3.

7
f

*
/V ', t

A SHORT HISTORY OF THE TROMBONE WITH EMPHASIS ON

CONSTRUCTION INNOVATIONS AND PERFORMANCE

MODIFICATIONS FROM 1945 TO 1970

THESIS

Presented to the Graduate Council of the

North Texas State University in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

MASTER OF MUSIC

By

Ashley Hollis Alexander, B. M. E.

Denton, Texas

May, 1971
 PREFACE

For all of recorded history music and the instruments

of music have been a source of fascination and curiosity.

Through a major portion of this time one instrument, the

trombone, has evolved with a unique design, character, and

history. Mendelssohn frankly stated that this instrument

was too sacred to be used except upon the rarest of occasions.

Berlioz protested against the indiscriminate use of the trom

bone, saying,". . . to impoverish, to degrade a magnificent

individuality . . . is to make a hero into a slave and a

buffoon." 1 Berlioz further characterized the instrument with

this statement from his monumental work, Modern Instrumenta

tion and Orchestration:

The trombone is--in my opinion--the true chief of

that race of wind instruments which I have desig
nated as epic instruments. It possesses, in an
eminent degree, both nobleness and grandeur; it
has all the deep and powerful accents of high
musical poetry--from the religious accent, calm
and imposing, to the wild clamours of the orgy.
It depends on the composer to make it by turn
chant like a choir of priests; threaten, lament,
ring a funeral knell, raise a hymn of glory,
break forth into frantic cries, or sound its

1H. W. Schwartz, The Story of Musical Instruments

(Elkhart, Ind., 1938), p. 219.

i Ii
 dread flourish to awaken the dead or to doom
the living. . . .2

There is one technical resource that gives this instrument

the ability to be truly the Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde of the

musical world: it can perform to the highest degree of

accuracy the glissando or "smear." This musical necessity

can set moods, create comic situations, and perform many

needed tasks in the orchestra as it is known today. The

trombone can scream; it can moan; it can seduce; it can

laugh like a hyena. It has an inherent advantage over the

valve-brass instruments in that it is not dependent in its

classical form upon an imperfect mechanism, but can produce

an accurate pitch through a minute adjustment of the slide,

just as a string player can adjust his instrument by the

smallest of adjustments of the hand on the string.3 When

Gabriel's awful trumpet announced the Day of Judgment in

Berlioz's Requiem, it was not a trumpet that the score

indicated. The composer called for sixteen trombones.

2
Hector Berlioz, A Treatise on Modern Instrumentation
and Orchestration, trans. Mary Cowden Clarke, (London, 1882),
p. 154.
3
Richard Highfill, "The History of the Trombone from the
Renaissance to the Early Romantic Period," unpublished master's
thesis, School of Music, North Texas State College, Denton,
Texas, 1952, p. 4.
4 Schwartz,
op. cit., p. 219.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page
PREFACE . . . . . . . .

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

Chapter
I. EVOLUTION OF THE TROMBONE . . . . . . . . .I

Early Etymology
The Sackbut
Construction
Performance Techniques
Use of the Sackbut

II. THE MODERN TROMBONE TO 1900......... 6

Construction and Performance Techniques

Use of the Modern Trombone
Church
Opera
Symphony
Military Band

III. THE TROMBONE FROM 1900 TO 1945 . . . . . . . 25

Construction Differences
Uses in the Twentieth Century
Symphony Orchestras
Jazz
Recording
Chamber Music
Solo Literature
Military Band

IV. THE TROMBONE FROM 1945 TO 1970.-...... 33

The Bass Trombone and Construction

Innovations
Performance Modifications

V. CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
BIBLIOGRAPHY...................... . 53

V
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1. Soprano, Alto, Tenor and Bass Trombones

from Praetorius..... . ........ 11

2. Contrabass Trombone, Praetorius . ........ 13

3. Trombone with Removable Crook, from Mersenne. . . 15

4. Bach Bb-F tenor-bass trombone, bell section,

with single valve .............
.......... 26

5. Conn Bb-F-E bass trombone, bell section,

with optional second valve, (1961)..........37

6. Reynolds double valve Bb-F-Eb bass trombone,

bell section, (1962)....... ........ ..... 37

7. Bach double valve Bb-F-Eb bass trombone, bell

section, (1965).................0......39

8. The Overtone Series.*............. ........... 43

9. Trombone Positioning Reference Chart for

Multi-Trigger Trombone............ ........ 46

vi
 Li

Alexander, Ashley., A Short History of the Trombone

with Emphasis on Construction Innovations and Performance

Modifications from 1945 to 1970. Master of Music (Performance,

Trombone), May, 1971, 55 pp., 9 illustrations, bibliography,

35 titles.

For all of recorded history musical instruments have

been a source of fascination and curiosity for man. Through

a major portion of this time one instrument, the trombone,

has evolved with a unique design, character, and history.

The earliest trombones, called sackbuts, originally had a

sliding mechanism located near the mouthpiece. In the

sixteenth century this was improved by the addition of the

"U-turn" which facilitated holding and playing. This con

struction innovation was the last major change in trombone

design; the trombone of 1600 was essentially the same as the

trombone of today.

Although seventeenth century trombones were commonly

built in four sizes, soprano, alto, tenor, and bass, efforts

were made to produce a contrabass instrument through the

addition of removable crooks and through the manufacture of

double-sized tenor instruments. These larger instruments

were tiring to hold and to play and were largely unsuccessful.

1
 2

The nineteenth century saw renewed interest in the

trombone and it became an established color in orchestral

forces in that period. Because the treble members of the

brass choir had become chromatic through the invention of

valves, new attempts were made to improve the compass and

facility. Some scoring was done for the valved trombone,

but this instrument was generally considered less successful

than the traditional slide trombone. The tenor-bass trom

bone in Bb-F was introduced by Adolphe Sax in order to bridge

the gap between the pedal tones of the instrument and the

true tones of the instrument. This instrument had a single

valve in addition to the slide which covered the missing

tones.

In the twentieth century, the trombonist was called upon

to perform with accuracy passages that were technically very

difficult to manipulate. This nurtured unique attitudes in

trombone players--to play in tune, to play anything needed,

and to play the impossible. These attitudes still exist.

Composers have given less and less consideration to the

mechanical difficulties involved in the performing duties

required of the trombone. Passing from one note to another

might demand an enormous change in the position of the slide.

With this extreme movement of the performer's arm, certain

 3

slide combinations became most difficult to play at a fast

tempo or an extremely slow tempo. Therefore, the trombonist

sought a trombone that maintained the characteristics of

the slide yet had the ability to move at a greater rate of

speed and remove certain unreachable slide position combina

tions. Modern instrument design has tried to fulfill this

need with the modern multi-trigger instrument of recent

years.

Since 1945 it has become more and more difficult for

a player to master the techniques required to play both the

tenor and bass trombones. The design of the trombone at

this point tends to surpass the ability of most players.

When concentrated in depth efforts are made to perform on the

bass trombone, the multi-valved trombone must be carefully

considered as a special member of the trombone family with

advantages and disadvantages all its own. In this day of

automation and technical knowledge, one puts himself at a

disadvantage if he does not grasp the opportunity to avail

himself of any mechanical asset that will improve his per

forming quality.
 CHAPTER I

EVOLUTION OF THE TROMBONE

There have been many attempts to construct the perfect

trombone. The earliest of these date from the earliest of

man's recorded history.

Early Etymology

One of the earliest traceable names given to the pre

decessors of the trombone was of Greek derivation. Sambuca,

sambuka, sambyke, sebekha, or sebeka represented a wind

1
instrument with sliding wooden tubes. Another very early

example is the mythical Roman trombone tuba ductilis (685 B.C.).

The Latin name means "made of metal," in which the tube was

"drawn or hammered out," instead of being cast in a mold.2

There was a trombone found at Herculaneum from 79 A. D.

(excavated in 1738) with a tube of bronze and a mouthpiece

of gold. 3

1 Beatrice
Edgerly, From the Hunter's Bow (New York, 1942),
p. 145.

2 Francis
W. Galpin, A Textbook of European Musical
Instruments (London, 1937), p. 240.

3 Ibid.

1
 2

The Spanish used the name sacbuche, which means "drawn

tube,"A but literally translates "ship's pump." Germany

retained the ancient title of the progenitor of the trombone,

5
the long and straight busine or pusine. The French name

followed very closely that of the Spanish, saguebute, (push

pull).6 Finally, the English had their own versions of the

word: shakbusse, sagbut, and eventually sackbut. To simplify

matters, the term sackbut will be used throughout the remainder

of this investigation.

The Sackbut

Construction

The method of constructing the slide of the early sackbut

is obscure. The wooden slide or tube seems to be the earliest

construction design for the instrument. In the fourteenth

century it is doubtful whether the tubes were "drawn" as they

are today; much of the metal work in that period was hammered,

rather than cast, of bronze or brass. The soft metals used

4 Willi
Apel, "Trombone," Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd
ed. (Cambridge, Mass., 1969), p. 870.

5 Ibid.

6
Karl Geiringer, Musical Instruments (New York, 1945),
p. 109.

Edgerly, p. cit., p. 145.

 3

would have been quite workable; a slide could easily have

been hammered. Strings were "drawn" or stretched, but no

evidence indicates that the technical knowledge was available

to "draw" or "stretch" larger pieces of metal.8

Performance Techniques

The earliest design of the sackbut called for the player

to press the mouthpiece to his lips with one hand and extend

the entire instrument with the other in order to lower the

pitch.9 Because there was only one tube sliding, a rather

long movement of about nine inches was needed to lower the

pitch one-half step. The earliest models of the sackbut were

not chromatic; most of them could play only four half steps

on any given partial. The great improvement resulted with the

design which fixed the mouthpiece by means of a cross-stay to

the tubing alongside; thus, the whole first loop of the

10
instrument could slide. At this point of development, the

player was able to reach new notes on the slide that were

impossible before the double slide was used. With the same

8 Schwartz, pp. cit., p. 111.

9
Christopher W. Monk, "The Older Brass Instruments,"
Musical Instruments Through the Ages, edited by Anthony Baines
(Baltimore, Md., 1961), p. 283.

10Ibid., p. 145.
 4

effort a performer could now reach seven half steps, making

the sackbut fully chromatic. The shape and design thus

closely resembled that of the modern trombone. A point of

interest was the use of loops or tubing placed on the body

of the sackbut near the bell, resembling the newest design,

"trigger" or "double trigger" trombones. These were used

to change the key of the instrument in their original form.

Use of the Sackbut

The sackbut had a rich and full life. The medieval

church depended on its voice to reinforce the plainsong of

the chorus, a duty no other brass instrument could perform

12
since none of them had control of all the notes of the scale.

Respect and fascination for the sackbut was not limited to

the church. The instrument won the most unusual admiration

of the Shah of Persia, who supposed that the sackbut players

were swallowing and regurgitating substantial lengths of

tubing .13

11 Schwartz, 2R. cit., p. 220.

1 2 Curt Sachs, "Chromatic Trumpets in the Renaissance,"

Musical Quarterly, xxxvi (Jan., 1950), 65.

13Robert Donnington, The Instruments of Music, 2nd ed.

(New York, 1948), p. 127.
 5

As metal-working techniques improved, however, the

modern trombone was in. the offing. Sachs states:

Das letzte erhaltene Exemplar einer gestreckten

Busine scheint eine Arbeit Seb. Hainleins von 1460
in Galpins Sammlund zu sein. (The last extant
example of a stretched sackbut appears to be the
workmanship of Sebastian Hainlein from 1460 in
the Galpin collection.) 1 4

1 4 Sachs, Reallexikon, p. 304.

 CHAPTER II

THE MODERN TROMBONE TO 1900

Construction and Performance Techniques

Because the principle of the trombone is based upon a

lengthening-slide mechanism that is complete in itself, the

construction of the instrument has changed only slightly

since its inception. McCall describes the perfecting of

the slide;

The slide was added in Northern Italy during the

early part of the fourteenth century. The slide
at this time was only long enough to lower the
pitch four half steps. . . . By 1511, the fifth
half step was added to the slide. It was some
years later that the sixth was idded, thus
completing the chromatic scale.

The trombone alone in the brass family has always been

chromatic; its tube is not fixed at any set length calculated

to sound semitones apart, but can be adjusted to any possible

length within limits--the shortest, when the slide is drawn

up, and the longest when it is fully extended. The slide,

which constitutes over two-thirds the total length in the

modern trombone, is straight except for one U-bend. Sachs

1 Harlo E. McCall, Instructional Guide for Instrumental

Teachers (San Antonio, 1953), p. 79.

6
 7

sees the beginning of the development of the U-bend as the

exact moment when the trombone was born. The earlier

sackbuts he considers to be slide trumpets, saying,

The trombone, which, in its modern form with one

U-turn reaching behind the player's ear, appeared in
the fifteenth century, is thus not a new invention
but only a logical development of the trumpet. .

.
Since the sliding U-turn was from all viewpoints
infinitely superior to the sliding mouthpiece, the
alto trombone displaced the slide trumpet almost
entirely.2

This design brings about a free, unrestricted sound that

cannot be matched by any other member of the brass family.

Its only flaws are a slight but sudden change in

the width of the bore at the points where the
two parallel inner tubes end, and the impossibility
of altering the sounding-length instantaneously.
The latter, however, may possibly be regarded as a
characteristic feature of the instrument rather
than as an imperfection. 3

The principle of the double slide can be traced as far

as the fifteenth century. In the last quarter of that

century, a model existed which was the work of one Hans

Heuschel of Nurnberg, described as a skilled posaunenmacher,

the first known maker of the trombone proper. Orders were

placed for the trombones of Neuschel from several hundred

2 Sachs, "Chromatic Trumpets," xxxvi, 66.

3 Adam Carse, Musical Wind Instruments (New York, 1963),

p. 251.
 8

miles distant. Silver trombones from this maker were con

structed for Pope Leo X of Rome. A feeling of unreality

about the trombone develops as early pictures and woodcuts

are viewed. However, as the extant instruments of this

century are seen and touched, the reality of these amazing

instruments is felt. They are tangible proof--an advanced

musical instrument that can still be played. While Adam

Carse feels that the chief difference between the old sackbut

and the new trombone lies in the player, who tends in the

latter to force a loud and blaring tone as contrasted with

the softer and warmer quality of the sackbut, 5 Robert

Donnington points to morphological differences:

The early trombones [sackbuts] used . . . a deeper,

tapering mouthpiece, like that of the early horn,
besides inclining to a narrower bell and tone, such
as is now almost confined to German trombonists.
The modern trombones use a cup-shaped but not
sharp-edged mouthpiece . . .6

Like the trumpets of the sixteenth century, the trombones

were made of hammered brass, and were joined down the side by

brazing. The various parts were held together by short sleeves

which usually bore the maker's name and city as well as the

4 1bid.

5 Ibid.,
pp. 261-262.

6 Donnington,
Instruments of Music, p. 101.
 9

date of construction. These sleeves were also used as

ornamentation and trimming for the instruments. Another

constructional characteristic was the use of the long funnel

shaped bell, which tended to give the instrument a softer,

mellow, and more voice-like sound. In the mid-sixteenth

century, the bells begin to expand more suddenly out of the

tubing. The taper of the bell was constructed near the end

of the bell. This change had a decided effect upon the

sound of the instrument. The trombone proper could now speak

with a stronger and more dominating sound, thus opening new

avenues of performance although not limiting its ability to

blend with and support the human voice. It was necessary

to have three stays connected with the bell to support the

body of the trombone. These were usually of flat decorated

strips of brass designed in such a way that they could be

removed. It was thought that this design was necessary in

order to allow the sound-carrying tubes to stand free, leaving

them in a completely non-rigid condition, free to vibrate.7

This sixteenth-century trombone is described by Martin

Agricola in his Musica instrumentalis deudsch (1528):

7 Carse,
Wind Instruments, p. 253.
 10

Etliche aber haben der lcher keyns

Nur allein oben und unden eyns
Auf diesen wird die melodey/ allein
Durchs blasen und ziehen gefAdret rein
Als sein Busaun / Trumpeten und Claret

translated as:

Some have no holes at all, I trow,

Save one on top and one below;
Claretas, trumpets, and trombones
By breath and sliding yield their tones. 8

By 1600 the trombone had reached a period in its

development when the construction had become crystalized.

The general shape, the bell, and even the length of the

instrument, about nine feet, remain much the same today.9

In the seventeenth century, there were three basic trombones

in general use: the alto pitched in Eb or F; the Bb non

transposing tenor instrument; and the bass trombone in the

key of F or E. (See Figure 1) A number of seventeenth

century trombones on which fixed stays have replaced the flat

removable stays may be seen in German collections. A fourth

trombone should also be mentioned, the contrabass BBb,.one

octave below the tenor. This trombone is described by

Praetorius in 1619 as follows:

8
Sachs, "Chromatic Trumpets," xxxvi, 66.

9 Ib i'd.
 l

11

:-Z,

V III 13

I-I- 1. I tp
n.-, -I1 ,-, ."
.I -7- '

*
,~fl

I,
Vill;

9 A ...

Fig. 1--Treble (4), Alto (3), Tenori(2) and Bass

Trombones from Praetorius

10
Michael
Praetorius, Syntagma Musicum, Band II, De
Organographia, reprint edited by Wilibald Gurlitt,
(Wolfenbttel, 1619; reprint Kassel-Basel, 1958), Plate XXI.
 12

Allein dass sie ihren Thon ein Octav tieffer

bringer/ und naturlich das E; im falset aber
auch/ doch mit gutem Anfass das D and C erreichen
kan. (Its tone alone decends an octave deeper
and naturally sounds an E; in false [tone] how
ever even reaches a D and C with expert handling.)

Praetorius pictures this instrument together with bass

instruments of other families such as the violone, and

contrabass viola da gamba in his woodcut VI. (See Figure 2)

As the length of the trombone slide increased, it

became necessary to find some method to lengthen the playing

reach of the performer. No normal human being could reach

the lower positions on these bass trombones, and the hinged

lever which was employed for this purpose was not the answer

to the problem. A slide which had been folded twice upon

itself seemed to be the solution. This slide had four tubes

which doubled the length of the instrument without doubling

the reach of the player. When one considers the difficulty

of keeping four slides in alignment, it is evident that this

design did not produce the perfect bass trombone. Several

methods were employed to lengthen the body of the trombone.

The use of folded or circular crooks made it possible to

lengthen the instrument without making it too long and

cumbersome. These crooks were usually inserted between the

llIbid., p. 32.
 13

Fig. 2--Countrabass Trombone,

Praetoriusl2

12 Ibid., Plate VI.

 14

slide and the bell section. Upon rare occasions they were

placed between the mouthpiece and the slide, but this method

had the obvious problem of moving the positions on the slide

in relation to the performer. On the larger instruments the

bell pipe was folded in order to gain length without making

the instrument unduly long. The bass trombone built by Hans

Schreiber in 1614 was merely a double-sized tenor with a

range one octave below the standard tenor. 1 3

Another trombone built by Schreiber was not so large

and obtained the length needed to drop the pitch one octave

by the use of a crook. This crook, or folded tube, was

inserted between the bell and the slide; there was also an

increase in the bore size of the instrument.1 4

The use of the crook to lower the pitch a full octave

was not adopted by all manufacturers. Mersenne's Harmonie

universelle (1635) pictures a trombone used in France that

was basically standard tenor with a crook that lowered the

pitch by a fourth, becoming a bass trombone in the key of F.

Mersenne presents a woodcut of this instrument (Figure 3) and

describes the use of the removable crook:

13
Curt Sachs, The History of Musical Instruments (New York,
1940), p. 326.

14
Carse, Musical Instruments, p. 261.
 .a I

15

Fig. 3--Trombone with Removable Crook,

from Mersenne1 5

1 5 Marin Mersenne, Harmonie universelle, translated by

Roger E. Chapman (Paris, 1636; reprint The Hague, 1957), p. 341.
 16

But principally two things must be noted in this

instrument, that is, that one rarely uses the
winding part [crook], which begins a~t the joint
L and ends at the joint G so as to bring the sackbut
back to its natural tone. Now experience indicates
that the winding part being added causes the sackbut
to lower a fourth lower than its natural pitch, so as
to perform the bass in concerts performed with oboes. 1 6

It is easy to see that the trombone in the key of F could play

the range most called for, and was, in addition, easier to

carry, less tiring to play, and performed with more accuracy

simply because it was the same instrument with the simple

addition of a crook. A version of this tenor-bass trombone

was to reappear in the twentieth century.

Another type of trombone that must not be overlooked is

the valve trombone which evolved about the time of the water

key and tuning slides. In 1818 a trombone was built by

Stolzel and Bl1mel that had a contrivance which enabled it

to play chromatics without the use of crooks or stopping;

there was an addition of tubing and valves in place of the

slide. Although this contrivance for the instrument had

decided advantages for the military and the cavalry, it was

felt after careful testing and study that it had inherited

many weaknesses of the valved brass and had lost its ability

to play in perfect tune. Berlioz wrote that the pistons

16
Ibid
 17

increased the agility of the valve trombone, but gave it

less "correctness of pitch." 1 7 Although it was favored in

certain opera houses and in military bands, in 1885 the best

trombone players of Germany were getting rid of their valve

trombones and falling back on their old slide instruments.

Sachs states:

Players have clung to their [slide trombones easy

adjustability that produces a singing style unique
among wind instruments. Yet, valves have been used
on trombones and have made the instrument accessible
to persons with short arms, and allowed trombonists
to display a more brilliant technique. For the
trombone with valves some makers have preferred a
more functional upright or circular shape, since
the traditional form of the instrument is meaningless
without a slide. 1 8

There were many variants of the valve trombone, each

making its bid for the perfect trombone and each succumbing

to a multitude of construction and performance problems. One

of the strangest was a valve trombone built by Adolphe Sax

which had six pistons and six bells, each having a different

length and each supposedly producing a partial of the funda,

mental pitch in perfect intonation. The six bells made the

instrument cumbersome and much more expensive to produce.1 9

1 7 Berlioz, 2p. cit., p. 173.

1 8 Sachs, History of Musical Instruments, p. 434.

19
Carse, Wind Instruments, p. 263.
 18

Another design was the contrabass trombone, an octave below

the tenor, improved in 1816 by Gottfried Weber with the

invention of a "double slide," the pipe being four parallel

tubes. Wagner specified this instrument for the Ring des

20
Nibelungen and other composers followed suit.

In Berlioz' Treatise, reference is made to an instrument

which bridged the gap of an augmented fourth (Contragreat Bb

to Great E) that exists between the ordinary tones of the Bb

tenor instrument and the pedal tones.

Fortunately, the clever maker, Sax (of Paris) has

surmounted the difficulty by means of a single piston
affixed to the body of the tenor trombone; which
piston the performer moves with his left thumb,
maintaining the entire liberty of his right arm for
manipulating the slide; and which, supplying the
gap, now gives to the tenor trombone in Bb this
immense compass . . . [c" to Contragreat G1.21

This instrument must have been the forerunner of the modern

tenor-bass trombone.

Use of the Modern Trombone

It is a curious phenomenon that the trombone underwent

a decided reversal in use during the Baroque Period (1600-1750)

20
Michael Olson, "The Development and Utilization of
Valved Brasses in the Orchestra in the Second Half of the
Nineteenth Century," unpublished master's thesis, School of
Music, North Texas State University, Denton, Texas, 1969, p. 60.

2 1 Berlioz, op. cit. 153.

 19

and the Classic Period (1750-c. 1825); it was precisely

during this time that instrumental music began to blossom.

As the Renaissance came to a close, some composers had used

the trombone with telling effect in motets for voices and

wind instruments. The tastes and skills of the Baroque

composers and musicians tended to use the trombone, and

indeed, all of the brass family except the horn, for idiomatic

and limited tasks rather than as an essential color in the

newly established orchestral forces. Part of this was no

doubt caused by the Baroque practice of basso continuo and

consequently toward a polarity of bass and soprano lines.2 2

For the first time composers had at their disposal two treble

instruments, the violin and the oboe, which could successfully

compete with the human voice in solo music. Even in writing

for voices, composers usually favored the treble during this

period; the monstrous castrati practice is proof of this. It

is no wonder then, that the trombone, which favored the

middle register, was pushed to the background in spite of its

inherent advantages over the other brass instruments, which

were in this period still valveless. When, in the waning

days of the Baroque Period, the cembalo was dropped from

2 2 Claude Palisca, Baroque Music (Englewood Cliffs, 1968),

pp. 19-22.
 20

standard orchestration, it was the horns rather than the

trombones which were elected to aid the violas in filling

in the absent middle voices, so that in the Classic Period

as well, the trombone was a minor and somewhat grotesque

member of the standard ensemble.

Church

Some composers had continued to use the trombone, but

most of these wrote for either the church or the theater,

where the trombone's traditional association with voices

held sway. For example, just prior to the beginning of the

sixteenth century, Giovanni Gabrieli scored specifically for

trombones in antiphonal fashion in his Sacrae Symphoniae.

He was followed by his pupil Heinrich SchAtz, who continued

the Venetian practice of using brass instruments with voices

in Dresden. In the middle Baroque, writing for four trombones

was still practiced as late as 1670 in Vienna, where J. H.

Smeltzer wrote a Missa Nuptialis for the wedding of Leopold

I. Four trombones were used throughout this work in a texture

which was only a step away from chamber music. Although he

omitted this instrument as a rule in his secular works, J. S.

23
Bach's many church cantatas do make some use of the trombone.

2 3 Highfill, "History of the Trombone," p. 41.

 21

Neither Haydn nor Mozart used the trombone in their

symphonies, in which the tympani formed the bass to the treble

brass parts. Both, however, employed trombones in liturgically

connected works such as masses. Practically all nineteenth

century composers used the trombone in the quasi-liturgical

works for chorus and orchestra which were so common in the

Romantic Period.

Opera

In opera the first indications for specific instrumental

scorings were given in Monteverdi's Orfeo of 1607, in which

the composer calls for regal and trombones in Act III to

accompany the "Coro di Spiriti Infernali." After this

initial effort at specific scoring in opera (the list of

instruments and scoring has survived because of the printed

souvenir scores for Orfeo), almost nothing is known about

scoring for opera orchestras in the remainder of the seventeenth

century beyond references by contemporary writers.24 It was

generally thought suitable to use the trombone in gho-stly or

supernatural scenes; the prolific opera composers of the early

eighteenth century also wrote only a skeletal outline and had

24
Geiringer, Music Instruments, p. 179.
 22

the scoring done by apprentices. The Handel-Gesellschaft

editions of the Handel operas include trombone parts. The

editor, Chrysander, discovered that it was the practice to

place the trombone parts in appendix to the full score.25

A composer with almost a Pre-Romantic sense of sonority was

Christoph Gluck, whose orchestrations were admired by Berlioz.

Gluck followed the established practice of using the trombone

in supernatural scenes, but scored the group high and had

them play softly. Mozart shows a striking use of the trombone

in his ZauberflSte.

Symphony

The traditional home of the trombone is, however, the

symphony orchestra. As the nineteenth century emerged, no

less a genius than Beethoven scored for a trombone section

in his Symphony #5. Berlioz followed Beethoven in being

instrumental in the establishment of the trombone as the

bass member of the brass section when it was used as a unit.

This practice was possible because the treble brasses had

gained the ability to play melodically and in harmony through

the invention of the valve. The remainder of the nineteenth

25
Denver D. Seifried, "The Use of the Trombone in Beethoven's
Symphonies # 5, 6, and 9 and Schubert's Symphony # 8," unpub
lished master's thesis, School of Music, North Texas State
University, Denton, Texas, 1968, p. 18.
 23

century is characterized by the use of brass for all types

of media, often en masse, as in Wagner's music dramas and

Mahler 's symphonies .26

Military Band

The military band, as it is known today had its beginning

in the eighteenth century. It must not be overlooked, however,

that the military band in some form has existed since the

Middle Ages and even earlier. As early as the eleventh century,

military musical organizations were used to signal messages,

mass troops, and to aid in the psychological preparation needed

to advance men into combat. Instrumental groups using trumpets,

pipes, drums, and cymbals were used in Scotland during the

fifteenth and sixteenth centuries to rouse soldiers' spirits.

Later, it is common to find the use of trumpets and kettle

drums for the cavalry with fifes and drums used for the mili

tary.27 Toward the end of the seventeenth century, the

military bands assumed a more melodic texture, using a broader

repertory, including marches and similar pieces. The bands of

Louis XIV (1638-1715), organized by Lully, consisted mainly

of woodwinds, as did those of Frederick II (1712-1786). Around

26
Adam Carse, The History of Orchestration (Dutton, 1925),
p. 343.
27j. F. Walker, "Military Music," Harvard Dictionary of
Music, 2nd ed., ed. Willi Apel (Cambridge, 1969), p. 528.
 24

1800 the Turkish military bands adopted more

percussion

instruments. It was not until the time of Napoleon and

the French Revolution that instrumentation

was broadened to

include one bass trumpet and three trombones.

It should be

noted that W. F. Wieprecht, the organizer of Prussian music

in Berlin in 1838, conducted the first massed military band.

He united sixteen cavalry regiments, using a total of 1000

wind instruments. At this time Adolphe Sax included his

novel valved-brass instruments in the French military units.28

There is a direct parallel between the military

bands of
Europe and the military bands in America.
The first use of

instruments in battle in America came after

the capture of

Ft. Ticonderoga in 1775. Massachusetts regiments were among

the first to employ bands in America in 1792,

but it was not

until 1812 that the regular army in America

increased its

allotment of monies for musicians for

each regiment or company,
and not until 1847 was the size of the standard
band increased

to sixteen men.29

28bid.

H. G. Farmer, Military Music (New York, 1950), p. 66.

 CHAPTER III

THE TROMBONE FROM 1900 TO 1945

Construction Differences

The early twentieth century saw no major constructional

changes in the trombone. However, the tenor-bass trombone

in Bb-F with a single valve became available for general use

during that period. Such an instrument, a Bach Bb -F trombone

custom-constructed for this writer, appears in Figure 4.

Uses in the Twentieth Century

A British musicologist describes the status of the

trombone in standard literature at the beginning of the

twentieth century as follows:

Yet in Germany, more particularly in Austria, the

old idea of the trombone never really died. It
lived, for example, in Beethoven's funeral Equali.
The enlarged bell and bore which the German makers
adopted towards the end of the last century show
it, too; they perserve some of the suave vocal
quality even in the great volume of large orchestras
and bands. Wide bores are common in German and
American orchestras, where the tenor with a thumb
valve has largely displaced others, and an espe
cially large-bore instrument is used for bass
trombone parts. Medium-wide bores have been almost
universal in dance bands and British orchestras.
The French tend to keep narrow bores, and have long

25
 26

Fig. 4--Bach Bb-F tenor-bass trombone, bell

section with single trigger.
 27

used deep, nearly conical mouthpieces, to

round off the tone in loud passages. 1

Symphony Orchestras

With so much national difference, concert trombonists

were in a dilemma as to what type and size trombone to use

for the varied literature which they were required to perform.

George Maxted described the situation:

Ideally I suppose one should use a variety of

instruments which would probably mean three
or four different instruments for some concerts
such as the following: Ruy Blas "Overture";
"Cello Concerto," Elgar; Bruckner "III Symphony."
The "Overture" would require a German type alto
trombone, the "Concerto" would require an English
small bore and the Bruckner a German large bore
tenor.

The following day one might be asked to play

"Otello" of Verdi which was written for the valve
trombone, therefore a valve trombone would be
required. To play any one of these works with
the appropriate conductor on the wrong instrument
would lead to considerable frustration for both
player and conductor. I am quite sure neither
the audience nor critics would be any the wiser.

What we have tried to do is to find an

instrument on which we can compromise. Most of
the English and Continental orchestras have now
accepted a large bore instrument of American
design which appears to be made of a brilliant
sounding brass and will give a big warm sound
when required, but still retains brilliance of
tone which can be reduced if necessary by using

1
Christopher W. Monk, "The Older Brass Instruments,"
Musical Instruments Through the Ages, edited by Anthony
Baines (Baltimore, 1961), p. 285.
 28

a small mouthpiece, a practice I may say I

do not altogether favour. It is always
possible to reduce a sound on a big instru
ment but it is impossible to get more from
a small instrument when it is producing its
maximum.2

Jazz

The professional player found himself confronted with

another situation requiring contemplation as to which type

of trombone he should use. This situation was the Jazz Era

that was beginning to form. The Dixieland player found

himself in need of a very small trombone producing a thin

and rather choked sound by today's standards. The trombonist

playing the shows and working in the style of Benny Goodman,

Jimmy Lunceford, Artie Shaw, Duke Ellington, and Count Basie

found himself in need of a "horn" with more strength, power,

and fullness of sound. Another style, that of Eddie Duchin,

Freddy Martin, Jan Garber, Guy Lombardo, and Wayne King,

required a softer, more classical sound.3 Today, as in the

early part of the century, the trombone player is groping

for the perfect trombone.

2
George Maxted, Talking About the Trombone (London, 1970),
p. 37.

3 George
T. Simon, The Big Bands (New York, 1967),, p. 114-
116.
 29

Recording

The radio and the recording industry placed yet another

demand upon the trombonist. The primitive recording equipment

required much from the working professional. If the trombonist

were performing with a string group or miniature orchestra, he

was required to balance his sound correctly into the micro

phone. At times he was required to play ridiculously soft;

at other times he was seated many feet away from the microphone

and was forced to "bleed" in over the strings and woodwinds.

The performer found it necessary to again match the style of

music with the type of trombone upon which he performed.

Chamber Music

Following the example of Beethoven's Ecquali, the trombone

has been employed in many types of chamber groups by twentieth

century composers. Trombone quartets, quintets, brass

quartets and quintets are common. This rapidly-growing field

has been especially fertile in America, where the brass player

is strong in musicality and virtuosity. Composers who have

written for the brass chamber media are Hovhaness, Cowell,

Stravinsky, Poulenc, and Hindemith.4

4 Apel,
"Trombone, " p. 870
.
 30

Solo Literature

The trombone was almost unknown as a solo instrument

until the twentieth century when the featured trombone solos

of the military bands of Gilmore and Sousa came into being.

Herbert L. Clark and Arthur C. Pryor were the two men who

wrote these initial trombone solo works. The curious fact

is that the Clarke-Pryor pieces and those of a similar genre

are known to trombonists today as "standard" literature, even

though they are less than seventy years old. 5 The other

division of solo trombone literature is "contemporary," which

embraces the more adventurous idioms for the trombone,

expanding the accompaniment to full orchestra in concerto

writing or limiting it to chamber music or using piano accom

paniment alone. 6

Military Band

Music for the trombone cannot be discussed without

considering Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore and John Phillip Sousa.

These men were both skilled bandmasters and musicians as well

as promoters. Gilmore took the Twenty-second Regimental Brass

Band on a world tour. Sousa, after his resignation as head

5 Joseph
L. Bellamah, Brass Facts, privately published,
p. 45.
6
Ibi d.
 31

of the Marine Band, took his own group on such a tour.

Obviously these two great military bands were quite similar

to those which developed immediately after the French Revolu

tion. Today's large wind musical ensembles perform concert

or symphonic band literature, thus placing them on a direct

parallel with the English term "military band" with its

sophisticated and stately style.7

The most standard piece of literature for bands in the

twentieth century is the march, a paradigm of which is "The

Stars and Stripes Forever," by John Phillip Sousa. This

march is a classic example of the more symphonic style which

the music of the military or marching band exhibited in the

twentieth century. It is evident upon analysis of the

composition that the trombone is given a most important part

melodically, stylistically, and as an accompanying or supporting

instrument. The trombone is called upon to play gentle, pulsing

background patterns and then to erupt with the brilliance of a

fireworks display when the "break" in the trio is reached.

Sousa used two or three trombones to each of the three

parts for which the march was scored. It must be realized that

the modern band uses from two to six players on the part.

7Walker,
op. cit., p. 529.
 32

Usually all parts are scored for the standard tenor trombone,

whereas in the modern orchestra only one player is required

on each of three parts.

 CHAPTER IV

THE TROMBONE FROM 1945 TO 1970

The Bass Trombone and Construction

Innovations

In the quest for the perfect tenor-bass trombone, the

concept of operating valves with the left hand while manipu

lating the slide with the right hand is the real breakthrough

in construction. The Bb-F tenor trombone was, for all

practical purposes, invented in two pieces, but these were

not combined into one practical instrument until the twentieth

century. In 1930, Conn instrument manufacturers, of Elkhart,

Indiana, produced a full bass trombone with a hand-operated

valve on the F trombone that lowered it to E. Therefore,

this instrument produced a bass trombone in the key of Bb-F

or Bb-E, depending upon the performer's choice. This rotary

valve, however, could not be operated while the instrument

was being played. Hence, the player had to play extended

passages in one key or the other. In 1962, F. A. Reynolds of

Chicago Music Instruments of Chicago, Illinois, developed a

double trigger trombone with separate tubing for each trigger,

thus producing a trombone in Bb-F and E at the same time.

33
 34

This trombone brought about a major change in the concept

of bass trombone performance.

Currently, however, many fine trombonists who have

mastered the performance techniques of playing the F trombone

with the slide pulled to E prefer a single-trigger bass trom

bone. It is probable that had the players had access to a

double-trigger instrument during their formative years, they

would now be performing on double-trigger instruments. It

is confusing to most players to keep in mind and position

notes in two different slide positions to produce the same

pitch. Example: low D (Great D), F trombone, thumb and

flat fourth position; low D (Great D), E trombone, thumb and

flat third position. The following is a quotation from

Edward Kleinhammer's The Art of Trombone Playing (1963), which

discusses the need which has brought about the double-trigger

trombone.

Striving for accuracy of pitch and competing in

technical agility with valve instruments often
leaves one filled with frustration. About 1950,
a few of us bass trombonists began to realize the
benefits of a complete instrument, or one with
which we would have command of this weak range.
On one of my instruments, I had extra tubing added
to my F attachment, with which, through another
thumb valve, the instrument would be in E. With
this improvement, the player has at his immediate
command an entire chromatic scale, the top and
bottom depending only on the player's embouchure.
With the F-E equipment, the player has the low C
and B at all time without having to adjust the
 35

tuning slides (behind his head, as he plays), and

he is freed of the third "guess and hope" set of
slide positions which presents itself when the F
tuning slide is pulled. He does not lose C and F
in first position; he does not strain his slide
by the extreme pressure on the stockings at full
extension, and can play for the first time excerpts
like the glissando in the Bartok Concerto for
Orchestra.. In my opinion, any one of these benefits
is well worth having the E attachment as part of
the bass trombone equipment, and the combined
benefits make it a "must.

"
Manufacturers are realizing the need and demand for
the two-valve complete bass trombone, and are begin
ning to place them on the market. The trombone
originated sometime in the fourteenth or fifteenth
century, and now in the twentieth century is finally
emerging a tonally complete bass trombone.1

In 1961 the C. G. Conn Company developed an accessory

that could be added to their standard bass trombone with an

F attachment. This accessory could be attached to the

instrument in approximately one minute. It consisted of a

folded slide or crook with an additional rotary valve already

on the bass trombone. An advantage to this system was that

the additional weight of the extra valve and tubing could be

added to the instrument when needed and removed when the

musical literature did not call for passages with low C or B.

(See Figure 5) One of the most common problems discussed

by performing musicians is the additional weight of the double

trigger trombone. This problem was quite noticeable on the

lEdward Kleinhammer, The Art of Trombone Playing (Evanston,

Illinois, 1963), p. 53.
 36

double valve Bb-F-E bass trombone manufactured by the F. A.

Reynolds Company. (Figure 6) Upon careful examination of

the bell section, one will notice the F tubing coming forward

toward the bell. This tubing is all located in front of the

left hand which supports the weight of the instrument, thus

making the instrument feel extremely slide-heavy.

In 1965, the Vincent Bach Corporation of Rochester, New

York, custom-constructed for this writer a double valve Bb-F-Eb

bass trombone utilizing the F tubing and adding approximately

eighteen inches of tubing, lowering the F tubing to Eb. All

tubing, valves, and mechanisms remain behind the left hand of

the player. This trombone is heavy, but with all tubing and

valves behind the player, the instrument tends to balance

and the point of fulcrum is at the player's left hand. This

method of construction makes the instrument appear lighter,

since it is not slide-heavy.

The instrument was ordered in the key of F-Eb to make

more alternate position combinations available and to give

the instrument additional length. This construction method

enabled the bass trombone to be designed nearly eighteen feet

in length, but appearing very little larger than the standard

Bb-F bass trombone. The principle in which the second valve

is built on the first is much like the Reynolds design,

 37

Fig. 5--Conn Bb-F-E bass trombone, bell section,

with optional' second valve (1961) .2

Fig. 6--Reynolds Double valve Bb-F-E bass trombone.

Bell section. (1962) 3

2 Kleinhammer, gp. cit., p. 55.

Ibid.
 38

differing only in the key in which the second valve is built

(Eb instead of E) and the location of the tubing which off

sets the additional weight of the instrument. This trombone

was designed in the key of Bb-F-Eb to facilitate the usage

of the trigger on the full range of the instrument. Experience

with the instrument has shown numerous advantages during pro

fessional performances. Legato passages were manipulated to

a degree of perfection beyond the ability of most trombone

players who use an instrument without triggers or with only

one trigger. Extremely fast and difficult passages have also

been conquered with a minimum of slide skill. The double

trigger trombone in Bb-F-Eb makes it possible to enter many

difficult legato passages either going from the trigger or

to the trigger, bringing about a legato valve-like sound that

is so very difficult to achieve on the slide trombone. This

double-valved trombone is pictured in Figure 7.

The performer has at all times the standard trombone to

call upon should he be in a situation that requires traditional

playing. If the triggers can be used even once to raise per

forming quality, their addition has been well worth the added

expense and weight to the instrument. If a conductor or

instructor perfers the traditional sound, the trombonist may

 39

Fig. 7--Bach double valve Bb-F-Eb bass trombone,

bell section (1965).
 40

not wish to use the triggers and can merely bypass them, using

traditional slide technique. Upon occasion the trigger trom

bone will lend itself so perfectly and the resultant playing

will be of such quality that the performer will wonder how he

managed without the device.

Performance Modifications

"The double-trigger bass trombone has evolved from a

tremendous amount of experimentation, innovation, and dedica

tion on the part of many players throughout the world." 4

This new constructional innovation has brought about countless

new techniques in addition to allowing the player to produce

a low B (Contragreat) without the retuning of his instrument

by means of "pulling"' his F trombone down to the key of E.

Unlimited possibilities are made available to the player of

a double trombone. In a sense, the player now holds three

trombones of fundamental pitch, connected by an apparatus that

allows one slide to work in conjunction with all three instru

ments. The double valve trombone is capable of (1) extending

the low register downward and (2) producing a finer and more

polished legato.

4
Alan Raph, The Double Valve Bass Trombone (New York,
1962), p. 3.
 41

(1) Extending the low register downward. The double

trigger trombone enables the performer to connect chromatically

the lower range of his instrument through pedal tones which

extend even below the compass of the piano keyboard. As the

player performs in this range, certain pitches will be

produced much clearer and more dependably on one trombone

than another. By working between the trombones, the performer

is assured of the proper darkness and fullness required of

the bass trombonist.

(2) Performing the legato technique more accurately.

It is common knowledge that the distance the slide must be

moved to accomplish certain legato passages is extreme. The

double trigger makes possible a new concept in legato playing.

Quite apparently agility and quickness are facilitated by a

lesser movement of the slide. The double trigger trombone

takes full advantage of the- three fundamental keys that the

instrument provides, thus allowing oscillation from one

trombone to another; therefore, many choices are offered to

position any given passage. Many trombone players feel that

the triggers should be reserved for low notes only. However,

this concept does not take full advantage of nor make full use

of the double trigger trombone. To limit the double trigger

horn to the low range only would be comparable to the

 42

Renaissance practice of not using the thumb on keyboard

instruments. It is true, however, that the player must

have an extensive knowledge of the overtone series, usable

and unusable. A careful examination of Figure 8 will explain

in detail the overtone series.

One might think that the double trigger trombone is

approaching the valved trombone and assuming its many faulty

intonation characteristics. This situation would be true and

will indeed occur if the instrument is played by a novice or

an amateur performer. However, with this instrument in the

hands of a knowledgeable and experienced professional, a new

world of legato and high-speed slide technique is unveiled.

(3) Eliminating awkward slide position reaches. Again

it must be noted that the multi-trigger trombone can deal

with position problems that are practically unconquerable on

a standard trombone, converting a difficult position problem

on a single trigger trombone to a routine position movement

on a double trigger trombone.

(4) Extending alternate positions and combination

possibilities. A trombonist's technique is a direct result

of his ability to involve alternate positions in his playing.

With no triggers, the trombonist has practically impossible

slide combinations that he must master. With one trigger,

 43

Minor 2nd -a

*Minor 2nd .
.

Major 2nd .3rd

.*
Major 2nd . S2no
.

Major 2nd . o root

.

* Minor 3rd . - .*7th

4th
.

Minor 3rd S5th."m

Major 3rd .o.
. roo
Fourth ..
.

Fifth . . . .. .. 5th
Octave root -
Furdamertal .root

out oftun

Fig. 8--The Overtone Series

 44

this condition is greatly improved, and with two triggers

the majority of these problems are eliminated.

(5) Approaching old techniques. One cannot pick up an

Arban's book for trombone, a Rochut legato study, or any

sound technique book without being confronted with tried

and proven trombone slide technique. The multi-trigger

trombone must not be sought out by the weak and unskilled

performer as a substitute for good, sound trombone technique.

It is not the perfect trombone. The trigger mechanisms only

assist the learned performer. He must at all times exercise

the proper musical judgment as he selects the alternate

position work he wishes to use. Improperly used, the double

trigger trombone can become a Frankenstein monster involving

the performer to such a degree that he loses all slide accu

racy. It can affect his legato work (by the sudden lengthening

of the instrument), shutting off or stopping the tone unless

proper breathing procedures are applied. Clicking and snapping

of the mechanisms can become so noisy that they may detract

from the overall aesthetic beauty of the performance. The

double trigger trombone will bring about extreme fatigue and

cramping of the hand which is required to support its additional

weight. Taking all of this into consideration, and using the

instrument properly, a new concept of trombone performance is

possible.
 45

(6) Approaching new techniques of the double trigger

trombone. The most outstanding technical feature of the

double trigger trombone is that it may be "programmed" in

advance to fit any composition that the performer may be

required to play. Most new double trigger instruments give

the performer a choice of the key in which he wishes the

second trigger. The player has the choice of F and E; F and

Eb; F and D; and F and Db; E and Eb; E and D; E and Db; E

and C. There is little doubt that a slide could be manufactured

to lower the horn to a full contra BBb bass trombone if desired.

At present, however, C, B, and Bb slides are not available on

the manufactured market. Figure 9 shows a slide positions

diagram for the double trigger-bass trombone. Because of

the increasing distance between the positions using the F

valve, the standard seven-position trombone slide is reduced

to six positions, as the foregoing diagram shows.

A. First position and sixth position are the same

for the standard trombone and the F trombone.

B. Second position, fifth position, and seventh

position are only slightly altered between the

B b and F trombones.

C. Third position is greatly altered. It is even closer

to fourth position for general identification.

 46

Bb' A Ab G F E
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. "F"
tuning A.1O X3t 5
FE Eb D D
i 2 3 3 #5 6

a bDD b C

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

3. "bE"
1 2 3 4 t'5
tuning
EDb Cl C

1 2 34 56 7
4. "Eb1
tuning

D) Cl BC Bb
5. "D"
tuning 1 2 33 44 5 5
66 7

6. Dbif
tuning 1
1 3 13 b?6
Dl' C B'v

Fig. 9--Trombone Positioning Reference Chart

for multi-trigger trombones. 5

5 Raph,
_2. cit., p. 64.
 47

A careful study of the diagram (Figure 9) will show

three tuning combinations of the six discussed will prove

to be of more use to the performer:

(1) The F-Bb or standard tenor-bass trombone single

trigger is present as first trigger on all other combinations

shown. To fully utilize the chart, superimpose the F tuning

beneath each of the other tunings.

(2) The Eb tuning has tremendous advantage in regard to

the use of the triggers in the upper register and in performing

in flat keys. For clarification, the trombone under discussion

is Bb-F-Eb double trigger. The following line up perfectly on

the slide: Third position and sixth position. Numerous over

tones can be produced with usable intonation utilizing this

tuning. The Eb tuning is recommended and is more advantageous

to the performer if he wishes to do full range work or to employ

the tenor trombone range in addition to the full bass trombone

range.

(3) If the performer wishes to concentrate and perform in

the bass trombone range only, the recommendation would be for

a b-F-D tuning. Upon rare occasions, while playing in sharp

keys, the performer might wish to pull the F trombone slide

to E, programming the trombone to perform in the keys of Bb, E,

and D. While in this tuning, the following positions line up:

 48

First position, third position, fourth position (between E

and F only) and sixth position in the D trombone will produce

Contragreat Bb pedal by lowering the partials, not playing

the pedal tone. Low A is also on the slide in flat seventh

position on the D trombone. Low Great C, in third position,

Contragreat B in sharp fifth position, Contragreat Bb, flat

sixth position, and Contragreat A, in flat seventh position

are not pedal tones, but usable, controlled pitches lowered

by the D trombone and the slide.

 CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

The attempt to construct an eighteen-foot bass trombone

is, as has been shown, not a new endeavor. The concept of a

trombone of this magnitude has been known at least since the

early seventeenth century, when such an instrument was

described by Praetorius and Mersenne. Many constructional

innovations have evolved over this period, but none could be

termed highly successful. The eighteenth century contra

trombone with four slides and the contra-trombone of double

proportions are both examples of trombone construction that

failed to succeed. The invention of the valve (rotary) and

the use of crooks or folded tubing is not new, but it was not

until the twentieth century that these two devices were

successfully combined in the construction of the bass trom

bone, although Adolphe Sax was close,with the development

of a trombone with one mouthpiece and six bells and with the

attachment of a valve to bridge the gap on the Bb tenor trom

bone.

As one studies this historical background, it becomes

obvious that trombone players have been called upon to perform

49
 50

with accuracy passages that were technically difficult to

manipulate. This practice has helped nurture unique attitudes

among trombone players--to play in tune, to play anything

needed, to play the impossible. These attitudes still exist.

Composers have given less and less consideration to the

mechanical difficulties involved in the performing duties

required of the trombone. The modern trombonist is expected

to perform legato, extremely fast, and agitated passages that

only a few years ago were considered unplayable on the trom

bone. Passing from one note to another might demand an

enormous change in the position of the slide. With the

extreme movement of the performer's arm, certain slide

combinations became most difficult to play at a fast tempo

or an extremely slow tempo.

The trombonist has always sought a trombone that maintains

the characteristics of the slide yet has the ability to move

at a greater rate of speed and remove certain unreachable

slide position combinations. This unending search has brought

modern instrument design to the multi-trigger trombone of

recent years.

The trombonist has always tried to develop the trombone

mechanically to cover any and all situations which the composer

might require. With the exceptionally wide compass of the

 51

modern trombone, generated by the addition of triggers in

the bass register and high tessitura requirements in the

upper register, it is evident that the tenor trombone and

the bass trombone range have been extended to the point that

few players can master both. In addition to the physical

prowess involved, stylistic changes, attitude, concept,

and performing skills needed for both tenor and bass trombones

do not complement each other nor even remain compatible. The

instrument design today surpasses the ability of most players.

With the use of the F attachment, the tenor trombonist is

able to perform down into the range of the bass trombone, but

is still capable of retaining the tenor trombone qualities.

To perform legitimate bass trombone repertory, an instrument

is required that is of such set magnitude in bore and length

that many of the tenor trombone characteristic sounds are

forfeited. When concentrated indepth efforts are made to

perform on the bass trombone, one must carefully consider

the multi-valve as a special member of the trombone family

with advantages and disadvantages all its own.

In this day of automation and technical knowledge, one

puts himself at a disadvantage if he does not grasp the

opportunity to avail himself of any mechanical asset that

will improve his performing quality. The modern composer and

 52

arranger will ask for anything to reach their aesthetic

goal. This attitude, requiring the "impossible" from the

trombonist, is not a new one. Berlioz probably summed up

the attitude of many composers when he demanded that the

trombones produce certain low notes which were not ordinarialy

played. He wrote the pedal notes A, G#, and F below the lowest

open note. Anticipating the reaction of players when they

realized what was asked of them, he wrote in the margin,

"These notes are in the instrument and the players must get

them out." 1

1 Schwartz,
_.2cit., p. 220.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Baines, Anthony, Musical Instruments Through the Ages,

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Bellamah, Joseph L., Brass Facts, privately published,

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Buchner, Alexander, Musical Instruments Through the Ages,

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Carse, Adam, The History of Orchestration, Dutton, Kegan

Paul, Trned, and Trubner, 1925.

, Musical Wind Instruments, New York, Da Capo

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Donnington, Robert, The Instruments of Music, London,

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Edgerly, Beatrice, From the Hunter's Bow, New York, G. P.

Putman's Sons, 1942.

Farmer, H. G., Military Music, New York, Chanticleer Press,

1950.

Galpin, Francis W., A Textbook of European Musical Instruments,

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Geiringer, Karl, Music Instruments, New York, Oxford University

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Hayes, Gerald Ravenscourt, Music Instruments and Their Music,

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Kleinhammer, Edward, The Art of Trombone Playing, Evanston,

Ill., Summy-Birchard Co., 1963.

53
 54

Kinsky, Georg., A History of Music in Pictures, New York,

E. P. Dutton and Co., Inc., 1937.

Maxted, George, Talking About the Trombone, London, John Bahn,

1970.

McCall, Harlo E., Instructional Guide for Instrumental Teachers,

San Antonio, Southern Music Co., 1953.

Mersenne, Marin, Harmonie universelle, translated by Roger E.

Chapman, The Hague, Martinus Hijhoff, 1957.

Monk, Christopher W., "The Older Brass Instruments," Musical

Instruments Through the Ages, edited by Anthony Baines,
Baltimore, Md., Penguin Books, 1961.

Montgomery, Elisabeth Rider, The Story Behind Musical Instru

ments, New York, Dodd, Mead, and Co., 1958.

Palisca, Claude V., Baroque Music, Englewood Cliffs, N. J.,

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Praetorius, Michael, Syntagma Musicum, Band II, De Organographia,

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Raph, Alan, The Double Valve Bass Trombone, New York, Carl
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Reese, Gustave, Music in the Renaissance, New York, W. W.

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Sachs, Curt, Reallexikon der Musikinstrumente, Hildesheim,

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Simon, George T., The Big Bands, New York, the MacMillian Co.,
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 55

Articles

Apel, Willi, "Trombone," Harvard Dictionary of Music,

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, "Trombone," Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd

ed., Cambridge, The Belknap Press of Harvard University,
1969, 869-871.

Bessler, Heinrich, "Die Entstehung der Posaune," Acta

Musicologica, xxii, (1950), 8-35.

Sachs, Curt, "Chromatic Trumpets in the Renaissance," Musical

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Walker, James, "Military Music," Harvard Dictionary of Music,

2nd ed., Cambridge, The Belknap Press of Harvard
University, 1969, 529-530.

Unpublished Materials

Highfill, Richard, "The History of the Trombone from the

Renaissance to the Early Romantic Period," unpublished
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College, Denton, Texas, 1952.

Kesting, Gary, "The Bass Trombone and its Use in Selected

Works of Smetana, Borodin, Tchaikovsky and Dvorak,"
unpublished master's thesis, School of Music, North
Texas State University, Denton, Texas 1969.

Olson, Michael A., "The Development and Utilization of the

Valved Brasses in the Orchestra of the First Half of
the Nineteenth Century," unpublished master's thesis,
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Seifried, Denver D., "The Use of the Trombones in Beethoven's

Symphonies Nos. 5, 6, 9 and Schubert's Symphony No. 8,"
unpublished master's thesis, North Texas State University,
School of Music, Denton, Texas, 1968.