the flight. Neither engine
cutoff or destruct commands were sent by the range transmitters, nor were inadvertent
commands generated at the vehicle . The command from Antigua to disable the range i

safety command system shortly after Centaur main engine cutoff was properly received 1
1
and executed. Figure V - 45 depicts ground transmitter utilization in supporting the
flight termination system .
Signal strength at the Atlas and Centaur range safety command receivers was ex
cellent throughout the flight as indicated by telemetry measurements . Telemetered data

72
 indicated that both the Centaur receivers were deactivated at approximately T + 702
seconds thus confirming that the disable command was transmitted from the Antigua
station . The Surveyor destructor , controlled by the upper stage receivers , was also
deactivated when the command to disable the range safety command system was sent
from Antigua .

Start hydraulic
circulator pumps
Close liquid oxygen -Open liquid oxygen and liquid
701
and liquid hydrogen hydrogen vent valves; prestart on
vent valves
Oper Igniters
ate Close on Power
Start
60 liquid liquid Close liquid -Igniters and hydraulic changeover
hydraulic
hydro- hydrogen oxygen vent to external
Acurrent

recirculators off circulator

Battery

gen vent valve and start

vent valve iboost pump pumps;
Spacecraft prestart on
,

50 valve electrical
disconnect
Operate liquid
hydrogen vent
valve

Sustainer
30 Booster Main Main
engine Spacecraft Start
engine cutoff engine engine separation blowdown
cutoff Note change start cutoff

201
0 100
in scale
200 235 245 255 265 600 ** In
Flight time, sec
700 800

Figure V-35. - Centaur main battery load profile, AC - 10.

1
900 1000 1100 1200

73
 120

110

Temperature
Inverter skin temperature
100
,°F

90

70

Electronic compartment Start liquid helium chilldown

60
temperature ( ambient) Scheduled
Start liquid hy- hold:
50 Start liquid oxygen tanking drogen tanking 20 min
180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 5 50
Count time before launch, min
Figure V - 36. - Centaur inverter and electronic compartment temperatures, AC - 10.

50 N B
$
40 N

30 N
FCape EGrand Bahama Island
#Main engine start
LIFEleutheral Separate spacecrafty
•Bermuda 11,+General Arnold
15134 2
9
0

Grand Turk Canary Islands

-Start retro
20 N
$

maneuvert
Antigua Main Coastal
d, eg de

engine sword • Crusader

Latitu

10 N Kano
cutoff
+Knot
Start End Centaur
0 -Centaur Iblowdown!
-blow
down
10 S + Flight
azimuth ,
Ascension 1102. 285.0
20 SI
( Pretoria Carnarvon
30 S

40 SL

50 S Do

80 W 70 W 60 W 50 W 40 W 30 W 20 W 10 W 0 10 E 20 E 30 E 40 E 50 E 60 E 70E 80 E 90 E 100 E 110 E 120 E 130 E 100E

Longitude, deg
Figure V- 37. - Tracking station location and vehicle trajectory Earth track, AC - 10 /SC - 1.

74
 Actual

Station
+ Committed

Cape TEL II

Grand
Bahama
Island

Eleuthera

Grand
Turk
Booster Sustainer
engine engine
cutoff cutoff
Centaur main engine start
0 80 160 240 320 400 480 560 640
Time after lift- off, sec
-

Figure V - 38. - Atlas telemetry coverage, AC - 10. Eleuthera and Grand Turk stations were
not committed but tracked for best obtainable data.

75
 To antenna
unit

Transducers
Signal
conditioners

Signal Radiofrequency
transmitter Radiofrequency
converter filter
Commutators Α. A
Electrical
signals

Power
converter

Relays

-
1
1

Power
changeover
switch

Direct current
power

Figure V-39 . - Centaur telemetry system block diagram , AC- 10.

76
 Telemetry antenna

C - band antenna

Range safety -Range safety

antenna antenna

-C - band antenna

CD - 9520

Figure V - 40. - Location of Centaur antennas, AC-10.

Station

Cape TEL II
Grand Actual
OI

Bahama Committed
Island 1 Pretoria coverage to T + 4439 sec
Bermuda 4 2 Ascension coverage to T + 5940 sec
3 No coverage by H. H. Arnold
Antigua 4 Bermuda, Canary Islands, and Pretoria
were not committed for coverage
Arnold 3
( ship)
Sword Knot , Booster
( ship) engine
Coastal Cru cutoff
sader ( ship) Sustainer
Ascension 2
engine
cutoff
Canary 4
Islands Main engine
start
Spacecraft separation ,
start retromaneuver
Pretoria
Main
engine Start blowdown
sed
cutoff -
1 - End blowdown
( power changeover)

0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600

Time after lift- off, sec

Figure V -41. - Centaur telemetry coverage, AC - 10.

77
7
 Station

Cape
Merritt
Island Actual

II
Patrick po Committed
Grand Bahama 1 No coverage by H. H. Arnold
Island ( 3.16)
Grand Bahama 2 Ascension track to T + 8350 sec
Island ( 3. 18)
Grand Turk
Bermuda

Antigua
Arnold ( ship) 1
Ascension
( 12.16 ) 日日 日 日日
Ascension
( 12, 18)
Pretoria
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 4000 4200 4400
Time after lift -off, sec
Figure V -42. - C - band radar coverage ( automatic beacon track only), AC - 10.

Destructi
Antenna 1 Destruct 1 Destructreturn 1 Arm /Safe monitors
Electrical
Destruct return 1 arming Destructor
Command Manual fuel cutoff device Destruct 2 Arm /Safe orders
receiver 1 Automatic fuel cutoff Destruct return 2

Destruct test monitors

Arm/ Safe orders
Arm /Safe monitors
Ring Destruct testmonitors
coupler
Manual fuel cutoff
(engine cutoff) Engine relay box
Power
Destruct 2 Power
Destruct return 2 and signal Power Battery heater
Command Manual fuel cutoff Battery 1
control
receiver 2 Automatic fuel cutoff unit
Power
Antenna 2 Telemetry Battery heater
monitors Battery 2
Internal/external orders
Internal/external monitors
External power
Monitor signals

Figure V - 43. - Atlas flight termination system block diagram , AC - 10.

78
 Shaped
Mild charge
Power Power detonating
control fuse Arm/safe
RF disable unit orders
Receiver 1 Main engine Destruct Surveyor
cutoff command
safe/arm Arm/safe
Destruct initiator
enna 2 monitor
Hybrid
Antenna 1
junction Arm/safe
Power
Destruct orders
RF disable Centaur
command
Receiver 2 Main engine explosive Arm/safe Ground
cutoff destructor monitor support
Destruct equipment
Orders
Safe
Monitors
Programmer Prestart
Power
Telemetry
monitors Main engine
C-1 and C-2 engines cutoff
Battery 1

Battery 2

Figure V -44. - Centaur flight termination system block diagram , AC - 10 .

Station

Cape

Grand
Bahama
Island

Grand
Turk Start
retromaneuver 7
1
Disable command
Antigua 1

Sustainer
Spacecraft
Booster -engine cutoff
separation
engine
cutoff Main engine Main engine
start cutoff
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Time after lift- off, sec

Figure V - 45. - Range safety command system transmitter coverage, AC - 10

79
 VEHICLE STRUCTURES

by Robert C. Edwards, Theodore F. Gerus , and Dana H. Benjamin

System Description
Vehicle structures include the basic Atlas and Centaur tanks and all bolt- on and

jettisonable hardware attached. The Atlas and Centaur propellant tanks provided the
primary vehicle structure . Both stages used thin wall pressure stabilized tank sections
of monocoque construction . These propellant tanks had a minimum pressure requireme
for various periods of flight in order to maintain structural stability . The structural
capability of the tank as a pressure vessel limited the maximum allowable pressure in the
propellant tanks. (

Vehicle Structural Loads

Centaur tank pressure criteria . - The maximum allowable and minimum required
-

tank pressures were predicted based on the maximum design flight loads being imposed
on the vehicle . Appropriate factors of safety were also included . The AC - 10 tank pres
sure profiles during the flight are compared with the maximum allowable and minimum
required tank pressures in figure V- 46. The areas of the tank structure which determine
the maximum allowable and minimum required tank pressures during different phases of
the flight are described in figure V- 47 .
The liquid oxygen tank pressure was of greatest concern at booster engine cutoff at
which time it approached most closely the maximum design allowable . The maximum
allowable liquid oxygen tank pressure was 33. O psia at booster engine cutoff, whereas the
actual AC - 10 liquid oxygen tank pressure as shown in figure V - 46 (a ) was 30. 3 psia. The
minimum required liquid oxygen tank pressure was not a critical factor during any perid
of flight .
The liquid hydrogen tank pressure reached a value closest to the allowable design
maximum just prior to the primary hydrogen vent valve being opened at T + 69.3 seconds
The maximum allowable pressure was 25.0 psia plus the nose fairing internal pressure .
At T + 69.3 seconds, the nose fairing internal pressure was 3.0 psia ; thus , the maximum
allowable liquid hydrogen tank pressure was 28.0 psia . This pressure is determined by
the hoop stress capability of the forward bulkhead conical section. The actual liquid
hydrogen tank pressure at this time was 26.0 psia .
The minimum required liquid hydrogen tank pressure was of primary importance at
the following times : prelaunch , launch , primary hydrogen vent valve opening (T + 69.3
sec) , and nose fairing jettison :

80
 (1) Prior to launch , the insulation panel pretensioning imposed local bending stresses
the liquid hydrogen cylindrical skin . The minimum required liquid hydrogen tank
essure at this time was 19.0 psia ; the actual tank pressure was 20.5 psia .
(2) During the launch phase (T - 0 to T + 10 sec) , the payload imposed compression
ds on the forward bulkhead due to inertia and lateral vibration . The minimum required
uid hydrogen tank pressure was 19.5 psia at T +0; at this time the actual tank pres
" re was 21.6 psia.
(3) Just after the primary hydrogen vent valve was opened at T + 69.3 seconds the
- rtia and bending compression loads were critical at station 409.6 on the cylindrical
* n . The minimum required liquid hydrogen tank pressure was 20.3 psia. The tank
essure at this time was 21.3 psia .
(4) At nose fairing jettison , the nose fairing exerted inboard radial loads at station
) . The minimum required tank pressure at this time was 18.5 psia ; the tank pressure
s 19.5 psia .
The maximum and minimum differential pressures between the liquid oxygen and
aid hydrogen tank were limited by the strength of the Centaur intermediate bulkhead .
e liquid oxygen tank pressure must always be greater than the liquid hydrogen tank
ssure for stability (to prevent bulkhead reversal) , and maximum pressure differential
>

s limited by the bulkhead material strength .

The desirable minimum differential pressure across the intermediate bulkhead was
- ) psi . Before the primary hydrogen vent valve was opened at T + 69.3 seconds , the
ual differential pressure across the intermediate bulkhead was 3.3 psi . The maximum
owable differential pressure across the intermediate bulkhead was 23.0 psi . During
p pressurization of the liquid oxygen tank , the actual differential pressure was 21.0
>

at T + 238 seconds .
Atlas tank pressure criteria . - The Atlas intermediate bulkhead differential pressure ,
shown in figure V - 48, remained well above the minimum allowable of 2.0 psi through
the critical lift - off period when the Atlas liquid oxygen mass was subjected to longi
inal oscillations. Thereafter, the bulkhead differential pressure varied between a
nimum of 7.0 psi at T + 100 seconds and a maximum of 23. 8 psi at booster engine
off . The design flight loads on the Atlas liquid oxygen tank were critical in bending
ween T + 60 and T + 80 seconds. Controlled tank pressures during that time , as
wn in figure V -49 , were above the minimums required for resisting the maximum
ign flight loads . The minimum differential between required and actual pressures
urred at T + 80 seconds when the liquid oxygen tank pressure was 33.5 psia and the
nimum allowable was 31. 8 psia . The maximum allowable liquid oxygen pressure was
$
st closely approached at T + 70 seconds . At this time , the tank pressure was
2 psia ; the allowable maximum pressure was 39.3 psia .
Quasi-steady -state load factors. - The longitudinal load factor buildup, a maximum

81
value of 5.68 g's , was reached at booster engine cutoff which was within the +3 o range
(5.62 to 5.78 g's ) .
Atlas launcher transients . - The AC - 10 launcher was instrumented to monitor the
-

effect of the launcher on the vehicle acceleration and on the booster fuel staging valve
installation on the Atlas. Launcher kick strut peak loads measured on AC - 10 were -

slightly lower than on the previous AC - 8 flight (28 000 lb against 30 000 lb ). Peak - to
peak longitudinal oscillations, however , were slightly higher although still acceptable
(0.8 g compared with 0.6 g for AC - 8) . The higher peak acceleration probably re
sulted from a difference in phasing between the existing vehicle oscillations and the kick
strut loads . Holddown cylinder pressure decay was within specification . Fuel staging
valve poppet clearance was a minimum at the time of kick strut second peak load and was
1.70 inches , well within allowable limits . Fuel manifold strut loads were similar to
those seen on AC - 8 and never exceeded 20 percent of the ultimate values .

Vehicle Dynamic Loads

The Atlas -Centaur launch vehicle may receive dynamic loading from several sources
These loads fall into three major categories : (1) external loads, such as aerodynamic ar
acoustic loads; (2 ) loads due to transients , such as engines starting and stopping and
separation transients ; and (3 ) loads due to dynamic coupling between major systems.
Previous flights of the Atlas - Centaur had shown that these loads were within the
structural limits . For this flight , an operational one , only a limited number of flight
measurements of dynamic loads and local spacecraft vibrations were made . However,
these few data indicate accurately the structural loading of the vehicle . The response 1

indicated by the data taken at fixed locations , and using the analytical model which has
been set up , permits computation of the dynamic loads which occur throughout the vehic.e.
The measurement instruments and the parameters measured are tabulated as follows:

Measurement instrument Parameter measured

Low -frequency range accelerometer Launch vehicle longitudinal vibration

Centaur pitch rate gyro
Centaur yaw rate gyro
Spacecraft accelerometer
Engine gimbal angles
Angle of attack
Launch vehicle pitch plane vibration
Launch vehicle yaw plane vibration
Spacecraft vibrations
Vehicle aerodynamic loads
Vehicle aerodynamic loads
!

82
 Launch vehicle longitudinal vibrations, as measured on the Centaur forward bulkhead,
2 shown in figure V - 50 . The frequency and amplitude of the vibrations measured on
s flight are compared with three other representative flights .
Launch vehicle longitudinal vibrations were excited during launcher release (see
evious discussion , Atlas launcher transients , p . 82 ). The amplitude and frequency of
se vibrations were near those oberved during other flights . Calculations using the
alytical model show that Atlas intermediate bulkhead pressure fluctuations were the
ost significant effects produced by the launcher induced longitudinal vibrations . The
essure fluctuations computed were 5.8 psi ; since the steady -state bulkhead differential
essure measured at this time was 9.8 psi (see fig . V - 48) , the minimum differential
essure was 4.0 psi . The minimum differential pressure across the bulkhead allowed
this flight (which includes an allowance for errors) was 2.0 psi .
During Atlas flight, between T + 72 and T + 125 seconds, intermittent longitudinal
brations of 0.10 g , at a frequency range of 11 to 15 hertz , were observed on the
yload . These vibrations are believed to be caused by dynamic coupling between
"ucture , engines, and propellant lines (commonly referred to as POGO) . The level and
quency of the vibrations are similar for the four vehicles shown in figure V- 50 , because
? vehicle configuration has not changed from flight to flight. These vibrations at the
plitudes measured do not produce significant vehicle loads (see ref . 4) .
During booster engine thrust decay , short duration transient longitudinal vibrations
1. 7 g's at a frequency of 80 hertz were observed . The analytical models did not indi
te significant structural loading due to this transient.
During the boost phase of flight, the vehicle vibrates in the pitch and yaw axes as an
egral unit at all its natural frequencies . Previous analyses and tests have defined
se natural frequencies or modes and the shapes which the vehicle assumes when the
des are excited . The rate gyros on the Centaur, which sense the local rate of change
slope , were used as instruments to sense the level of these modes . The maximum
st mode excitation was seen in the pitch plane at T + 135 seconds ( fig . V- 51) . The
iel was about 6 percent of the allowable deflection . The maximum second mode ex
ation was seen in the yaw plane at T + 40 seconds (fig . V- 52 ) . The yaw level was
out 23 percent of the allowable deflection .
Vehicle bending moments were computed by using computed angle of attack , engine
nbal data , vehicle weights , and vehicle stiffnesses. Angles of attack were calculated
>

using two differential pressures measured on the nose fairing and the total pressure
tained from a trajectory reconstruction. Computed angles of attack and gimbal angles
e shown in figures V - 53 to V- 56 . Predicted values are shown for comparison . Gimbal
pability ratio is defined as engine gimbal angle required divided by engine gimbal
gle total capability . The difference between actual and predicted values of angles of
ack and gimbal angles are within the expected dispersion values for all significant

83
 TABLE V - X SINGLE AMPLITUDE SHOCK AND VIBRATION LEVELS DURING AC - 10 FLIGHT

Spacecraft Flight events

accelerometer
location Launch Booster engine Booster jettison Insulation panel
cutoff jettison

Frequency, Accel-
9 Frequency, Accel- Frequency , Accel- Frequency Accel
Hz eration Hz eration Hz eration Hz eration
g's g's g's g's

Retromotor 6 (low) 0.38 11 0.8 Off scale Off a 700 10

attachment 1 , 140 (high) 600 scale

z -axis ~ 10 to
sensitivity 12

11
Retromotor 6.7 (low) 0.57 0.8 (b ) (b) ( b) (b )
attachment 2 , 250 (high ) 1. 76
z -axis
sensitivity

b
8
Retromotor 6 ( low ) 0.51 (b ) (b ) 600 (b ) (b )
attachment 3 , 250 (high ) 1.76
z -axis
sensitivity

10
Foot accelero 250 4.95 ( b) ( b) (b) (b ) 2550
meter ,
station 130 ,
radial
sensitivity
(
)
b

Accelerometer 200 1.27 (b ) (b) ( b) ( b) (b )

on spacecraft

Spacecraft Flight events Frequency

accelerometer band of
location Nose fairing Atlas -Centaur Main engine Main engine channel ,
jettison separation start cutoff Hz

Frequency , Accel- Frequency, Accel- Frequency, Accel- Frequency, Accel

Hz eration Hz eration Hz eration Hz eration
g's g's g's g's
Retromotor 32 1.4 8600 12 20 0.38 33 1.1 790
attachment 1,
z - axis
sensitivity
Retromotor (b ) ( b) a 550 8.5 20 0.397 (b ) (b ) 330
attachment 2 ,
z -axis
sensitivity
(

Retromotor (b ) ( b) (b ) ( b) 20 0.12 ( b) (b ) 330

attachment 3 ,
z -axis
sensitivity
(
b
(
b
)

Foot accelero- (b ) (b ) (b ) (b ) (b ) (b ) 330

meter ,
station 130,
radial
sensitivity
Accelerometer 18 0.875 (b ) (b ) ( b) (b) 33 1.85 330
on spacecraft
& Shock level.
bNot sampled because of time sharing between accelerometers .

84
cimes in flight. The differences between B1 and B2 engine gimbal angles at the same
ime are believed to be a result of the thermal effects . Expected angles of attack and
zimbal angles were calculated by using upper wind data obtained from a weather balloon
released at T + 9 minutes . The balloon was released to obtain upper wind information as
close to flight time as possible for a postflight evaluation .
The vehicle bending moments computed were added to axial load equivalent moments
ind moments resulting from random dispersions. The most significant dispersions
considered were launch vehicle performance uncertainties, vehicle center -of -gravity
offset, and wind gusts. The total equivalent predicted bending moment was divided by the
vending moment allowable to obtain the structural capability ratio , as shown in fig
ire V- 57 . The structural capability ratio shown in figure V - 57 is greatest between
T + 50 and T + 90 seconds because of high aerodynamic loads during this period. The
maximum structural capability ratio of 0.90 was computed by using predicted axial loads
ind moments due to random dispersions. Since the angles of attack and gimbal angles
measured in flight were within the expected dispersion values, it can be assumed that
structural capability ratio did not exceed 0.90 .
Local shock and vibrations were measured by five spacecraft accelerometers . AC
celerometer data were carried by two telemetry channels . One telemetry channel
carried one accelerometer continuously , and the second channel carried four acceler
ometers , sharing time between accelerometers . Because of time sharing between
accelerometers , some short duration transients were not measured .
A summary of the most significant shock and vibration levels is shown in
table V-X. The steady - state vibration levels were highest near lift - off as expected . An
-analysis of the data indicates that the levels were well within spacecraft qualification
levels. Shock loads were measured by the spacecraft accelerometers during transients .
The maximum level of the shock loads (10.0 g's) occurred at Atlas - Centaur separation
and insulation panel jettison .
A comparison between shock levels measured during Atlas - Centaur separation on
AC - 6 and AC - 10 is shown in table V - XI . Shock levels on AC - 10 were about the same as
those measured on AC - 6 .

85
 TABLE V - XI . - COMPARISON OF AC - 6 AND AC - 10 MAXIMUM
-

SHOCK LEVELS

a
Spacecraft accelerometer Event Single amplitude ,
location maximum g's

AC - 6 AC - 10

Retromotor attachment 1 , Atlas -Centaur 9.5 12

2 -axis sensitivity separation
Retromotor attachment 2 , Atlas -Centaur 12.5 8.5
z -axis sensitivity separation
Retromotor attachment 3, Atlas- Centaur ) 12.5 Not measured
z -axis sensitivity separation
Retromotor attachment 1 Insulation 9.5 10.0

panel jettison 1
Retromotor attachment 2 Insulation 11.2 Not measured
1
panel jettison
Retromotor attachment 3 Insulation 11.0 Not measured
panel jettison

aFrequencies at these mark events are in the range from 600

to 700 Hz .

1
86
 N I
38

GA
Maximum allow
able liquid oxygen
tank pressure
34

-Liquid oxygen
tank pressure www
30 .su
LWN
NAI
Maximum allowable .
liquid hydrogen
26 tank pressure

XU
LL
22 Liquid hydrogen

IT
tank pressure
S2 Minimum required
liquid hydrogen
S5
77547 tank pressure
18
Close primary hy Vent
drogen vent valve hydrogen
pressure

14
tank
Ullage

-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

,psia

Flight time, sec

(a) Time, T - 20 to T + 160 seconds.

44 ,

40
w

36

32 Liquid oxygen
tank pressure

Maximum allowable
28 liquid hydrogen
tank pressure
$ 122
24

Minimum required liquid .

hydrogen tank pressure
Liquid hydrogen
20 tank pressure
53 ta Main
Pressurize engine
16
Pressurize oxygen tank hydrogen tank start
160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340
Flight time, sec
( b) Time, T + 160 to T + 340 seconds.
Figure V -46. - Centaur fuel and oxidizer tank ullage pressures, AC - 10. ( S1 , S2, etc. , are defined in
fig. V-47. )

87
 321
Liquid oxygen
tank pressure
28
pressure

Maximum allowable liquid

Ullage

hydrogen tank pressure

p, sia

US12
24

20
Liquid hydrogen
tank pressure

16

Main engine Start Retrothrust End

cutoff ( tank blowdown)
12 F
350 450 550 650 750 850 950 1050 1150 1250
Flight time, sec
(c) Time, T + 350 to T + 1250 seconds.
Figure V - 46. - Concluded.

Si , hoop stress in conical tank skin on forward bulkhead

S2, compressive loads on forward bulkhead due to payload

53, jettisoning loads
54, stress in tank skin from panel pretension
Liquid
1

hydrogen
tank
Maximum allowable differential pressure across liquid
hydrogen - liquid - oxygen intermediate bulkhead
Minimum required differential pressure across liquid
hydrogen - liquid-oxygen intermediate bulkhead

Liquid S5, stability at station 409. 6

oxygen
tank S6, inertia effects on aft bulkhead at station 447

Figure V - 47. - Tank areas which determined allowable pressures, AC - 10.

-
88
 24
ppressure
Different
, sid ial

20

pod
16

12
8

be Booster
engine
4 cutoff
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Flight time, sec
Figure V - 48. - Atlas intermediate bulkhead differential pressure, AC - 10.
-

52

48
Maximum allowable liquid oxygen tank pressure

44
pPressure
, sia

40
36

Liquid oxygen tank pressure

Minimų re
quired liquid
oxygen tank pressure
32

28
Booster Sustainer
engine engine cutoff
cutoff
24
-40 0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280
Flight time, sec

Figure V -49. - Atlas liquid oxygen tank ullage pressure, AC - 10.

89
transient
booster
engine
Atlas

Flight Single Fre

cutoff

ampli- quency,
tude, Hz
g's
0 AC - 4 1.5
1 AC - 6 .7 -70
AC - 10 1.7
|
vibration
Propellant

coupled
estructure
)(POGO

Flight Single Fre

- ystem
- ngine

ampli- quency,
tude, Hz
s

g's
AC - 8 Q.10 11. 4
AC - 4 .12 12
AC - 6 .16 12
11 to 15
Launcher

AC - 10 .10
transient
release

Flight Single Fre

ampli- quency,
tude, Hz
g's
AC - 8 0.29 6.1
AC - 6 47 7.0
AC -4 15 6.0
AC - 10 .25 7.0

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Time after 2- in, rise, sec

Figure V -50. - Longitudinal vibrations for Atlas-Centaur flights. (Length of bars indicates duration of vibration .)

90
 Vehicle
station
Allowable deflection
아 Calculated data

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

1200

-.8 ..4 0 4
Deflection in pitch plane at T + 135
sec , in.

Figure V - 51. - Maximum pitch plane

first bending mode amplitudes, AC - 10.
Vehicle
station
0
-Allowable deflection
100
- Calculated data

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

1200

-.10 -.08 -.06 -.04 -.02 0 .02 .04 .06 .08

Deflection in yaw plane at T + 40 sec, in.
Figure V - 52. - Maximum yaw plane second bending mode amplitudes, AC - 10.

91
 4 Measured
Predicted using
T + 9 min wind data
2
dattack
Angle
,ofeg

-2

-4

-6
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Flight time, sec
Figure V - 53. - Pitch angles of attack, AC - 10.
4

Measured
Predicted using T + 9 min wind data

2
attack
Angle
,deg
of

0
功wa。rten
-2

-41
90

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100
Flight time, sec
Figure V - 54. - Yaw angles of attack , AC - 10.

92
 6
capability
B-2engine
gimbal
pitch

Predicted
ratio

-Measured

.8
capability
B-1engine
gimbal
pitch
ratio

.2
wy
NO
0 20 40 60 80 100
Flight time, sec
Figure V - 55. - Atlas booster engine pitch gimbal capability ratio, AC - 10.

93
 capability
B-2engine
gimbal
ratio
yaw

Predicted
Measured

.2

than
capability
B-1engine
gimbal
ratio
yaw

.2

20
+ - +
40 60
Melihat
80 100
Flight time, sec
Figure V -56. - Atlas booster engine yaw gimbal capability ratio, AC - 10.

94
 0
Critical
station

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1.0
Structural
capability
ratio

m
.2
w 20 40 60
Flight time, sec
80 100

Figure V - 57. - Maximum predicted structural capability

ratio ( total equivalent predicted bending moment)/( bending
moment allowable) and critical station, AC - 10.

95
 SEPARATION SYSTEMS

by Thomas L. Seeholzer

System Description

The Atlas -Centaur vehicle required the separation of stages and certain jettisonable 1

structures during the launch pha se . Systems were required for (1 ) insulation panel
separation , (2 ) nose fairing separation , (3) Atlas -Centaur separation , and (4) spacecran
separation .
Four insulation panels were separated by a flexible linear shaped charge located at
the forward , aft , and logitudinal seams . Each panel was jettisoned about two interstage
adapter hinge points (fig . V- 58) . After shaped charge firing, the panels were forced to
rotate about the hinge points by ( 1 ) center -of - gravity offset, (2 ) in - flight purge pressure
and (3) elasticity of the panels due to hoop tension. After approximately 45° of rotation. .

the panels jettisoned free from the Centaur vehicle .

Nose fairing jettison was accomplished by nitrogen gas powered thrustors located at
the forward end of the fairings, one in each cone half. The thrustors, when fired , forced
the fairing halves to pivot outboard around their respective hinge points. After approai- i
mately 35° of rotation , the fairings separated from the Centaur vehicle . Prior to thrus I
actuation , the aft circumferential connection to the Centaur tank was severed by firing
a flexible linear shaped charge (fig . V - 59) , and the nose fairing split line was opened by 1.

release of eight pyrotechnically operated pin puller latches.

Atlas-Centaur separation, as shown in figure V - 60 , was accomplished by a flexible
>

linear shaped charge which cut the interstage adapter circumferentially near its forward
end . The Atlas and interstage adapters were then separated from Centaur by retro
rockets which fired approximately 0.1 second later . The spacecraft was separated fros
Centaur by three pyrotechnically operated pin puller latches mounted on the forward
payload adapter, as shown in figure V -61 . Separation force was provided by three
mechanical spring assemblies, each having a 1 - inch stroke, which were mounted ad
jacent to each separation latch on the forward adapter.

System Performance
1

Insulation - panel separation . - A review of the flight data indicated that all four papel
separated and jettisoned normally . Twenty -four breakwires were attached to the insula
tion panel hinge arms and the interstage adapter to record panel separation , as shown in
figure V - 62 . Eight breakwires , one on each hinge , recorded panel separation after a

96
 panel rotation , and eight additional breakwires recorded panel separation after a
-inch displacement of hinge arm from hinge pin . For normal jettison , the 35° break
es break first while hinge arms are engaged on hinge pins . The 0.5 - inch breakwires
ak after the panels have separated from the hinge pins . In addition , eight break
ner breakwires were installed on each aft corner of the insulation panels to determine
ne panels fail during jettison . The breakwire data verified that panels did not break
come out of the hinges prematurely .
Nose fairing separation . Separation of the nose fairing occurred at T + 202.8
conds . There was a slight transient in the vehicle roll rate at this time , but it did not
duce any detrimental effects. As expected, no pressure buildup in the payload com
tment occurred at nose fairing thrustor bottle actuation (fig. V - 63) .
- Atlas - Centaur separation . Vehicle staging was initiated by firing of the linear
ped charge at T + 241. 3 seconds which severed the interstage adapter at station 413 .
retrorockets mounted around the aft end of the Atlas fired approximately 0.1 second
! r to decelerate the booster. Accelerometer data indicated that all eight retrorockets
ited .
The critical motion was in pitch as there was less radial clearance between the inter
je adapter and the Centaur in the y -z plane. The gyros indicated an apparent rotation
he pitch plane of 0.030 between the two stages as the Atlas cleared the Centaur. The
ulting vertical motion at the separation plane was approximately 0.3 inch , which
resents the lowest level of pitch motion yet observed during staging . All the flight
i indicated that a positive clearance existed between stages during separation.
The steering gyros mounted on the Atlas indicated that it rotated about its yaw axis
roximately 0.18° at the time it cleared the Centaur . This rotation created a lateral
placement at the forward end of the interstage adapter of 1.8 inches .
-

Spacecraft separation . - Centaur - Surveyor separation occurred at T + 756.9 seconds .

-

a from extensometers on separation spring assemblies indicated that all three

aration latches actuated within 2 milliseconds of each other . The three jettison
ing assemblies were calibrated , as shown in figure V- 64 . These springs operated
mally during flight and yielded approximately identical data for stroke against time,
shown in figure V - 65 . The separation was normal producing no significant spring
iced angular rate in the spacecraft.

12

97
 y -axis z - axis

I
Quadrant I Quadrant IV
2

-x -axis

x - axis
Quadrant II
Quadrant III

Hinge arm
-y- axis

Hinge fitting
( typical eight 1
places)

Figure V - 58 . - Jettisonable insulation panel system , AC- 10 .

7

-Pneumatic thrustor (2)

-axis
Station 219,
shaped charge
Quadrant IV 4

Quadrant I
x - axis

Explosive latches ( 8 )

-x - axis

-Hinge point
Iti Suni
-y- axis

Quadrant III
Quadrant II

Tarh

Figure V -59. - Surveyor nose fairing jettison, AC -10 .

98
X

Forward equipment
compartment
Retrorockets

Surveyor
spacecraft
igure V -60 . - Atlas -Centaur separation, AC- 10.
CD - 9521

Spacecraft
I electrical
Adapter forward " disconnect
plane station 1287
х

II III

IV
Spacecraft
adapter
-y -X

Separation latch
(three places )
Separation springs
( three places)
Retractable
pin -Spacecraft
Clevis attachment
fitting
Direction of
Adapter spacecraft
flange separation
CD - 9522
-Pyrotechnic pin
retraction unit

Figure V-61. - Centaur - Surveyor separation, AC - 10.

99
 Eight broken
corner sensing
wires

Typical
four panels

Eight panel
rotation
sensing wires

-35 °

Typical eight
hinges

CD - 9523
Eight hinge separation
sensing wires (break
after 0.5 in . travel )

Figure V -62. - Insulation panel breakwire locations, AC - 10.

16
pPressure

12
, sia

Nose
8

-fairing
jettison

0
-40 0 40 80 120 160 200 240
Time from lift- off, sec
Figure V-63. - Payload compartment pressure, AC - 10.

100
 150
Leg

WN
140

130

120

110
Load
,1b

100

90

80

70

60
0 2 .4 .6 1.0
Spring stroke, in.
Figure V -64. - Surveyor jettison spring calibration at East
ern Test Range, AC - 10.
1.0
у
Leg
Leg 1
V 1
02
.8 I IV 0 3
х х

Leg 2 II III
Leg 3
.6
.Spring
stroke
,in

View looking aft

.2

007

-.2
0 02 · 04 06 .08 10 .12
Time from spacecraft separation, sec
Figure V-65. - Centaur- Surveyor separation spring assemblies, AC - 10.

101
 GUIDANCE AND FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS

by Donald F. Garman , William J. Middendorf , Edward R. Ziemba ,

and Theodore W. Porada

The functions of the guidance and flight control systems were to stabilize, control,
and sequence flight events of the Atlas -Centaur vehicle from lift - off through completion
of the Centaur retromaneuver after spacecraft separation . These functions were ac
complished by using a self -contained inertial guidance system in the Centaur stage and
individual flight control systems in the Atlas and Centaur stages. The objective was to
guide the launch vehicle to the injection point and establish the required launch vehicle
velocity necessary to place the Surveyor spacecraft in a lunar transfer orbit. The sys
tems had the capability to compensate for trajectory dispersions resulting from thrust
misalinement, winds, and performance variations in Atlas and Centaur. Capability
existed for either a direct ascent or a parking orbit ascent to the injection point . A
direct ascent mission was used for the AC - 10 flight. Three modes of operation for
stabilization and control of the launch vehicle were used . These modes were rate
stabilization, open loop control , and closed loop control . These modes are shown in
simplified block diagram form in figure V -66 , and the time periods of each mode are
(
shown in figure V - 67 .
The purpose of the rate stabilization mode was to maintain the vehicle with near
zero rotational rates about the vehicle pitch , yaw , and roll axes . This was done by
sensing rotational rates with rate gyros (one for each axis) and gimbaling the engines or
using the hydrogen peroxide attitude control system after Centaur main engine cutoff to
counter any vehicle angular rates . This mode was used only for short periods of time
after Atlas - Centaur separation and after Centaur main engine cutoff .
The open loop control mode was accomplished by combining the rate gyro information
with displacement information . Rate integrating gyros (one each for pitch , yaw , and roll
axes) were used to provide a reference attitude from which vehicle angular displacement
was measured . Engine gimbaling provided directional thrust which resulted in vehicle
movement to zero - out the displacement difference angle . The reference attitude was
programmed to vary in discrete steps as a function of time . This commanded the vehicle
to go from a vertical toward a horizontal attitude and also to roll the vehicle to the
required launch azimuth angle. This is called open loop control since there was no
method to measure the actual angles through which the vehicle rotated and compare it to
the commanded angles . The open loop control mode was used only during Atlas booster
phase of flight .
Closed loop control was accomplished by combining the rate gyro information with
displacement information from the guidance system . This displacement position in

102
formation was the difference between desired position and actual or measured position.
The term " closed loop control" denotes this method of operation where the error signal
is generated by the difference between the desired or command signal and the measured
output of the system . Closed loop control was used during Atlas sustainer and Centaur
phase of flight . This type of control was used for only two axes , pitch and yaw . During
Atlas sustainer phase, the roll displacement information was provided by the Atlas rate
integrating gyro . During the Centaur phase of flight, the roll axis was stabilized only
by the rate gyro information . Figure V- 68 is a simplified diagram of the guidance and
flight control systems interface showing the summation points for the three different
modes of operation .
The sequencing of flight events was another shared function between the flight control
systems and the guidance system . Shared is used in the sense that one system could
initiate a period of performance , such as main engine start and another system could ter
minate that period of performance , such as main engine cutoff. Table V - XII lists the
main events commanded by these systems and identifies the system that originated the
discrete command for the flight event .

TABLE V - XII . - GUIDANCE AND FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS

SHARED DISCRETE COMMANDS , AC - 10

Event Originating source of

discrete command

Guidance to flight condition Guidance launch equipment

Enable Atlas flight control system
Start roll program
Start pitch program
Booster engine cutoff
Start guidance steering
Sustainer engine cutoff
Atlas - Centaur separation
Centaur main engine start
Start guidance steering
Accept a main engine cutoff command
Main engine cutoff
Separate spacecraft
Provide retromaneuver steering vector
Start guidance steering
Calibrate telemetry on
Calibrate telemetry off
Centaur power to external
42 - in . - rise umbilical ejection
Atlas flight control
Atlas flight control
Guidance
Atlas flight control
Atlas flight control
Atlas flight control
Centaur flight control
Centaur flight control
Centaur flight control
Guidance
Centaur flight control
Guidance
Centaur flight control
Guidance
Guidance
Centaur flight control

103
 The following sections are organized to present the description and performance of
each system in the order of ( 1) guidance system , ( 2) Atlas flight control system , and (3)
Centaur flight control system .

Guidance System

System description . - The AC - 10 Centaur guidance system was an inertial system

which was completely independent from ground control after entering flight condition
approximately 7 seconds before lift -off of the vehicle .. The guidance system performed
the following functions :
( 1) Measured vehicle acceleration in fixed inertial coordinates
(2) Computed vehicle velocity , actual present position , and steering signals
(3) Determined time of discrete events
A simplified block diagram of the guidance system is shown in figure V- 69 .
Inertial measuring units : The function of measuring vehicle acceleration was ac
complished by the following three units of the five units which comprise the complete
quidance system :
( 1 ) Inertial platform unit contained the gimbal assembly, gyros , and accelerometers
(2) Pulse rebalance, gyro torquer , and power supply unit contained the electronics
associated with the accelerometers
(3) Platform electronics unit contained the electronics associated with the gyros
The remaining two units, the navigation computer and the signal conditioner , are dis
cussed later in this section .

A platform assembly with four gimbals provided a three - axis coordinate system with
a redundant fourth axis . The gimbals were used to isolate the inner or azimuth gimbal
from movements of the vehicle airframe. A gimbal diagram is shown in figure V- 70 .
The four gimbals allowed complete rotation of all three vehicle axes about the platform
without gimbal lock . Gimbal lock is a condition where two axes coincide and 1 degree of
freedom is lost. The inertial components , three gyros , and three accelerometers , were
mounted on the azimuth gimbal. A gyro and an accelerometer were mounted as a pair
with the input axes of each pair parallel. These gyro- accelerometer pairs were also
alined on three mutually perpendicular (orthogonal) axes corresponding to the three axes
of the platform .
The three gyros used were the single -degree - of -freedom , floated -gimbal, rate
integrating types. Each of the three axes of the platform was controlled by a gyro , the
only function of which was to maintain that axis fixed in inertial space . Control was
provided by inputing the gyro signal to a servoamplifier. The output of the amplifier
controlled a direct drive gimbal torque motor . Since the inner gimbals were fixed to an
104
inertial reference and the outer gimbal was fixed to the vehicle , the angles between the
gimbals were used for an analog transformation of steering signals from inertial co
ordinates to a vehicle coordinate system . The analog transformation was accomplished
by resolvers, mounted between gimbals , which produced the sine and cosine functions of
the gimbal angles.
The three accelerometers used were the single axis , viscous damped , and hinged
pendulum types . The accelerometer associated with each axis measured the change in
vehicle velocity a long that axis as positive or negative pulses depending on an increase
or decrease in vehicle velocity . The accelerometer and its associated electronics were
designed so that each rebalance pulse, necessary to center the hinged pendulum , repre
sented a unit of change in velocity of approximately 0.1 foot per second . These pulses
of incremental velocity were then routed to the navigation computer unit for further
processing to provide the outputs of the guidance system .
During launch countdown the inertial measuring units were alined and calibrated for
initial conditions . The azimuth axis of the platform , to which the desired flight trajectory
was referenced, was established by ground based optical alinement equipment . The
remaining two axes of the platform were alined to the local vertical by using two appro
priate accelerometers . The platform was then controlled to center the outputs of these
accelerometers which alined the platform to the local vertical . Each gyro was calibrated
for constant torque drift rate and mass unbalance along the input axis. The accelerom
eters were calibrated for misalinement of input axes, and the scale factor and zero bias
offset of each accelerometer was determined. These prelaunch determined constants
were stored in the navigation computer for use during flight,
Navigation computer unit : The navigation computer unit was a serial, binary,
digital machine with a magnetic drum memory . The memory drum had a capacity of
2816 words (25 bits per word) of permanent storage , 256 words of temporary storage ,
and six special purpose tracks . The permanent storage was prerecorded and could not
be altered by the computer . The temporary storage track was the working storage of
the computer. The incremental velocity pulses from the accelerometers were the
information inputs to the navigation computer . The operation of the navigation computer
was controlled by a program prerecorded in the permanent memory of the computer .
This program allowed the computer to perform three basic operations which are des
cribed by the prelaunch equations, navigation equations , and guidance equations .
The prelaunch equations established the initial conditions for the navigation and
guidance equations to begin navigating and guiding at approximately 7 seconds prior to
lift -off. This conditioning included selecting a reference trajectory , inserting launch pad
values of position, and setting various navigation and guidance functions to predetermined
initial values .
The navigation equations computed present velocity and present position . The present

105
(current) velocity was determined by algebraically summing the incremental velocity
pulses from the accelerometers and then performing an integration on the computed
velocity to determine present position. Corrections for the calibrated gyro and acceler
ometer constants were also made during the velocity and position determination to im
prove the navigation accuracy .. As an example, the velocity information derived from the
accelerometer data was adjusted to compensate for the accelerometer scale factors and
zero offset biases that were measured during the launch countdown. The direction of the
velocity vector was also adjusted to compensate for the gyro constant torque drift rates
that were measured in the launch countdown .
The function of the guidance equations was to guide the vehicle to the required point
in space for injection into the desired lunar trajectory . The guidance equations used
were of the modified " velocity - to -be - gained " type. These guidance equations only
required as inputs present position , present velocity , and the trajectory injection require
ments . The equations were " modified" to optimize other mission constraints . Based on
the modified -velocity - to -be gained concept, steering signals were generated to guide the
vehicle along an optimized flight path from the present position to the desired injection
conditions. Using the guidance equations, the navigation computer initiated five discrete
commands: ( 1) booster engine cutoff, ( 2) backup start Centaur timer, (3) Centaur main
engine cutoff, (4) calibrate telemetry on , and (5) calibrate telemetry off. The booster
and backup start Centaur timer discrete commands were issued when the measured
vehicle acceleration equaled a predetermined value. The Centaur main engine cutoff
discrete command was issued when the computed vehicle energy (using measured vehicle
velocity) equaled the orbital energy required for injection into the lunar trajectory . The
telemetry discrete commands were issued on predetermined fixed time intervals from the
backup sustainer discrete command .
Signal conditioner unit: The signal conditioner unit was the link between the guidance
system and the vehicle telemetry system . The signals in the guidance system required
mcdification and scaling to match the input range of the telemetry system .
System performance. - The overall performance of the AC - 10 guidance system
(designated MGS # 12B) was excellent with no discrepancies or anomalies noted .
System accuracy : The guidance system performed within the expected limits. Data
from 15 hours and 17 minutes of tracking information indicated that the midcourse correc
tion required 20 hours after injection to impact the designed target point would have been !
3.8 meters per second (miss only) or 6.4 meters per second (miss plus time of flight).1
1These values of 3.8 m /sec (miss only) or 6.4 m / sec (miss plus time of flight) are 1

the accuracy values at the time of injection . These are not to be confused with the
actual midcourse correction which was selected after spacecraft separation by the 1
mission director (Jet Propulsion Laboratory) to optimize fuel residuals and other mission
related parameters . (See section IV. SURVEYOR TRANSIT PHASE and /or ref. 2. )
1

106 .
 hese midcourse corrections were well within the specified accuracy requirement of not
equiring a Surveyor midcourse correction in excess of 50 meters per second . Trajectory
erigee was designed to be 90+5 nautical miles . The actual perigee was 91.3 nautical
iles .
The overall injection velocity error was caused by three main sources : ( 1) an error
i the prediction of engine shutdown impulse, (2) an error due to the computational tech
iques used and influenced by the actual trajectory flown , and (3) an error related to the
ccuracy of the guidance system. The components of the overall injection error are
hown in the following table:

Error Miss only , Miss plus time of flight,

m /sec m /sec

Engine shutdown impulse 6.07 11.02

2
Computer program 1.02 1.66
Guidance hardware 1.60 2.94

Total error (vector summation) 3.8 6.4

The engine shutdown impulse error vector was in a direction almost directly opposed to
he guidance hardware and computer program error vector which resulted in a cancella -
ion effect producing a small total injection error .
The landing conditions for which the computer program was designed and the landing
onditions which would have been achieved had no midcourse correction maneuver been
nade , are listed in the following table :

Landing conditions Designed No midcourse correction

3
Selenographic latitude 3. 25° s 11. 42 °
Selenographic longitude 43.83° w 54. 17° w
Unbraked impact velocity 2662.0 m/sec 2664.2 m /sec
Flight time to Moon 2 days 2 days
14 hr 14 hr
58 min 48 min
27. 3 sec 0.2 sec
2

mt

107
These data reflect a projected miss of the designed target of about 216 nautical miles ,
an impact velocity error of 2.2 meters per second , and a flight time difference of
10 minutes , 27.1 seconds early .
Hardware performance: The navigation computer issued the Atlas booster engine
cutoff discrete at T + 142.04 seconds . Acceleration of the vehicle at the time of booster

cutoff discrete was 5.68 g's which was within the expected range of 5.62 to 5.78 g's .
The Centaur main engine cutoff discrete was issued about 1 millisecond early and is
within the uncertainty band of the computational technique that was used . All other as
pects of computer performance were satisfactory , as demonstrated by the extremely
small injection error contributed by the computer program . After booster engine cutoff
+ 4 seconds , the guidance steering signals were enabled . At this time , normal pitch
and yaw corrections were made . Minor pitch and yaw motions , which occurred at
Atlas - Centaur separation , were damped out rapidly . Negligible steering commands were
observed during Centaur burn , which indicated that the thrust vector was properly alined
with the desired velocity vector .
The four platform gimbal servoloops indicated satisfactory performance throughout
the flight . Gimbal 1 (azimuth) and 2 (roll) oscillated at a frequency of about 2 hertz from
the time of transfer to internal power until the end of the flight. Gimbal 1 oscillations
were the largest and were equivalent to a platform displacement of about 5 arc - seconds
peak to peak . These oscillations appeared to be unrelated to vehicle dynamics and have
been observed on previous vehicles during ground testing of other missile guidance sets .
There appeared to be no detrimental effect on vehicle performance resulting from these
oscillations . Other low frequency oscillations (0.2 to 2.0 Hz) which were noted on all
four gimbals appeared to be the result of vehicle dynamics . From T - 7 seconds and on ,
the predicted gyro drift was analytically compensated for by the guidance equations. On
prior flights , the gyros were torqued to compensate for their predicted drift. The in
jection accuracy of this flight demonstrated the validity of the technique of analytical com
pensation.
Data from the accelerometers and the associated electronics indicated satisfactory
performance of these components throughout the flight.

Flight Control Systems

Atlas system description . - The Atlas flight control system provided the primary
functions required for vehicle stabilization , control, execution of guidance steering
signals, and electronically timed switching sequences .
The Atlas flight control system comprised the following principal units :
( 1 ) The displacement gyro unit consisted of three single -degree -of -freedom , floated,

108
ate - integrating - type gyros . These gyros were mounted to the vehicle airframe in an
rthogonal triad configuration alining the input axis of a gyro to its respective vehicle axis
f pitch , yaw , or roll .
(2 ) The rate gyro unit contained three single -degree - of - freedom , floated, rate gyros .
hese gyros were mounted in the same manner as the displacement gyro unit.
(3) The servoamplifier unit contained electronics to sum signals algebraically ,
mplify , and accept feedbacks signals of engine position.
(4) The programmer unit contained an electronic timer , arm - safe switch , power
-

witches, the fixed pitch program , and circuitry to set the roll program from launch
round equipment.
During the Atlas booster phase , pitch and yaw open loop control was accomplished by
imbaling the booster engines. Roll open loop control was accomplished by gimbaling
e vernier engines in roll and differential gimbaling of booster engines in yaw . During
e Atlas sustainer phase , roll open loop control was achieved by differential gimbaling
the vernier engines ; pitch and yaw closed loop control was provided by gimbaling the
istainer engine.
At 42 - inch rise + 1 second, a roll rate of 0.2 degree per second was commanded
rotate the vehicle from the azimuth of the launcher to the azimuth required for the
ight trajectory . At T + 15 seconds , the roll program was disabled and a pitch program
itiated . One of four available seasonal pitch program kits had been selected and in
alled months prior to launch . These programs allowed a choice in the vehicle pitch
ajectory to compensate for expected seasonal differences in upper atmosphere winds .
he pitch program was a timed sequence of pitch rates which were designed to control
e vehicle during ascent through the atmosphere with acceptable aerodynamic heating
onditions and at near zero angle of attack .
The functions performed by the Atlas flight control system to stabilize and control
Ce vehicle were previously discussed in this section. Also , discussed previously were
e issuance of discrete commands that had a shared relation to commands issued by the
tidance system. In addition to these " shared '' commands, many other timed discrete
smmands were issued by this system.
Atlas system performance . The flight control system performed satisfactorily
-

roughout the Atlas phase of flight. The control corrections required because of vehicle
sturbances were well within the control system capability . Table V - XIII summarizes
e analysis of flight disturbances . The transient response resulting from each flight
rent was evaluated in terms of amplitude , frequency, and duration as observed on rate
" ro data . In this table, the percent control capability at the time of each disturbance is
so listed. The percent control capability is the amount of engine gimbal angle used with
spect to the total engine gimbal angle capability available . The control capability shown
the table V - XIII includes that necessary for correction of the vehicle disturbance and

109
 TABLE V - XIII . - VEHICLE DYNAMIC RESPONSE TO FLIGHT DISTURBANCES , AC - 10

Event Flight time , Measurement Rate gyro Transient Transient Required

sec amplitude frequency , duration , percent
(peak to peak ) , Hz sec control
deg / sec capability

Lift - off transients T + 0.96 Pitch 1.12 0.67 2 16

42 - in . rise Yaw 1.04 .67 4 6
Roll 1.52 No fundamental frequency 6

Maximum aero Data reviewed Pitch 1.52 0.67 10 71

dynamic loads for maximum Yaw 1.12 .5 10 28
rates between Roll .4 1 10 28
T + 70 and
T + 80

Booster engine T + 142.0 Pitch 2.08 5 2.2 16

cutoff Yaw .6 5 2.2 9
Roll .8 3.5 2 9

Booster engine T + 145.1 Pitch 0.72 2.5 0.5 24

co
w
o
jettison Yaw 3. 36 . 77 61
Roll 2.96 .833 3 16

Start guidance T + 150.0 Pitch 1.28 1.67 1.5 48

steering Yaw 1.36 .833 4 38

Roll . 72 .833 5 4

Insulation panel T + 176.2 Pitch 0.64 10 0.8 10

jettison Yaw .4 5 2 2
Roll 1.44 4 1 4

Nose fairing T + 202.8 Pitch 1.92 20 1 10

jettison Yaw . 32 12.5 .3 1
Roll 1 1.67 1 4
Sustainer engine T + 234.4 Pitch Smooth separation no noticeable transients
cut Yaw
Roll

the capability used for steady - state requirements , such as gimbal angle required to
execute the pitch program .
The programmer was started at 42 - inch rise which occurred at approximately
T + 0.96 second . The roll error was near zero by T + 2 seconds using 6 percent of the
control capability . At T + 2 seconds , an estimated roll rate of 0.24 degree per second
was sensed , indicating the roll program had been initiated . The errors in pitch and yaw
approached zero by T + 4 seconds using 6 percent of the control capability. The pitch

110
 gram was observed to start at T + 15. 4 seconds with a pitch rate of -0.56 degree per
ond .

During a 10 - second period around T + 75 seconds , aerodynamic forces required the

ximum control response in pitch , yaw , and roll . During this period of maximum
odynamic loading, 71 percent of the control capability was required to overcome both
ady- state and transient loading . For the aerodynamic conditions based on the
.. 9 minute balloon data , the maximum predicted control requirement for both steady
te and transient disturbances was 68 percent.
: The booster engines were cut off at T + 142.04 seconds . The rates imparted to the
icle by the transients were damped out in 2.2 seconds using a maximum of 11 percent
he sustainer engine gimbal capability . The booster engines were jettisoned at
+ 145.04 seconds. The rates imparted to the vehicle by booster jettison required a
_ximum of 36 percent of the total control capability to stabilize the vehicle .
Prior to the sustainer portion of flight, the Atlas flight control system provided the
Ticle displacement reference . At T + 150.04 seconds , the Centaur guidance system
's used as the displacement reference . The new displacement command resulting from
change in reference required 23 percent of the total control capability. The maximum
icle rate during this change was 1. 36 degrees per second peak to peak . The vehicle
bilized on the new reference within 5 seconds .
Insulation panels and nose fairings were jettisoned at T + 175. 84 seconds and
202.76 seconds , respectively . The maximum vehicle transient observed due to
se disturbances was a peak - to - peak pitch rate of 1.92 degrees per second . The
ximum control capability used to overcome the jettison forces was 4 percent .
Sustainer engine cutoff occurred at T + 239.38 seconds. Atlas - Centaur separation
; smooth with no noticeable transients .
Centaur system description. The Centaur flight control system provided primary
ctions required for vehicle stabilization and control during Centaur powered flight, for
cution of guidance steering signals, and to provide timed switching sequences for
grammed flight events . A simplified block diagram of the Centaur flight control
tem is shown in figure V- 71 .
The Centaur flight control system comprised the following principal units :
( 1 ) The rate gyro unit contained three single -degree -of -freedom , floated , rate gyros
a electronics for channel selection and signal amplification . These gyros were
inted to the vehicle in an orthogonal triad configuration alining the input axis eye of
gyro to its respective vehicle axis eye of pitch , yaw , or roll .
>

(2) The servoamplifier unit contained the threshold and logic circuitry for the hydro
peroxide engines and the required electronics to control the main engine actuators.
(3) The electromechanical timer unit contained a 400 -hertz synchronous motor which
vided the time reference . The motor drove a mechanical arrangement of shafts and

111
cams which activated switch contacts. The switches were used as control inputs for the
auxiliary electronics unit .
(4) The auxiliary electronics unit contained logic , relay switches , transistor power
switches , power supplies , and an arm - safe switch . Signals from these devices then
controlled sequencing of other subsystems . The arm - safe switch electrically isolated
the pyrotechnic devices and valve actuators from control switches .
Vehicle steering during Centaur powered flight was by thrust vector control throug'
gimbaling of the two main engines . There were two actuators for each engine to provide
pitch , yaw , and roll control . Pitch control was accomplished by moving both engines ir i
the pitch plane. Yaw control was accomplished by moving both engines in the yaw plane
and roll control was accomplished by differentially moving the engines in the yaw plane.
Thus , the yaw actuator responded to an algebraically summed yaw -roll command . By
controlling the direction of thrust of the main engines, the flight control system main
tained the flight of the vehicle on a trajectory directed by the guidance system .
After main engine cutoff , control of the vehicle was maintained by the flight control
system using selected constant thrust hydrogen peroxide engines in an " on - off " mode of
operation . This was accomplished by threshold and logic circuitry within the flight
control system responding to rate and displacement signals.
The functions performed by the Centaur flight control system to stabilize and contro
the vehicle were previously discussed in this section . Also , discussed was the issuance
of discrete commands that had a shared relation to commands issued by the guidance
system . In addition to these " shared ' commands many other timed discrete commands
were issued .
Centaur system performance . The Centaur flight control system performance was
satisfactory throughout the flight. Vehicle stabilization and control were maintained at
all times , and all flight programmer discrete events were executed at the required tires
The Centaur timer was started at sustainer engine cutoff (T + 239.38 sec ) by a dis
crete from the Atlas programmer . Appropriate commands were issued for pressurizin
the hydrogen tank , centering the Centaur engines , engine prestart and cooldown, and
main engine start. Vehicle rates sensed in pitch , yaw , and roll were mild during staging
and did not exceed 1.5 degrees per second .
Main engine start was commanded at T + 250. 86 seconds . Rates due to engine start
transients were not greater than 2. 73 degrees per second and were corrected by gimbal.
ing the engines less than 1 °. When guidance steering was admitted to the Centaur flight
control system 4 seconds after engine start, the vehicle attitude was 1.0° nose high and
4.0° nose right of the desired steering vector . This difference was corrected within
4 seconds .
Vehicle steady - state rates during main engine firing were essentially zero in yaw
and roll . Pitch rates in response to closed loop control did not exceed 0.20 degree per
112
 ond . Approximately 60 seconds prior to main engine cutoff , the pitchdown rate de
ised as the vehicle approached the desired orbital injection conditions , and the
lance velocity - to -be - gained terms approached zero .
-

E: Rates imparted to the vehicle due to engine cutoff transients were mild , indicating a

11 differential impulse . Maximum disturbance rate was 0.76 degree per second in
· Coincident with main engine cutoff , closed loop control was terminated . The
rogen peroxide attitude control system was activated, and these engines fired only if
icle rates exceeded 0.2 degree per second . Vehicle disturbances were almost
ligible and the hydrogen peroxide attitude control engines fired only 3 percent of the
2.

After Centaur main engine cutoff , the timer issued commands to prepare the space
it for separation , and all required commands were issued properly . At T + 756.91
onds , the hydrogen peroxide attitude control system was deactivated for 5 seconds ,
the spacecraft was successfully separated from Centaur. The hydrogen peroxide at
de control system was deactivated during this time to preclude collision of the Centaur
.cle with the spacecraft.
The retromaneuver was initiated at T + 762.0 seconds when the Centaur was com
ided to turn approximately 180° to the negative of the injection guidance steering
tor . Simultaneously, the attitude control system was activated and began a negative
h , positive yaw maneuver toward the new vector. Approximately half way (90°)
ugh the turnaround , two of the 50 -pound hydrogen peroxide engines were commanded
ire to provide 100 pounds thrust for 20 seconds as planned . Guidance gimbal resolver
i indicated that the vehicle turned through 161 ° in approximately 104 seconds to the
' vector . The total angle and the turnaround time were within the expected dispersions .
At T + 997 seconds, the engine prestart valves were opened to allow the residual
pellants to blow down through the main engines. Coincident with the start of this
wdown, the engine thrust chambers were gimbaled to aline the thrust vector through
vehicle center of gravity. Thrust from the propellant blowdown provided adequate
aration between the Centaur and Surveyor spacecraft. Separation distance at the end
i hours was 1054 kilometers . This was more than three times the required separation
ance to prevent the Surveyor star sensor from acquiring the reflected light of Centaur
her than the star Canopus .

113
 Rate gyro
Reference Rate Engine Vehicle
Servoelectronics Flight
axis
H actuator dynamics

Vehicle angular rate

( a ) Rate stabilization .

Rate gyro
Reference
Rate Engine Vehicle
Servoelectronics
axis
H
Vehicle angular rate
actuators dynamics Flight

Stabilization plus
Displacement gyro displacement
Rate integrating gyro
Reference
attitude

Vehicle position
Predetermined pitch
or roll program
( b) Open loop control .

Rate gyro
Reference
Rate Engine Vehicle
axis
Servoelectronics
H
Vehicle angular rate
actuators dynamics Flight

Stabilization plus guidance

Displacement (transformed coordinates)
system displacement

Desired vehicle final Displacement Multiple

position and direction resolvers
Indicates an algebraic
summation point
Actual vehicle present Indicates direction of
position and direction
signal flow
Guidance system

(c ) Closed loop control.

Figure V -66. - Guidance and flight control modes of operation, AC - 10.

114
 roll
control
loop
Open

Closed
control
loop
pitch
yaw
and

yaw
and
pitch
control
loop
Fopen

roll
stabilization
Rate

1.(-i-4.n2
)m
e; nable
rise Rate
stabilization
pitch
yaw
and
Atlas
flight
con Booster
trol
T+0.86
sec
engine
cutoff
Star
roll t
pro T+142.0
ec
s2+Tgram sec
Centa
engin
main eur
Enable
Start
pitch Enable
guidance
steering cutoff
6+T29
sec Enable
guidance guidance
;Atlas
program steering +254.9
T
flight
control steering
T+150.0
5
1T+sec Separate
sec
Atlas
stage Centaur
stage
Booster Sustainer engine
-Main
firing _Space Centaur
craft retromaneuver
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 1247
,sFlight
time
ec
V607uidance
,AGFigure
operation
of
modes
control
flight
.-1and
C

115
 Guidance Flight control Other subsystems
400 Hz

28 V (de ) -Guidance system

originated discretes
Navigation
computer 28 V (dc) oo Timer
originated discretes
U V W Steering Pitch rate
signals gyro

Servoelectronics Engine actuators

! Multiple resolvers
(coordinate trans- Steering signals
i formation )
Yaw rate
gyro

Servoelectronics | Engine actuators

Roll rate
gyro
Logic circuitry Hydrogen
peroxide
engines
Servoelectronics
Centaur

Atlas
Pitch rate
gyro
Sustainer
Pitch
Pitch displace Servoelectronics Engine actuators
program ment gyro Booster
Yaw rate
gyro
Engine actuator
i position feedback
Yaw displace Servoelectronics 1 ( typical)
ment gyro
Roll rate + Engine actuators
gyro
| Roll
Roll displace Servoelectronics
program
ment gyro
Programmer
28 V (dc ). originated discretes

Algebraic summation point

Figure V -68. - Simplified guidance and flight control systems interface, AC - 10.

116
 Gyro output
Gimbal torque motor drive
Platform
electronics Steering signals ( inertial coordinates)
Inertial
Steering signals ( vehicle coordinates) platform
Vehicle
Power supply motion
voltages
Accelerometer output
Pulse rebalance, gyro
Accelerometer rebalance pulses
torquer, and power
supply ( coupler ) Power supply voltages
Mounted to
vehicle

Vehicle power
Incremental velocity pulses
Excitation for steering signals Navigation
computer
Steering signals ( inertial coordinates)

From plat
form elec Signal con
tronics coupler ditioner

Steering Vehicle power; Excitation Discretes Telemetry

signals 400 Hz, 28 V (dc) for
vehicle steering
coordinates signal
Figure V -69. - Simplified block diagram of Centaur guidance system, AC - 10.

117
 Up
Z roll

Case (vehicle)

Inner roll gimbal 2 Outer roll

gimbal 4

Azimuth W
gimbal 1

Pitch gimbal 3

Y yaw
X pitch Flight direction
- Prism for optical
alinement

Figure V - 70. - Gimbal diagram , AC-10. Launch orientation: inertial platform coordinates,
U, V, and W; vehicle coordinates, X, Y, and Z.

118
 unit
Gyro unit
Servoamplifier
Feedback
transducer
sign
Pitcalh Pitch
Electronics servo Actuator Engine
amplifier C-2pitch
amplifier
Pitch
rate Feedback
gyro transducer
Steering
Pitch
signal Yaw
signal Electronics
from
Selector servo Actuator Engine
amplifier amplifier
guidance p-1Citch
rate
Yaw Feedback
gyro transducer
rYaw
- oll
Roll
signal Actuator
amplifier Electronics servo Engine
rate
Roll amplifier yaw
-roll
Feedback C-1
gyro
transducer
-rYaw
oll
Centaur toAtlas
yaw
steering
and
Pitch Actuator
servo Engine
400
Hz
cut
engine
Booster amplifier oll
-ryaw
en
sustainer
and
off -2
C
cutoff
discretes
gine unit
electronic
Auxiliary
guidance
from cutoff
engine
Booster Pitch
Motor dist
cutoff
engine
sustainer
and
engine
Main Switches Atlas
to
discretes
cutoff Yaw Engine
Logic
guidance
from
ſcrete
Electromechanic
relay control Hydrogen
al
telemetr control
Flight Roll logic peroxide
timer Calibratey
guidance
from Power Switches functions engines
Switches
transist
suppliesor Discretes
to
outputs
Switch
-safe
Arm system
vehicle
Discretes switch spacecraft
and
V(dc
)28
Atlas
from

APhase
Hz
power
,4Atlas
00
and
Resolver
AC00
,4Phase
power
Hz
entaur excitation
steering

Cflight
system
control
V701entaur
.-1,AFigure
C

119
 APPENDIX A

SUPPLEMENTAL FLIGHT, TRAJECTORY, AND PERFORMANCE DATA

by John J. Nieberding

POSTFLIGHT VEHICLE WEIGHT SUMMARY

The postflight weight summary for the Atlas - Centaur vehicle AC - 10 with the Surveyor
spacecraft SC - 1 is given in tables A - I and A - II.

TABLE A - 1 . - ATLAS POST FLIGHT VEHICLE

WEIGHT SUMMARY

Weight ,
lb

Booster jettison weight:

Booster dry weight 6 172
Booster residuals 1 126
Unburned lubrication oil 31
Total 7 329

Sustainer jettison weight:

Sustainer dry weight 5 402
Sustainer residuals 1 461

Interstage ada pter 1 025

Unburned lubrication oil 17
Total 7 905

Ground expendables:
Fuel (RP - 1) 548
Liquid oxygen , oxidizer 1 835

Lubrication oil 3
Exterior ice 50
Liquid nitrogen in helium shrouds 140

Pre - ignition gaseous oxygen loss 450

Total 3 026

Flight expendables :
Main impulse (RP - 1) 75 648
Ma in impulse oxygen 171 594
Helium panel purge 6
Oxidizer vent loss 15
Lubrication oil 171
Total 247 434

Total Atlas weight at lift -off :

Booster jettison 7 329
Sustainer jettison 7 905
Flight expendables 247 434
Total 262 668

120
 TABLE A - II. - CENTAUR POSTFLIGHT VEHICLE WEIGHT SUMMARY

Weight, Weight,
lb lb

Basic hardware: Centaur residuals;

Body group 972 Liquid hydrogen , trapped 72
Propulsion group 1 194 Liquid oxygen , trapped 68
Guidance group 314 Liquid hydrogen, burnable 58
Control group 140 Liquid oxygen , burnable 131
Pressurization group 139 Gaseous hydrogen 83
Electrical group 268 Gaseous oxygen 164

Separation equipment 78 Hydrogen peroxide, retromaneuver 18

Flight instrumentation 274 Hydrogen peroxide, trapped 5
Miscellaneous equipment 133 Hydrogen peroxide, reserve 60
Total 3 512 Helium 4
Ice 12
Centaur flight expendables: Total 675
Main impulse hydrogen 4 982
Main impulse oxygen 24 793 Ground expendables :
Inflight chilldown hydrogen 24 Hydrogen gas, ground boiloff 22
Inflight chilldown oxygen 33 Oxygen gas, ground boiloff 24

Booster phase vent hydrogen 40 Total 46

Booster phase vent oxygen 42
Sustainer phase vent hydrogen 18 Total Centaur weight at lift- off :
Basic hardware 3 512
Sustainer phase vent oxygen 30
49 Centaur residuals 675
Hydrogen peroxide, boost pumps
Helium , tank pressurization 1 Centaur flight expendables 30 012
Jettisonable hardware 3 188
Total 30 012
Total 37 387
Jettisonable hardware :
Nose fairing 1 964 Combined launch vehicle lift - off weight:
Atlas 262 668
Insulation panels 1 174
Ablated ice 50 Centaur 37 387

Total 3 188 Spacecraft 2 193

Total 302 248

121
 ATMOSPHERIC SOUNDING DATA

Ambient Pressure and Temperature

The atmospheric conditions at the launch site were measured by Rawinsonde runs on
the day of launch . The actual data shown were measured at 0950 hours eastern standard
time. Profiles of measured temperature and pressure are compared with values pre
dicted on the basis of seasonal June weather. Temperature data , as shown in figure A- 1 ,
were nearly normal to an altitude of 7.6 nautical miles. Above this altitude, the actual
temperatures averaged 5. 5° higher than predicted. However , this variation is not sig
nificant.. The measured pressures , as shown in figure A- 2 , were in close agreement
with the predicted values at all altitudes .

Atmospheric Winds

Wind speed and azimuth data as a function of altitude are compared with the usual
June winds data in figures A - 3 and A- 4 . Wind azimuth is the direction in which the wind
is blowing . Notable discrepancies existed between the predicted and actual maximum
wind speeds at altitudes up to about 9 nautical miles . A maximum wind speed of 65 feet
per second was predicted at an altitude of 16.2 nautical miles , but a maximum of 108 feet
per second was encountered at a height of 7.1 nautical miles. A significant variation
from the predicted wind azimuths was present to an altitude of approximately 10 nautical
miles . The measured azimuths below this altitude averaged about 60° from North
compared with predicted values of about 130° from North. At higher altitudes , the agree
ment between predicted and actual wind azimuths was good .

122
 18

a
Data
Predicted
16 Actual

14
O !

12
Altitude
,nmi

@ 10

8
Sa
sa
gu
er
es

0
340 380 420 460 500 540
Atmospheric temperature, ' R
Figure A- 1. - Altitude as function of temperature, AC - 10.

123
 18
Data
-Predicted
16) Actual

O
14

12
Altitude
,nmi

E 10

8
6

0 40 80 120 160 200 240

Atmospheric pressure, Ib/sq ft
Figure A - 2. - Altitude as function of pressure, AC - 10.

124
 18
Data 유
Predicted
16

O Actual

14

12
mAltitude
,ni

E 10
8

‫مه‬
2
8

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Wind speed, ft /sec
Figure A- 3. - Altitude as function of wind speed, AC - 10.

125
 18

Data

16 - Predicted .
o Actual

14

12
Altitu
mn, i de

E 10

0 60 120 180 240 300 360

Wind azimuth, deg from North
-

Figure A - 4. - Altitude as function of wind direction, AC - 10.

126
 SURVEYOR LAUNCH WINDOWS

Launch opportunities established for the AC - 10 flight in May and June of 1966 are
wn in figure A- 5. The countdown for the launch was normal, and there were no un
heduled holds . Data transmission problems with the tracking range were encountered
ring the count; however , they were cleared and did not delay the count. Lift -off
Curred within the first second of the launch window (14:14) . The launch azimuth was
2. 285° . Figure A- 5 shows how launch azimuth increases as the window approaches its
sing time . If the vehicle had been launched at 15:27 (window closing time) instead of
: 41 , the launch azimuth at this closing time would have been 115° instead of 102.285 °. .

e maximum launch azimuth allowed by range safety restrictions is 115.0° .

Launch day

May 30 May 31 June 1 June 2 June 3 June 4 June 5

84

87
Performance
constraint
90
azimuth
Launch

93
Earth shadow
,deg

constraint
96

99
101 min
102
81 min
105

46 min . 20 min
108
Window
duration
111
5 min
115
Open 14:41 15:30 16:25 18:47 19:47
16:51
Close 15:27 -18:06 - 19:07 - 19:52 GMT

Figure A -5 . - Surveyor launch window design for May June 1966 launch window.

127
 FLIGHT EVENTS RECORD

The major flight events during the AC - 10 flight are listed in table A - III . Programmer
times , when given, are for those flight events sequenced and commanded by an in - flight
timer . Preflight times are based on the best estimate of the flight sequence for the
actual flight azimuth . Actual times listed are the measured times of the given flight

TABLE A - III. - FLIGHT EVENTS RECORD , AC - 10

Event Programmer Preflight time, Actual time ,

time , sec sec
sec

Guidance flight mode acceptance T- 8.0 T- 8.50

Programmer start; 2 - in . rise T + 0.0 T + 0.00
Initiate roll program T + 2.0 T + 2.00
Initiate pitch program T + 15.0 T + 15.00
Unlock liquid hydrogen vent valve T + 69.0 T + 69. 30
Booster engine cutoff (BECO ) BECO T + 142.5 T + 142.04
Jettison booster package BECO + 3. 1 T + 145.6 T + 145. 14
Jettison insulation panels BECO + 34 T + 176.5 T + 175. 84
Unlatch nose fairing BECO + 60.5 T + 203.0 T + 202. 26
Fire thrustor bottles BECO + 61 T + 203.5 T + 202.76
Start Centaur boost pumps BECO + 62 T + 204.5 T + 203. 70
Sustainer engine cutoff; vernier SECO T + 239.7 T + 239. 38
engine cutoff; start Centaur
Programmer (SECO / VECO )
Start hydraulic recirculating pump SECO + 0.5 T + 240.2 T + 239. 88
Separate (first and second stage) SECO + 1.9 T + 241.6 T + 241.31
Prestart SECO + 3.5 T + 243.2 T + 242. 40
Centaur main engine start (MES) SECO + 11.5 T + 251.2 T + 250.90
Centaur main engine cutoff (MECO ) MECO T + 683.9 T + 689.21
Centaur MECO backup (MBU) MES + 446 T + 697. 2 T + 696.90
Preseparation arming signal; MBU + 18 T + 715.2 T + 715.50
extend landing gear
Unlock omniantennas MBU + 28.5 T + 725.7 T + 725. 30
High power transmitter MBU + 49 T + 746.2 T + 746. 40
Electrical disconnect MBU + 54.5 T + 751.7 T + 751. 40
Spacecraft separation MBU + 60 T + 75 7.2 T + 756.93
Begin Centaur reorientation maneuver MBU + 65 T + 762.2 T + 762.00
Start Centaur lateral thrust MBU + 105 T + 802.2 T + 802.00
End Centaur lateral thrust MBU + 125 T + 822.2 T + 822.00
Start Centaur tank blowdown MBU + 300 T + 997.2 T + 997.00
End Centaur tank blowdown MBU + 550 T + 1247.2 T + 1247.00
Energize power changeover MBU + 550 T + 1247.2 T + 1247.00

128
 vents . Timers for given sequences are enabled at one of four flight discretes , namely,
3ECO , SECO, MES , or MBU :
Booster engine cutoff (BECO) : guidance cutoff command when vehicle acceleration
reaches 5.7 +0.08 g's ; start timer for sequencing Centaur insulation panel and nose
. fairing jettison , start Centaur boost pumps , and pressurize oxidizer tank
sustainer engine cutoff (SECO ): usable propellant depletion cutoff command ; start timer
for Centaur main engine start sequences
Centaur main engine start (MES)
Centaur main engine cutoff (MECO ): guidance cutoff command when vehicle attains
orbital injection velocity
Centaur MECO backup (MBU) : programmer start of timer for sequencing spacecraft
separation and Centaur retromaneuver

‫܀܀‬

129
 TRAJECTORY DATA

Mach Number and Dynamic Pressure

Mach Number and dynamic pressure data for the AC - 10 flight are given in figure A- 6.
These data were calculated from range tracking measurements and atmospheric sound
ings taken at the time of launch . The agreement between flight measurements and ex
pected values of dynamic pressure was good except for the time interval between T + 74
and T + 80 seconds. Even in this interval, every actual data point can be correlated to
within 1 pound per square foot of its predicted va lue if known dispersions in atmospheric
temperature and pressure , and vehicle relative velocity (air speed) are considered .
Deviations of these three parameters from their predicted values caused the dynamic
pressure dispersions between T + 74 and T + 80 seconds. The average deviation between
preflight and in -flight temperature measurements was highest during approximately the
same time interval (see fig. A - 1 ) . But at some times within this interval, actual tem
peratures did agree with predictions while dynamic pressures did not. Consequently,
temperature variations do not appear to be the chief cause of the dynamic pressure dis
persions . Relatively slight disagreement between measured and predicted atmospheric
pressures during flight occurred at nearly all times . Atmospheric pressure dispersions
were not limited to the interval between T + 74 and T + 80 seconds even though the major
disagreements in dynamic pressure did fall between these times . Therefore , it is not
likely that variations in atmospheric pressure were the chief cause . The in - flight
deviation of relative velocities from predicted values followed a pattern characteristic of
this particular 6 - second interval only . Thus , it is probable that dispersions in relative
velocities were the chief contributor to the variations of dynamic pressure .
This variation of actual relative velocity from predicted values appears to be related
to the large discrepancies between preflight and in -flight values of wind speed and wind
azimuth . Every point between T + 74 and T + 80 seconds occurs within the time interval
when the wind speed deviated most from predictions (see figs . A- 3 and A- 9) . During the
same interval, the wind azimuths varied from their preflight values in such a way that the
resultant vehicle relative velocities were lower than expected. This pattern of low veloc
ities occurred only during this interval. Dynamic pressure is defined as 1/2 (pv2?), where
p is the atmospheric density and v is the vehicle relative velocity (air speed ). Con
sequently , lower than predicted velocities yield lower than predicted dynamic pressures .
At T + 76 seconds, the velocity disagreement was greatest. At this time , an altitude of
7.1 nautical miles , the maximum deviation in wind speed occurred . At this time, the
dynamic pressure experienced its maximum deviation of 51 pounds per square foot lower
than predicted .

130
 Predicted and measured values of Mach number were in good agreement at all points
n the curve .

Axial Load Factor

Axial load factor for the Atlas Centaur powered flight phase is shown in figure A- 7.
plot of axial load factor is equivalent to a plot of thrust acceleration in g's . Agreement
etween preflight and actual data was good . Even though the actual data were somewhat
ower than expected during approximately the last 200 seconds of Centaur burn , this
ispersion was well within the 30 tolerances.
A flattening of the curve occurs between about T + 54 and T + 58 seconds. This
nterval of constant acceleration reflects the severe vehicle perturbations undergone when
he vehicle approached and surpassed Mach 1 (see fig. A - 6) . The curve abruptly drops,
s expected, from 5.68 to 1.13 g's at booster engine cutoff. Approximately 3 seconds
ater , a slight upward jump reflects the sudden loss of the booster weight. Additional
ises can be seen at insulation panel and nose fairing jettison . At sustainer engine cutoff,
he curve again drops sharply . It then increases uniformly from Centaur main engine
start to Centaur shutdown at T + 689.2 seconds .
For approximately the last 200 seconds of Centaur burn, the actual data were slightly
ower than predicted . A possible cause was the lower than expected thrust (see section
V. LAUNCH VEHICLE SYSTEM ANALYSIS ). Actual data were not available past
T + 597 seconds.

Inertial Velocity

Inertial velocity data for the flight is presented in figure A- 8. The actual and pre
licted results show good agreement. Abrupt changes in the vehicle total acceleration, the
slope of the inertial velocity curve , can be seen to coincide with the sharp changes in
hrust acceleration (axial load factor, see fig . A - 7) . Because the thrust acceleration was
" lower than expected for approximately the last 200 seconds of Centaur burn, the inertial
velocities in this interval also were lower than predicted . The lower than predicted
thrust could not accelerate the vehicle to the velocity expected at any given time. The
maximum deviation from preflight values occurred at T + 684 seconds , approximately
5 seconds before Centaur ma in engine cutoff. At this time, the actual velocity was
about 770 feet per second low . The velocity dispersion reduced to 350 feet per second
lower than expected at T + 686 seconds. The cause of the velocity dispersions

131
plained in the discussion of altitude as a function of time . No actual data were available
after T + 686 seconds .

Altitude and Range

Altitude as a function of time and altitude as a function of ground range are shown in
figures A - 9 and A - 10 . The Earth trace or ground track of the vehicle subpoint , latitude
as a function of longitude , is given in figure A- 11 . With few exceptions, the in -flight and
preflight da ta agree well on all three curves .
On the curve for altitude as a function of time , at times near Centaur main engine
cutoff (T + 689.2 sec ) the measured altitudes were higher than predicted . These higher
altitudes were necessary to compensate for the lower than expected inertial velocities
in the same time interval (see fig . A - 8) . Since the low inertial velocities were present,
higher altitudes were needed to ensure that the vehicle would reach the required mission
energy at main engine cutoff . The maximum altitude dispersion was approximately
12 800 feet at about T + 684 seconds . This maximum deviation was expected at T + 684
seconds, because at this time the inertial velocity experienced its greatest deviation from
predictions (see fig . A - 8) . Figure A - 9 also shows that the altitude was decreasing when
the vehicle was injected into the lunar transfer trajectory at main engine cutoff . This
result is expected for any flight with a negative injection true anomaly (see table A - IV) .

TABLE A - IV . - CENTAUR AND SURVEYOR ORBITAL

PARAMETERS, AC - 10

Parameter Centaur Surveyor

(after (at spacecraft
retrothrust) separation)

Time from lift - off, sec 1375.9 756.9

Greenwich mean time , hr 1503 : 55.9 1453 : 37.0
Earth relative velocity , ft/sec 31 120 34 655
Apogee altitude , n mi 236 939 333 575
Perigee altitude , n mi 91.2 91.3

C3, (km //sec)2

Injection energy, Cz -1.72 -1.26
Semimajor axis , n mi 124 552 170 277
Eccentricity 0.971615 0.979238
Inclination , deg 30.05 30.05
True anomaly , deg 49.89 -2.45
Period , days 12.4 20.4
Longitude , deg 3.97 West 47.86 West
Latitude , deg 7.561 South 17.592 North

132
 The in - flight data curves for altitude as a function of ground range and latitude as a
ction of longitude (figs. A - 10 and A - 11 ) agreed well with preflight estimates .

Orbital Parameters

3 The spacecraft - computed orbital elements for conditions at spacecraft separation are
' en in table A- IV . Similar data are also given for the Centaur stage but for the time
er Centaur retromaneuver .

90

8 80
6

70

E
pressure
/sDynamic

6 60
,lbq
ft
number
Mach

50

Mach number

40
Data
Predicted
O Actual
3 30
0

2 20 Dynamic pressure

po
1 10
co
m
OL
0 40 80 120 160 200
Time from 2- in. motion, sec

Figure A - 6. - Dynamic pressure and Mach number as

function of time, AC - 10.

133
 6. OF
Data
5.54
Predicted
5.04 O Actual

4.51

4.0

3.51

3.0

2.5.

0
2.0 oo 00
eight

D 0
,()/whrust
tminus

oo 00
factor
Axial

G oooo
drag

00
load

toooo
1.5
Nose
1.0
Booster jettison finsula - fair
5 II tion ing
Transonic Booster Ipanel jetti
Tregion Jengine cutoff jettison son

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220

Time from 2- in. motion, sec
( a) Time, 0 to 240 seconds.

5.0
Centaur
Data
main
4.5
Predicted Lengine
O Actual cutoff
4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5
Sustainer engine cutoff
2.0

1.5 Centaur main engine start

1.0
日

.5

OL
220 260 300 340 380 420 460 500 540 580 620 660 700
Time from 2- in. motion, sec

( b) Time, 220 to 700 seconds.

Figure A - 7. - Axial load factor as function of time, AC - 10.

134
 14x103
Data
Predicted
12 O Actual

10
.

2
Booster
sf/,velocity
Inertial

engine
tec

cutoff
0 40 80 120 160 200 240
Time from 2- in. motion, sec
( a ) Time, 0 to 240 seconds.

38x103
Data

34 Predicted R
O Actual O
d

O 0

O
30 O
O
O
26
O
O
O

22

18

14

Sustainer engine cutoff Centaur main

II II II
10 Centaur main engine start engine cutoff
220 300 380 460 540 620 700
Time from 2- in. motion, sec
( b) Time, 220 to 700 seconds.
Figure A- 8. - Inertial velocity as function of time, AC - 10.

135
 160
Data
Predicted ra
Actual ob
140

120

100
Altitude
m,ni

80

60

40

20

Centaur main
engine cutoff
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time from 2- in, motion, sec
Figure A- 9. - Altitude as function of time, AC - 10.

160

120
mAltitude
n, i

Data
80
Predicted
o

Actual

40

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Ground range, n mi

Figure A- 10. - Altitude as function of ground range, AC - 10.

136
 30

apo Data

28
po Predicted
Geocentric

O Actual
latitude
North
d, eg

26

24

22

20

18
82 76 74 70 66 62 58 54 50
Longitude, deg West
Figure A - 11. - Earth trace of vehicle subpoint, latitude as function of longitude, AC - 10 .

137
 APPENDIX B

CENTAUR ENGINE PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS

by William A. Groesbeck , Ronald W. Ruedele, and John J. Nieberding

SUMMARY

Calculations of engine specific impulse , engine thrust, and oxidizer to fuel mixture
ratio to evaluate engine performance have been made by the Pratt & Whitney characteris
tic velocity C * iteration and Pratt & Whitney regression methods. In addition, a vehicle
specific impulse has been calculated by using data obtained from the guidance system ve
locity data outputs. The calculated engine specific impulse using the C * method was
about 433 to 434 seconds , whereas the vehicle specific impulse was 431. 6 seconds.
These values are considered to be in good agreement. These methods are discussed in
the following section , and a comparison of the engine specific impulse data calculated by
two methods (C * and regression) given in table B- I.

METHODS OF CALCULATION

Pratt & Whitney C™ Technique

This technique is an iteration process for determining engine performance param
eters . Calculated values of hydrogen flow rate along with the measured chamber pres
sure and engine acceptance test data are used to determine the actual characteristic exit
velocity c * , the total propellant weight flow , and finally the specific impulse and engine
thrust. The procedure is as follows:
( 1) Calculate the hydrogen flow rate by using venturi measurements of pressure and
temperature as obtained from telemetry .
(2 ) Assume a given mixture ratio and calculate the corresponding oxidizer flow rate
and total propellant flow rate .
(3) Obtain C * ideal from the performance curve as a function of mixture ratio .
(4) Correct to C * actual by using the characteristic exit velocity efficiency factor
obtained from acceptance test results .
(5) Calculate the total propellant flow rate by using C * actual:
138
 TABLE B- I . - CENTAUR MAIN ENGINE PERFORMANCE, AC - 10
-

(a ) C - 1 engine (serial number 1840)

Time from Chamber Engine thrust, lb Specific impulse , sec Oxidizer to fuel mixture ratio
main engine pressure , * *

start, sec psia Regression c * method Regression a c * method Regressiona c * method

equations equations equations

10 297.3 14 982 14 994 432.6 433. 7 5.053 5.090

50 295.5 14 978 14 901 432.7 433.9 5.046 5.062
90 297.3 14 975 14 997 432.7 433.7 5.037 5. 102
100 297.3 14 924 14 974 433.4 434. 3 4. 935 4.995
150 293.5 14 971 14 889 432.8 434.2 5.030 5.007
200 296.0 14 989 14 937 432.6 433.6 5.060 5. 115
250 295.5 14 971 14 896 432.8 434.0 5.022 5.042
300 14 958 14 893 433.0 434.1 4. 995 5.024
350 14 940 14 890 433. 3 434.2 4. 958 5.012
400 14 964 14 891 432.9 434.2 5. 007 5.018
435 14 966 14 893 432.8 434.1 5.019 5.025

(b ) C -2 engine (serial number 1843)

Time from Chamber Engine thrust, lb Specific impulse, sec Oxidizer to fuel mixture ratio
main engine pressure ,
*
start, sec psia Regressiona c method Regressiona c method Regressiona C method
equations equations equations

10 b300.7 15 072 15 347 433.0 434.6 5. 129 5. 159

50 295.2 15 068 15 057 433.1 435.0 5. 120 5.084
90 15 065 15 069 433.1 434.8 5. 115 5. 124
100 15 022 15 025 433.7 435.5 5.033 4.975
150 15 059 15 059 433. 2 435.0 5. 102 5.090
200 295.8 15 070 15 109 433.1 434.6 5.116 5. 159
250 294.5 15 052 15 025 433.4 434.9 5.080 5.092
300 294.5 15 041 15 028 433.5 434.9 5.059 5.104
350 294. 1 15 015 14 986 433.9 435.3 5.004 5.028
400 294.5 15 064 15 029 433.2 434.9 5.098 5. 106
435 294.5 15 064 15 015 433. 2 435.1 5. 106 5.059

( c) Engine acceptance test results

Engine Chamber pressure , Engine thrust, Specific impulse, Oxidizer to fuel
psia lb sec mixture ratio

C- 1 296.9 14 994 433 5.05

C- 2 294.8 15 051 434 5.07

a These values are the acceptance test data adjusted for flight value of pump inlet temperatures and pres
sure and propellant utilization valve positions
bChamber pressure data questionable at this time . Expected engine performance (for propellant utiliza
tion valve at zero) ; engine thrust, 14 963 +263 lb ; specific impulse, 434. 1 + 4.3 sec ; mixture ratio ,
5. 014 + 0.079.

139
 P0A
° * 8
w

11
C*

where wc is the total propellant flow rate in pounds per second , P. is the measured
chamber pressure from telemetry in psi , A. is the thrust chamber throat area in square
*

inches , g is the gravitational constant, 32. 17 feet per second per second , and c * is the
characteristic exhaust velocity in feet per second.
(6) Determine the mixture ratio by using the calculated total propellant flow rate and
measured hydrogen flow rate .
(7) Compare the calculated mixture ratio with that assumed in step (2) .
(8) If the two values of mixture ratio do not agree , assume a new value of mixture
ratio and repeat the process until agreement is obtained .
(9) When the correct mixture ratio is determined, obtain the ideal specific impulse
from the performance curve as functions of actual mixture ratio .
( 10) Correct to actual specific impulse by using the specific impulse efficiency factor
determined from acceptance test results .
(11) Calculate engine thrust as product of propellant flow rate and specific impulse.

Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Regression Technique

This program determines engine thrust, specific impulse , and propellant mixture
ratio from flight values of engine inlet pressures , engine inlet temperatures , and propel
lant utilization valve angle . The program is strongly dependent on engine ground testing.
The method in which ground testing is correlated with the flight is as follows.
A large group of RL10A3-1 engines are ground tested. An average level of engine
performance is obtained as a function of engine pump inlet pressures , inlet temperatures
and the propellant utilization valve angle . During any specific engine acceptance test ,
the differences in performance from this average level are noted .
Flight performance is then determined in two steps: ( 1) the average engine level of
performance is obtained for flight values of engine inlet conditions and propellant utiliza
tion valve angle and (2) corrections are made for the difference between the average
engine level and the specific engine level as noted during the engine acceptance testing.

Guidance Thrust Velocity Method

The guidance thrust velocity method computes vehicle specific impulse by using guid

140
 ance computed inertial thrust velocities . Vehicle specific impulse is defined as

((isp), b w
( B1)

4
where | F | is the magnitude of the total Centaur thrust vector and W is the time rate
of change of instantaneous total Centaur weight.
It should be noted that vehicle specific impulse differs from the engine specific im
pulse which is defined as

(*sp) LA ( B2 )

where w is the total propellant flow rate through the Centaur main engines . The time
rate of change of total Centaur weight in equation (B1) includes weight losses due to hy
drogen peroxide used to drive the boost pumps and all other losses in addition to the total
propellant flow rate through the main engines . Consequently, the vehicle specific impulse
would be less than the engine specific impulse. Vehicle specific impulse is a measure of
total vehicle performance, whereas engine specific impulse is an index of engine perform
ance only.
The derivation of vehicle specific impulse is based on the Centaur vehicle vector
equation of motion

FF ++ mã
mg - X = ma (B3)

where m is the instantaneous Centaur mass , G is the instantaneous Centaur accelera

tion vector due to gravity, X is the instantaneous force vector due to drag or other per
turbing forces , and a is the instantaneous Centaur total acceleration vector . It was as
sumed that drag and other perturbing forces are negligible over the time interval of inter
est , that the time rate of change of total vehicle weight is either constant or at least
varies symmetrically about a mean value over this interval , and that only a negligible
amount of axial thrust is lost due to engine gimbaling. Based on these assumptions, the
equations of motion can be rewritten as

F = mla - Ĝ)
or

141
 F -la - Ĝ)

=
G (B4)
m

The acceleration a G , designated as the thrust acceleration, is the acceleration im

parted to the Centaur by thrust alone . It is obtained as the time rate of change of the
inertial thrust velocity which is computed by the Centaur guidance system .
The thrust acceleration is used in a computer program to calculate the vehicle axial
load factor , and this load factor is then used to determine the total vehicle specific im
pulse . Axial load factor, which is defined as the ratio of vehicle thrust minus drag over
vehicle weight , is obtained by dividing the magnitude of the thrust acceleration in equa
tion (B4) by g :

F
Il
aа --GO
G (B5)
mg

where g is the gravitational acceleration at the Earth's surface. But

F.FI ‫܂‬ = a (B6)

mg W

where W = mg is the instantaneous total Centaur weight and a is defined as the axial
load factor . If the instantaneous Centaur weight is written as

W = W.- wat - to) =: W. - w

W
at 0
-
(B7)

W
where we is the total Centaur weight at main engine start, and to is the time of main
engine start (measured from lift - off), t is the instantaneous time from lift - off, and
At == t - to , and this substitution is made in equation (B6) , the result is
a =
F F (B8)
W W - Wat

The reciprocal of this equation is

1 W. - w Δt W
W At
-

(B9)
a
F F | F|

If W and F are constant, a plot of 1 / a against time is a straight line with a slope
equal to -(w /\Fl). Since by definition, the vehicle specific impulse is
142
 ( ). )
(.. W

the slope -(w //Fl ) is the negative reciprocal of the vehicle specific impulse. The com
puter program therefore determined the specific impulse by
( 1) Calculating thrust acceleration based on guidance - computed thrust velocities
(2) Computing axial load factor from equation (B5)
( 3) Plotting the reciprocal of axial load factor against time
(4 ) Curve fitting the reciprocal of axial load factor against time with a straight line
using the method of least squares
( 5) Taking the negative reciprocal of the line slope to obtain an average value of
vehicle specific impulse for the time interval considered
The time interval for calculating the vehicle specific impulse on AC- 10 was from
T + 370 to T +595 seconds. During this interval , the propellant utilization valve motion
was approximately symmetrical about a mean value; consequently, the mean values of
thrust and weight flow could be assumed constant. Calculations were made for 143 data
points , and the resultant vehicle specific impulse was 431. 6 seconds.

143
 REFERENCES

1. Staff of Lewis Research Center : Postflight Evaluation of Atlas - Centaur AC - 6

(Launched August 11 , 1965 ) . NASA TM X - 1280 , 1966 .
2. Parks, Robert J .: Surveyor I Mission Report. Part I : Mission Description and
Performance . Tech . Rep . No. 32-1023 (NASA CR - 77795) , Jet Propulsion Lab . ,
California Inst. Tech . , Aug. 31 , 1966 .
3. Latto , William T. , Jr .: Experimental Investigation of Spreading Characteristics
of Hydrogen Gas Vented from Atlas -Centaur Vehicle at Mach Numbers from 0.9 to
3.5 . NASA TM X - 1188 , 1965 .
4. Gerus , Theodore F .; Housely , John A .; and Kusic , George : Atlas - Centaur
Surveyor Longitudinal Dynamics Tests . NASA TM X- 1459 , 1967 .

144
NASA - Langley , 1968 31 E - 3484
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