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  r PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNA
INTE RNATIONAL
TIONAL
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AS/A LEVEL
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PHYSICS
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Lab Book 
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 Published by Pearson Education Limited, 80 Strand, London, WC2R 0RL.

   8 www.pearsonglobalschools.com
   1
   0
   2 Copies of official specifications for all Pearson Edexcel qualifications may be found
  n on the website: https://qualifications.pearson.com
  o
  s
  r
  a Text © Pearson Education Limited 2018
  e Designed by Tech-Set Ltd, Gateshead, UK
   P Edited by Stephanie White and Jane Read
   ©
 .
   t Typeset by Tech-Set Ltd, Gateshead, UK
  r Original illustrations © Pearson Education Limited 2018
  a
  p Cover design by Pearson Education Limited 2018
  n
   i
  r The right of Steve Adams and Keith Bridgeman to be identified as authors of this
  o
  e work has been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and
   l
  o Patents Act 1988.
   h
  w First published 2018
  n
   i
  n 21 20 19 18
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   i
   t 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
  u
   b
   i
  r
   t British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
  s
   i  A catalogue record
record for this book is available
available from the British Library
   d
  r ISBN 9781292244
9781292244754
754
  o
  n  A note from
from the Publishers:  found on the website: www.edexcel.com
Publishers: found
  o
   i
   t While the Publishers have made every attempt to ensure that advice on the
  a
   l qualification and its assessment is accurate, the official specification and
  u
  c
  r associated assessment guidance materials are the only authoritative source of
   i
  c information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance. Pearson
 , examiners have not contributed to any sections in this resource relevant to
  e
   l
  a examination papers for which they have responsibility
responsibility.. Examiners will not use this
  s resource as a source of material for any assessment set by Pearson.
  e
  r
  r
  o
   f Copyright notice
   t  All rights reserved.
reserved. No part of this publication
publication may be reproduced
reproduced in any form or
  o by any means (including photocopying or storing it in any medium by electronic
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 . means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this
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   t accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or
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  c under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Barnard’s
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o.uk). Applications for the
   d copyright owner’s written permission should be addressed to the publisher.
publisher.
  r
  e
   h Neither Pearson, Edexcel nor the authors take responsibility for the safety
  s
   i
   l of any activity . Before doing any practical activity you are legally required to
   b
  u carry out your own risk assessment. In particular,
particular, any local rules issued by your
  p
   t employer must be o beyed, regardless of what is recommended in this resource.
  a Where students are required to write their own risk assessments they must always
  e be checked by the teacher and revised, as necessary, to cover any issues the
  g
  n students may have overlooked. The teacher should always have the final control
  a
   h as to how the practical is conducted.
  c
  o
   t Printed by Neografia in Slovakia
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 CONTENTS
   8
   1
   0
   2
  n
INTRODUCTION 2
  o
  s
  r
  a
  e
CORE PRACTICALS OVERVIEW 3
   P
   ©
 .
   t
  r
PAPER
PAPER 3 PRACTICAL SKILLS 4
  a
  p
  n
   i PAPER
PAPER 6 PRACTICAL SKILLS 5
  r
  o
  e
   l
  o 1 DETERMINE
DETERMI NE THE ACCELE
ACCELERATION
RATION OF A FREELY
FREELY-FALLING
-FALLING OBJECT 6
   h
  w
  n
   i 2 USE A FALLING-BALL METHOD TO DETERMINE THE VISCOSITY OF A LIQUID 11
  n
  o
   i
   t
  u
   b
3 DETERMINE THE YOUNG MODULUS OF A MA
MATERIAL
TERIAL 14
   i
  r
   t
  s
   i
   d
  r
4 DETERMINE THE SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR USING A 2-BEAM OSCILLOSCOPE, SIGNAL
  o
  n GENERATOR,
GENERATOR, SPEAKER AND MICROPHONE 18
  o
   i
   t
  a
   l
  u
  c
5 INVESTIGATE THE EFFECTS OF LENGTH, TENSION AND MASS PER UNIT LENGTH ON
INVESTIGATE
  r
   i
  c
 ,
THE FREQUENCY OF A VIBRA
VIBRATING
TING STRING OR WIRE 21
  e
   l
  a
  s
  e 6 DETERMINE THE WAVELENGTH OF LIGHT FROM A LASER OR OTHER LIGHT SOURCE
  r
  r USING A DIFFRACTION GRA
GRATING
TING 25
  o
   f
   t
  o
   N
 . 7 DETERMINE THE ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF A MA
MATERIAL
TERIAL 28
  n
  o
   i
   t
  e
  r 8 DETERMINE THE E.M.F
E.M.F.. AND INTERNAL RESISTA
RESISTANCE
NCE OF AN ELECTRICAL CELL 32
  c
  s
   i
   d
  r
  e
9 INVESTIGATE THE RELA
INVESTIGATE RELATIONSHIP
TIONSHIP BETWEEN THE FORCE EXERTED ON AN OBJECT AND
   h
  s
   i
   l ITS CHANGE OF MOMENTUM 36
   b
  u
  p
   t
  a
10 USE ICT TO ANAL
ANALYSE
YSE COLLISIONS BETWEEN SMALL SPHERES 41
  e
  g
  n
  a
11 USE AN OSCILL
OSCILLOSCOPE
OSCOPE OR DA
DATA
TA LOGGER TO DISPLAY AND ANAL
ANALYSE
YSE THE POTENTIAL
   h
  c DIFFERENCE (P.D.)
(P.D.) ACROSS A CAP
CAPACITOR
ACITOR AS IT CHARGES AND DISCHARGES THROUGH
  o
   t
   t
  c A RESISTOR 44
  e
   j
   b
  u 12 CALIBRATE
CALIBRATE A THERMISTOR IN A POTENTIAL DIVIDER CIRCUIT AS A THERMOST
THERMOSTA
AT 51
  s
   t
  n
  e
   t
  n 13 DETERMINE THE SPECIFIC LA
LATENT
TENT HEA
HEAT
T OF A PHASE CHANGE 56
  o
  c
   l
   l
  a
 ,
14 INVESTIGATE THE RELA
INVESTIGATE RELATIONSHIP
TIONSHIP BETWEEN PRESSURE AND VOLUME OF A GAS AT
   f
  o
  o
  r
FIXED TEMPERA
TEMPERATURE
TURE 59
  p
   d
  e
   t
  c
15 INVESTIGATE THE ABSORPTION OF GAMMA RADIA
RADIATION
TION BY LEAD 63
  e
  r
  r
  o
  c 16 DETERMINE THE VALUE OF AN UNKNOWN MASS USING THE RESONANT FREQUENCIES
  n
   U OF THE OSCILLAT
OSCILLATION
ION OF KNOWN MASSES 67

MATHS SKILLS 71

ANSWERS 76
 CORE PRACTICAL XX: SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
X
INTRODUCTION X.X.XX

Practical work is central to the study o physics. The International Advanced Subsidiary / Advanced Level (IAS / IAL)
   8 specification includes 16 core practical activities that link theoretical knowledge and understanding to practical
   1
   0 scenarios. By completing the core practical activities, you will learn to:
   2
  n ● ollow and interpret experimental instructions, covering a range o laboratory exercises throughout the course,
  o
  s
  r
  a with minimal help rom your teacher
  e
   P ● manipulate apparatus, carry out all common laboratory procedures and use data logging (where appropriate)
   ©
 .
   t
  r ● work sensibly and saely in the laboratory, paying due regard to health and saety requirements
  a
  p
  n
   i
● gain accurate and consistent results in quantitative exercises, and make the most o the expected observations
  r in qualitative exercises
  o
  e
   l
  o
   h By the end o this course, you should be able to use a variety o apparatus and techniques to:
  w
  n
   i ● design and carry out both the core practical activities and your own investigations
  n
  o
   i
   t
● collect data that can be analysed
  u
   b
   i ● use data to draw valid conclusions.
  r
   t
  s
   i
   d Your knowledge and understanding o practical skills and activities will be assessed in all examination papers.
  r
  o
  n
  o
● Papers 1 and 2 (IAS), and 4 and 5 (IAL) will include questions based on practical activities, including novel scenarios.
   i
   t
  a
   l ● Paper 3 (IAS) and Paper 6 (IAL) will test your ability to plan practical work, including risk management and selection
  u
  c
  r o apparatus.
   i
  c
 ,
  e
   l
  a Assessment or the Practical Skills Papers 3 and 6 will ocus on three main areas:
  s
  e
  r ●   Planning: You will be expected to plan an experiment set by Pearson (but you will not need to carry it out).
  r
  o
   f
   t ● Implementation and measurements: You will be given details o an experiment carried out by an inexperienced
  o
   N student, and asked to comment on the investigation.
 .
  n ● Processing results / Analysing: You will need to analyse a set o experimental results.
  o
   i
   t
  e
  r
  c The areas or assessment are outlined in the tables on pages 4 and 5. You may wish to tick off each element as
  s
   i
   d you gain confidence. You can also reer to the Student Practical Guide, and the A ppendix 10 in the specification:
  r
  e
   h
  s
Uncertainties and practical work.
   i
   l
   b
  u You will find answers and maths skills required or the practicals a t the back o the book.
  p
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2
 CORE PRACTICAL XX: SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
X
CORE PRACTICALS OVERVIEW X.X.XX

   8 UNIT 1 MATERIALS

   1
   0
   2 1 Determine the acceleration o a reely-alling object
  n
  o
  s
  r
  a 2 Use a alling-ball method to determine the viscosity o a liquid
  e
   P
   ©
 .
3 Determine the Young modulus o a material
   t
  r
  a
  p
  n
UNIT 2 WAVES AND ELECTRICITY
   i
  r
  o 4 Determine the speed o sound in air using a 2-beam oscilloscope, signal generator, speaker and
  e
   l
  o microphone
   h
  w
  n
   i 5 Investigate the effects o length, tension and mass per unit length on the requency o a vibrating
  n string or wire
  o
   i
   t
  u
   b
   i 6 Determine the wavelength o light rom a laser or other light source using a diffraction grating
  r
   t
  s
   i
   d
  r UNIT 2 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
  o
  n
  o
   i 7 Determine the electrical resistivity o a material
   t
  a
   l
  u
  c
  r
8 Determine the e.m.. and internal resistance o an electrical cell
   i
  c
 ,
  e
   l UNIT 4 FURTHER MECHANICS
  a
  s
  e
  r
9 Investigate the relationship between the orce exerted on an object and its change o momentum
  r
  o
   f
   t 10 Use ICT to analyse collisions between small spheres
  o
   N
 . UNIT 4 ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS
  n
  o
   i
   t
  e
  r
11 Use an oscilloscope or data logger to display and analyse the potential difference (p.d.) across a
  c
  s
   i capacitor as it charges and discharges through a resistor
   d
  r
  e UNIT 5 THERMODYNAMICS
   h
  s
   i
   l
   b 12 Calibrate a thermistor in a potential divider circuit as a thermostat
  u
  p
   t
  a 13 Determine the specific latent heat o a phase change
  e
  g
  n 14 Investigate the relationship between pressure and volume o a gas at fixed temperature
  a
   h
  c
  o
   t
   t UNIT 5 NUCLEAR DECAY
  c
  e
   j 15 Investigate the absorption o gamma radiation by lead
   b
  u
  s
   t 16 Determine the value o an unknown mass using the resonant requencies o the oscillation o
  n
  e
   t
  n known masses
  o
  c
   l
   l
  a
 ,
   f
  o
  o
  r
  p
   d
  e
   t
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  r
  r
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  n
   U

3
 CORE PRACTICAL XX: SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
X
PAPER 3 PRACTICAL SKILLS X.X.XX

Practical skills Core practical

   8
   1
   0 Planning 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
   2
  n
  o
  s
Identiy the apparatus required
  r
  a
  e Consider the range and resolution o measuring instruments including Vernier
   P
   © calipers (0.1 mm) and micrometer screw gauge (0.01 mm)
 .
   t
  r Discuss calibration o instruments, e.g. whether a meter reads zero beore
  a
  p
  n measurements are made
   i
  r Describe how to measure relevant variables using the most appropriate
  o
  e
   l instrument and correct measuring techniques
  o
   h
  w Identiy and state how to control all other relevant variables to make it a air test
  n
   i
  n Discuss whether repeat readings are appropriate
  o
   i
   t
  u
   b
   i Identiy health and saety issues and discuss how these may be dealt with
  r
   t
  s
   i
   d Discuss how the data collected will be used
  r
  o
  n Identiy possible sources o uncertainty and/or systematic error and explain
  o
   i
   t how these may be reduced or eliminated
  a
   l
  u
  c
  r Comment on the implications o physics (e.g. benefits/risks) and on its context
   i
  c (e.g. social/environmental/historical)
 ,
  e
   l
  a
  s Implementation and measurement 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
  e
  r
  r
  o
   f Comment on the number o readings taken
   t
  o
   N
 .
Comment on the range o measurements taken
  n
  o
   i
   t Comment on significant figures
  e
  r
  c Check a reading that is inconsistent with other readings, e.g. a point that is not
  s
   i
   d
  r on the line o a graph – students may be shown a diagram o a micrometer that
  e
   h is being used to measure the diameter o a wire and asked to write down the
  s
   i
   l
   b
  u
reading to the correct number o significant figures
  p
   t Comment on how the experiment may be improved, possibly by using
  a
  e additional apparatus (e.g. to reduce errors) – examples may include using a set
  g
  n square to determine whether a ruler is vertical to aid the measurement o the
  a
   h
  c extension o a spring
  o
   t
   t Processing results 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
  c
  e
   j
   b
  u
  s
Perorm calculations, using the correct number o significant figures
   t
  n
  e
   t Plot results on a graph using an appropriate scale
  n
  o
  c Use the correct units throughout
   l
   l
  a
 ,
   f
  o Comment on the relationship obtained rom the graph
  o
  r
  p Determine the relationship between two variables or determine a constant
   d
  e
   t with the aid o a graph, e.g. by determining the gradient using a large triangle
  c
  e
  r
  r Suggest realistic modifications to reduce errors
  o
  c
  n Suggest realistic modifications to improve the experiment
   U

Discuss uncertainties, qualitatively and quantitatively

Determine the percentage uncertainty in measurements or a single reading
using hal the resolution o the instrument and rom multiple readings using
the hal range
4
 CORE PRACTICAL XX: SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
X
PAPER 6 PRACTICAL SKILLS X.X.XX

Practical skills
   8
   1
   0 Planning 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
   2
  n Identiy the most appropriate apparatus, giving details. These may
  o
  s
  r
  a include the range and resolution o instruments and/or relevant
  e
   P dimensions o apparatus (e.g. the length o string used or a pendulum)
   ©
 .
   t Discuss calibration o instruments, e.g. whether a meter reads zero beore
  r
  a
  p measurements are made
  n
   i
  r Describe how to measure relevant variables using the most appropriate
  o
  e
   l instrument(s) and techniques
  o
   h Identiy and state how to control all other relevant variables to make it a
  w
  n
   i air test
  n
  o
   i Discuss whether repeat readings are appropriate
   t
  u
   b
   i
  r
   t Identiy health and saety issues and discuss how these may be dealt with
  s
   i
   d
  r Discuss how the data collected will be used.
  o
  n
  o
   i Analysis 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
   t
  a
   l
  u
  c
  r
Comment on how the experiment could have been improved, possibly by
   i
  c using additional apparatus (e.g. to reduce errors) – examples may include
 ,
  e
   l
  a using set squares to measure the diameter o a cylinder and using a
  s
  e
  r marker or timing oscillations
  r
  o
   f
   t Comment on the number o readings taken
  o
   N
 . Comment on the range o measurements taken
  n
  o
   i
   t Comment on significant figures – you may be required to identiy and/or
  e
  r
  c round up any incorrect figures in a table o results
  s
   i
   d
  r
  e
Identiy and/or amend units that are incorrect
   h
  s
   i Identiy and check a reading that is inconsistent with other readings,
   l
   b
  u e.g. a point that is not on the line o a graph.
  p
   t
  a
  e Perorm calculations, using the correct number o significant figures
  g
  n
  a Plot results on a graph using an appropriate scale and units – the graph
   h
  c could be logarithmic in nature
  o
   t
   t
  c
  e
Use the correct units throughout
   j
   b
  u Comment on the trend/pattern obtained
  s
   t
  n
  e
   t Determine the relationship between two variables or determine a
  n
  o
  c
constant with the aid o the graph, e.g. by determining the gradient using
   l
   l
  a a large triangle
 ,
   f
  o Use the terms precision, accuracy and sensitivity appropriately
  o
  r
  p
   d
  e
Suggest realistic modifications to reduce errors
   t
  c
  e
  r Suggest realistic modifications to improve the experiment
  r
  o
  c
  n Discuss uncertainties qualitatively and quantitatively
   U
Compound percentage uncertainties correctly
Determine the percentage uncertainty in measurements or a single
reading using half  the resolution o the instrument and rom multiple
readings using the half   range.
5
 XX:
CORE PRACTICAL 1: SPECIFICATION
SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
REFERENCE
X
DETERMINE THE ACCELERATION OF A FREELY-FALLING OBJECT 1.3.11
X.X.XX

Procedure
Objectives
   8 1 Drop the object rom rest and record the time taken, t, or:
   1
   0
● To measure the acceleration
   2 (a) the sphere to all through the trap door due to gravity, g , o an object
  n
  o (b) the dowel to pass through the light gate. alling reely and to consider
  s
  r
  a the ollowing alternative
  e 2 Repeat step 1 twice more and calculate the mean value o t or each
   P
   © method. methods:
 .
   t
  r (a) object alling through a
  a 3 Measure and record the height, h, allen by the object.
  p
  n
   i 4 Vary the height and repeat steps 1–3. You should take readings at at least trap door
  r
  o six different heights. (b) object alling through a
  e
   l
  o
5 Use hal the range in your readings or t as the uncertainty in t. light gate
   h
  w
  n
   i
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in  t. Equipment
  n 6 For method (b), you should measure the length o the dowel.
  o
   i
   t
● metre rule or tape measure
  u with millimetre resolution
   b
   i
  r
   t Learning tips
  s
   i For (a):
   d ● Make sure that points plotted on a graph take up more than hal o the
  r
  o ● steel sphere
  n available space on each scale. You do not always need to include the origin.
  o
   i ● electronic timer
   t
  a
   l ● Keep scales simple: one large square as 5, 10 or 20 is ideal. A scale where
  u
  c one large square represents 3 or 7 units (or similar) is very difficult to plot ● electromagnet to retain steel
  r
   i
  c and can ofen lead to errors. sphere
 ,
  e
   l
  a ● Always consider whether the graph line should go through the origin. ● trap door switch
  s
  e
  r ● clamp and stand
  r ● Straight lines should be drawn with the aid o a rule long enough to cover
  o
   f
   t the ull length o the line. ● low voltage power supply
  o
   N ● Since the object is alling at constant acceleration, use the appropriate For (b):
 .
  n
  o
   i
   t
kinematics equation: ● alling object, such as a dowel
  e
  r 1
  c (a) s = ut + __at 2 where u = 0, a = g , and s = h with 2 cm diameter, 10 cm long
  s
   i 2
   d
  r
● means to guide dowel through
2h
  e
   h This can be rearranged to: t2 = ___ light gate
  s
   i
 g 
   l
   b ● light gate and datalogger
  u Comparison with y  = mx + c shows that plotting t2 against h
  p
   t
  a 2
  e should give a straight line passing through the origin with gradient __. !   Safety
  g  g 
  n
  a (b) v 2 = u2 + 2as where u = 0, a = g , and s is h ● Make sure the stand cannot
   h
  c topple over by clamping it
  o
   t
Thereore: v 2 = 2 gh
   t securely.
  c C omparison with y = mx + c shows that plotting v 2 against h should
  e
   j
   b give a straight line passing through the origin with gradient 2 g. ● Keep hands and ace away
  u
  s rom the alling objects.
   t
  n
  e
   t ● Turn off the electromagnet
  n
  o between ‘drops’ so that it
  c
   l
   l
  a doesn’t overheat and cause
 ,
   f
  o burns.
  o
  r
  p
   d
  e
   t
  c
  e
  r
  r
  o
  c
  n
   U

6
 XX:
CORE PRACTICAL 1: SPECIFICATION
SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
REFERENCE
X
DETERMINE THE ACCELERATION OF A FREELY-FALLING OBJECT 1.3.11
X.X.XX

Results
   8 1 Use this space to record your results or method (a).
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  c 2 Use this space to record your results or method (b). Use your value or the length o the dowel to calculate the
  s
   i
   d mean speed, v , o the dowel as it passes through the light gate.
  r
  e
   h
  s
   i
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   U

7
 XX:
CORE PRACTICAL 1: SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
X
DETERMINE THE ACCELERATION OF A FREELY-FALLING OBJECT 1.3.11

Analysis of results
   8 1 For method (a), plot a graph o t2 ( y -axis) against h ( x-axis) and draw a line o best fit.
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  n
2
  o
  c 2 Calculate the gradient, m, o the line o best fit. Use this value to calculate a value or  g  where g  = __.
   l
   l m
  a
 ,
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   U

8
 XX:
CORE PRACTICAL 1: SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
X
DETERMINE THE ACCELERATION OF A FREELY-FALLING OBJECT 1.3.11

3 For method (b), plot a graph o v 2 ( y -axis) against h ( x-axis) and draw a line o best fit.
   8
   1
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  n
4 Calculate the gradient, m, o the line o best fit. Use this value to calculate a value or  g , where  g  = __ .
  o
m
  c 2
   l
   l
  a
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9
 XX:
CORE PRACTICAL 1: SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
X
DETERMINE THE ACCELERATION OF A FREELY-FALLING OBJECT 1.3.11

5 The percentage uncertainty (%U ) in t2 is twice that in t. Use this to draw error bars onto your graph or method
   8 (a) – in the y -direction only. You can use a typical mid-range value to calculate uncertainties – you do not need
   1
   0 to work out a separate error bar or each value. Draw a new line o best fit and use this to calculate the %U in
   2
  n your value or g .
  o
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  o
   i
   t
  u 6 Calculate the percentage difference (% D) between your value and the accepted value o  g  (9.81 ms–2) and
   b
   i
  r
   t comment on the accuracy o method (a).
  s
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   N
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  o
   i Questions
   t
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  r
  c 1 Describe an advantage o using light gates in this experiment.
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   t
2 Discuss the effect o air resistance on your value or g .
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  r 3 Explain why the graph should be a straight line.
  o
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   U

10
 XX:
CORE PRACTICAL 2: SPECIFICATION
SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
REFERENCE
X
USE A FALLING-BALL METHOD TO DETERMINE THE VISCOSITY OF A LIQUID 1.4.26
X.X.XX

Procedure Objectives
   8 1 Weigh each ball, measure its radius, r , and hence calculate its density, ρ.
   1 ● To time the all o a ball
   0
   2 2 Place three rubber bands around the tube. Position the highest band through a liquid to determine
  n
  o
  s
at a level below the surace o the washing-up liquid: the ball must the viscosity
  r
  a be travelling at terminal velocity when it reaches this band. Place the
  e
   P remaining two bands ar enough apart to allow you to measure two Equipment
   ©
 .
   t reasonable time intervals. This will enable you to measure the terminal ● stop clock or timer
  r
  a
  p velocity twice or each alling ball. ● rubber bands to mark
  n
   i
  r 3 Release the first ball into the washing-up liquid. Start the timer when the distances
  o
  e
   l ball passes the highest rubber band. Use the lap timer acility to record ● metre rule
  o
   h the time taken, t1, or the ball to all to the middle rubber band. Stop the
  w ● micrometer screw gauge
  n
   i timer when the ball passes the lowest rubber band; this is t2. Adjust the
  n position o the rubber bands i your first test is not suitable. ● long tube made o transparent
  o
   i
   t material filled with liquid –
  u 4 Once you are happy with the position o the rubber bands, measure the
   b
   i
  r
   t supported so it stays vertical
  s
   i distance, d1, between the highest and middle rubber bands. Then, measure
   d
the distance, d2, between the highest and lowest bands. ● spherical objects o various
  r
  o diameters
  n 5 Repeat step 3 at least three times or each ball.
  o
   i
   t
  a
● magnet (optional)
   l
  u Learning tip
  c
  r
   i   Safety
  c !
 , ● Position your eyes level with the rubber bands when starting and stopping
  e
   l
  a
  s
the timer. ● Washing-up liquid spills are
  e
  r
  r ● Try to develop a good technique or measuring the time, so you are very slippery and must be
  o
   f cleared up at once. Have paper
   t consistent. For example, i you take your first measurement as the
  o towels to hand.
   N bottom o the ball crosses the top o the band, make sure you take every
 .
  n measurement at this point. You should also measure your distances rom ● Clear up any liquid spills
  o
   i
   t
  e
  r
this point. quickly to avoid slipping.
  c
  s
   i ● I you use mineral oil or motor
   d
  r Results (Use this space to record your results.)
  e oil as the liquid avoid skin
   h
  s
   i contact with it and the oily
   l
   b
  u
  p
metal balls.
   t
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11
 XX:
CORE PRACTICAL 2: SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
X
USE A FALLING-BALL METHOD TO DETERMINE THE VISCOSITY OF A LIQUID 1.4.26

Results (continued)
   8
   1
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   i Analysis of results
   l
   b
  u
  p 1 For each diameter, calculate mean values or t1 and t2. Add these values to your results table.
   t
  a
  e 2 Use d1, d2 and the mean values or t1 and t2 to calculate mean values or the terminal velocity o each ball.
  g
  n
  a Add these values to your results table.
   h
  c
  o
   t
   t
3 Use your answers to question 2 to calculate a mean value or the terminal velocity o all the balls.
  c
  e
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  a
 ,
   f 4 Consider the spread in your repeated readings and use this to estimate the uncertainty in your mean values.
  o
  o
  r This is usually hal o the range.
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12
 XX:
CORE PRACTICAL 2: SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
X
USE A FALLING-BALL METHOD TO DETERMINE THE VISCOSITY OF A LIQUID 1.4.26

Questions
   8 1 Explain why you would not use light gates to measure the time.
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   l 2 Sometimes the balls all close to the wall. Comment on the effect this will have on the measurements.
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 ,
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  r
3 Use your answer to question 4 above to estimate the uncertainty in your value or the viscosity o the washing-up
  r liquid.
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13
 XX:
CORE PRACTICAL 3: SPECIFICATION
SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
REFERENCE
X
DETERMINE THE YOUNG MODULUS OF A MATERIAL 1.4.31
X.X.XX

Procedure
Objectives
   8 1 Fix the bench pulley at the end o the bench. Trap one end o the wire
   1
   0
● To take measurements o a
   2 between the two wooden blocks and secure the blocks to the bench
  n
long wire to determine the
  o approximately 3 m rom the pulley. Lay out the wire so that it passes over
  s
  r
Young modulus or copper
  a the pulley and attach the slotted mass hanger to the end. Measure the
  e
   P diameter, d, o the wire. Equipment
   ©
 .
   t 2 Lay the metre rule under the wire near the pulley and attach the sticky
  r
  a
● metre rule
  p label to act as a length marker. Judge the length by looking vertically
  n
   i
● micrometer screw gauge
  r down, over the edge o the paper, at the scale o the metre rule. The set
  o
square will help you to do this accurately. ● small piece o sticky label or
  e
   l
  o similar, to mark position on
   h 3 Measure the length o wire, L, rom the wooden blocks to the edge o the
  w wire
  n
   i paper.
  n ● 90° set square
  o
   i
   t
4 Add a mass to the hanger and record the position o the marker against
  u the metre rule. Calculate the extension,  x. ● 3.1 m length o 36 swg copper
   b
   i
  r
   t wire
  s
   i 5 Repeat step 4, adding one mass at a time and recording the extension or
   d ● two wooden blocks and clamp
  r each mass.
  o
  n to secure one end o the wire
  o
   i
   t Learning tips ● bench pulley
  a
   l
  u
  c
  r ● You might notice significant creep occurring at higher loads. This indicates ● slotted masses up to 600 g and
   i
  c
 , that the elastic limit o the wire has been exceeded. It is important to use a hanger
  e
   l
  a
  s
long length o wire, as the extension will only be small beore creep sets in.
  e
  r !   Safety
  r ● I you use weights o 0.5 N, you will be able to take more readings beore
  o
   f
   t the elastic limit is exceeded. ● The wire will be about 2 m long
  o
   N and will require a high secure
 .
  n fixing point.
  o
   i
   t
  e
  r ● Wear eye protection when
  c
  s
   i
   d loading the wire in case it
  r
  e snaps.
   h
  s
   i
   l
   b
● Put a catch box filled with
  u crumpled paper or bubbled
  p
   t
  a plastic below the hanging
  e
  g
  n
masses to keep your eet out
  a o the drop zone.
   h
  c
  o
   t ● Do not exceed the maximum
   t
  c load as advised by your
  e
   j
   b teacher.
  u
  s
   t
  n
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   t
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  a
 ,
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  n
   U

14
 XX:
CORE PRACTICAL 3: SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
X
DETERMINE THE YOUNG MODULUS OF A MATERIAL 1.4.31

Results (Use this space to record your results.)

   8
   1
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15
 XX:
CORE PRACTICAL 3: SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
X
DETERMINE THE YOUNG MODULUS OF A MATERIAL 1.4.31

Analysis of results
   8 1 Plot a graph o mass added against extension.
   1
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 ,
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  o
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  r
  p 2 Measure the gradient o the straight portion o the graph and use this to calculate the Young modulus or
   d
  e
   t the copper.
  c
  e
  r
  r
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   U

16
 XX:
CORE PRACTICAL 3: SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
X
DETERMINE THE YOUNG MODULUS OF A MATERIAL 1.4.31

Questions
   8 1 Explain why a long wire is most suitable or this experiment.
   1
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  o 2 Describe a good technique or measuring the diameter o the wire.
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  c
 , 3 Explain why a value with two significant figures is appropriate or the Young modulus o the wire.
  e
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  o
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  o
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  a
  e 4 Research a value or the Young modulus o copper and comment on your results, using an appropriate ormat to
  g
  n
  a cite your research.
   h
  c
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   U

17
 CORE XX:
CORE PRACTICAL 4: SPECIFICATION
SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
REFERENCE
X
DETERMINE THE SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR USING A 2-BEAM OSCILLOSCOPE,
2.3.38
X.X.XX
SIGNAL GENERATOR, SPEAKER AND MICROPHONE

Procedure
Objectives
   8 1 The oscilloscope will display on two traces the signal ed to the
   1
   0
● To use appropriate
   2 loudspeaker and the signal received by the microphone. As the distance
  n
instrumentation to measure
  o between the microphone and the speaker is increased, the phase o the
  s
  r
a sound signal
  a signals will vary and the traces on the screen will move past each other.
  e
   P 2 Place the microphone next to the oscilloscope and place the speaker Equipment
   ©
 .
   t about 50 cm away, acing the microphone. Turn on the signal generator ● two metre rules
  r
  a
  p and set it to about 4 kHz. Adjust the oscilloscope to show the microphone ● leads
  n
   i
  r signal with about three cycles on the screen.
  o ● signal generator with
  e
   l 3 Connect the signal generator output to the second oscilloscope input loudspeaker
  o
   h (as well as the speaker) and adjust the controls to display three cycles o
  w ● oscilloscope with 2-beam
  n
   i this signal.
  n
acility and microphone
  o
   i
   t
4 Adjust the spacing on the screen and the distance between the speaker connected to one input
  u and the microphone so that the bottom o one trace is just level with the
   b
   i
  r
   t
  s
   i top o the other. !   Safety
   d
  r 5 Adjust the separation so that a trough on the top trace coincides exactly
  o ● The electromotive orces are
  n with a peak on the lower trace. Use a metre rule to measure the distance
  o
   i
   t
small and electric currents
  a
   l between the microphone and speaker. negligible.
  u
  c
  r 6 Move the speaker away rom the microphone and observe one trace
   i ● Avoid using high volumes
  c
 , moving relative to the other. Move the speaker until the trace has moved
  e
   l and requencies that cause
  a exactly one cycle – the troughs and peaks should just touch again. Record
  s discomort.
  e
  r
  r the new distance between the microphone and speaker. The difference
  o
   f
● I you have a hearing problem
   t between the two distances is one wavelength.
  o or wear a hearing aid tell
   N
 .
7 Repeat step 6 several times, moving the speaker urther away rom the your teacher as there may
  n microphone and recording the distance each time the peaks o one trace
  o
   i be uncomortable effects at
   t
  e
  r coincide with the troughs o the other.
  c certain requencies.
  s
   i
   d 8 Calculate a mean value or the wavelength o the sound, giving your ● Follow the usual electrical
  r
  e answer to at least two significant figures. precautions or mains
   h
  s
   i
   l 9 Use one o the traces to determine the requency o the sound. (You will apparatus, including a visual
   b
  u
  p achieve a greater resolution by this method than by using the scale on inspection o the supply lead.
   t
  a the signal generator.) Give your answer to at least three significant figures.
  e
  g
  n 10 Use the scale on the signal generator to halve the requency and repeat
  a
   h steps 4–9. You might need to increase the separation beyond 1 m.
  c
  o
   t
   t 11 I you have time, repeat the whole experiment at much higher and much
  c
  e
   j lower requencies and observe the effect.
   b
  u
  s
   t Learning tips
  n
  e
   t
  n
  o
● This experiment is reasonably straightorward i you are amiliar with
  c
   l
   l manipulating the controls o an oscilloscope. Spend some time practising
  a
 ,
   f until you are confident setting up a trace rom which you can take
  o
  o
  r measurements.
  p
   d ● The set-up depends on the local circumstances, so you should try things
  e
   t
  c
  e
out or yoursel, using the instructions as a ramework.
  r
  r
  o
  c
  n
   U

18
 CORE XX:
CORE PRACTICAL 4: SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
X
DETERMINE THE SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR USING A 2-BEAM OSCILLOSCOPE,
2.3.38
SIGNAL GENERATOR, SPEAKER AND MICROPHONE

Results (Use this space to record your results.)

   8
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 ,
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   l
  a Analysis of results
  s
  e
  r 1 Multiply your values or wavelength and requency to obtain a value or the speed o sound or each o the
  r
  o
   f requencies used. Hence, find a mean value and percentage difference or the speed o sou nd.
   t
  o
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  p
2 Estimate the uncertainty in your mean value or the wavelength o the sound (calculated in step 8).
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  a
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  u 3 Estimate the uncertainty in your measurement o the requency o the sound (calculated in step 9).
  s
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  r 4 Use the uncertainties rom your measurements to calculate the percentage uncertainty in your individual values
  r
  o or the speed o sound.
  c
  n
   U

19
 CORE XX:
CORE PRACTICAL 4: SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
X
DETERMINE THE SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR USING A 2-BEAM OSCILLOSCOPE,
2.3.38
SIGNAL GENERATOR, SPEAKER AND MICROPHONE

Questions
   8 1 Comment on the sources o uncertainty in this investigation.
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  o 2 Compare your percentage difference and your percentage uncertainties, and comment on your results.
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  u 3 When the traces have moved past each other by one ull cycle, the speaker has moved one wavelength.
  c
  r
   i Explain this.
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  r 4 Explain why 4 kHz is a suitable requency or this experiment.
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20
 CORE XX:
CORE PRACTICAL 5: SPECIFICATION
SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
REFERENCE
X
INVESTIGATE THE EFFECTS OF LENGTH, TENSION AND MASS PER UNIT LENGTH
2.3.43
X.X.XX
ON THE FREQUENCY OF A VIBRATING STRING OR WIRE

Procedure Objectives
   8 1 Attach one end o the ‘string’ to the vibration transducer. Pass the other
   1 ● To carry out an investigation
   0 end over the bench pulley and attach the mass hanger.
   2 into standing waves
  n
  o 2 Add masses until the total mass is 100 g.
  s
  r ● To develop the skills to carry
  a 3 Turn on the signal generator to set the rubber oscillating. Vary the
  e out urther investigations
   P
   © oscillating length by moving the vibration generator until resonance is
 .
   t Equipment
  r observed.
  a
  p ● bench pulley
  n
   i
  r Plan ● slotted masses and hanger
  o
  e
   l In this investigation, you will be observing standing waves. These can occur at ● metre rule
  o
   h a variety o resonant requencies. You will investigate the effect o the actors
  w ● 2 m length o rubber ‘string’
  n
   i affecting these requencies.
  n ● vibration generator connected
  o
   i
   t
You might use a cathode ray oscilloscope to determine the exact requency o
  u to a signal generator
   b
   i the vibration generator.
  r
   t
  s
   i Plan which variables you will test in this investigation and how you will carry it   Safety
   d !
  r out. Your teacher will help you with the details i necessary.
  o
  n ● There are no hazards
  o
   i
   t
Use this space to record your plan. associated with this
  a
   l
  u
  c
experiment i rubber is used
  r
   i
  c as the medium.
 ,
  e
   l
  a ● I using metal wire, saety
  s
  e
  r spectacles should be worn.
  r
  o
   f ● Follow the usual electrical
   t
  o precautions or mains
   N
 . apparatus, including a visual
  n
  o
   i
   t inspection o the supply lead.
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   U

Learning tip
● Your measurements will have greater resolution i you measure as large a
length as possible, or as many hal-wavelengths as possible.
21
 CORE XX:
CORE PRACTICAL 5: SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
X
INVESTIGATE THE EFFECTS OF LENGTH, TENSION AND MASS PER UNIT LENGTH
2.3.43
ON THE FREQUENCY OF A VIBRATING STRING OR WIRE

Results
   8 1 Use this space to record your results.
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  a
 ,
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  o
  o
  r 2 Assess the uncertainties in your measurements and comment on whether they affect the reproducibility o
  p
   d your findings.
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 CORE XX:
CORE PRACTICAL 5: SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
X
INVESTIGATE THE EFFECTS OF LENGTH, TENSION AND MASS PER UNIT LENGTH
2.3.43
ON THE FREQUENCY OF A VIBRATING STRING OR WIRE

Analysis of results
   8 Produce a graph o your results to show the relationships between the variables you identified and measured.
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 CORE XX:
CORE PRACTICAL 5: SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
X
INVESTIGATE THE EFFECTS OF LENGTH, TENSION AND MASS PER UNIT LENGTH
2.3.43
ON THE FREQUENCY OF A VIBRATING STRING OR WIRE

Questions
   8 1 Identiy the major sources o uncertainty in your work.
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  o 2 Explain why you chose the variables you did.
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 , 3 Describe what you ound difficult to get right and how you did get it right.
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   h 4 Research how a standing wave can be set up and used to determine a value or the speed o electromagnetic
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   l radiation. Use an appropriate ormat to cite any sources you use in your research.
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 CORE XX:
CORE PRACTICAL 6: SPECIFICATION
SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
REFERENCE
X
DETERMINE THE WAVELENGTH OF LIGHT FROM A LASER OR OTHER LIGHT SOURCE
2.3.52
X.X.XX
USING A DIFFRACTION GRATING

Procedure
Objectives
   8 1 Place the laser approximately 4 m away rom a large wall and place the
   1
   0
● To make measurements o
   2 diffraction grating in ront o it. Position the laser so that the beam
  n
laser light passing through
  o will pass through the grating at normal incidence and meet the wall
  s
  r
a diffraction grating to
  a perpendicularly.
  e determine the wavelength
   P 2 Measure the distance, D, between the grating and the wall.
   © o the light
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  r 3 Turn on the laser and identiy the zero order maximum (straight through).
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  p Measure the distance, s, rom the zero order maximum to the first- Equipment
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  r order maxima on either side. Calculate the mean o these two values. ● source o laser light
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   l (Remember, the first order is the maximum produced according to n = 1 in ● diffraction grating, supported
  o
   h the equation nλ = d sin θ.) at the same height as the laser
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   i 4 Measure s or increasing orders, calculating a mean value each time. beam
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   i 5 Repeat steps 1–4 using a diffraction grating with a different number o ● metre rule
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slits/mm.
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  s !   Safety
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  r Learning tip ● The laser used should be IEC
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  n ● Make sure that the laser hits the wall at right angles. Class 1 or Class 2.
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  u ● The laser should be set up,
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  r Results (Use this space to record your results.)
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clamped and used so that the
 , beam cannot reach the eyes
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  s either directly or by reflection
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  r rom a shiny surace.
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   t ● Lasers with a higher
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   N classification should not be
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used in school.
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  c ● Laser goggles are o no use
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   d with Class 1 or 2 because the
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  e beam cannot be seen when
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they are worn.
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 CORE XX:
CORE PRACTICAL 6: SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
X
DETERMINE THE WAVELENGTH OF LIGHT FROM A LASER OR OTHER LIGHT SOURCE
2.3.52
USING A DIFFRACTION GRATING

Results (continued)
   8
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   h Analysis of results
  s
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   b 1 Since the angle is not small, you will need to calculate θ rom your measurements o s and D. Calculate a mean θ
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value or each order.
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  o 2 Calculate a mean value or the wavelength o the laser light and compare this value with the accepted wavelength
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  p or a standard school red laser (635 nm).
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 CORE XX:
CORE PRACTICAL 6: SPECIFICATION
REFERENCE
X
DETERMINE THE WAVELENGTH OF LIGHT FROM A LASER OR OTHER LIGHT SOURCE
2.3.52
USING A DIFFRACTION GRATING

Questions
   8 1 State the advantages o using laser light in this experiment.
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  n 2 Explain why a metre rule is suitable or measuring the distance in this experiment.
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  e 3 Describe what the diffraction maxima would look like i a white laser was used (assuming such a thing was possible).
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