TERE Figure 18-5 pn Re phase ster cc a Scherer (Paso angle wih RoW asthe horzontal fence Ves by 487° with Asta OE (9 Pras shown wth she horortaleterence, 0.05 uF Nessa one (Sat for S0 @ v= im ote! DN i or we ‘This circuit provides a phase-shifted voltage Vz atthe output with respect tothe input. For this reason, the phasors are redrawn in Fig. 18-Sc to show the voltages with the input V; as the horizontal reference. The conclusion, then, is thatthe output voltage across leads the input V_ by 46.7°, whereas V; lags Vz by 43.3°. Now let R be vatied for a higher value at 90 k®2, while X- stays the same, The phase angle becomes ~30.5*, This angle has a tangent of —"o = —0.59. As @ result, Vg leads V; by 30.5°, and V, lags Vy by 59.5°. For the opposite case, let be reduced to 10 KO. Then the phase angle becomes =79,3°. This angle has the tangent ~"% = ~5.3. Then Vy leads V; by 79.3” and Ve lags V; by 10.7". Notice thatthe phase angle between V, and V; becomes larger as the seties circuit becomes more capacitive with ess resistance ‘A practical application for this circuit is providing a voltage of variable phase to set the conduction time of semiconductors in power-contro circuits In this case, the output voltage is taken across the capacitor C. This provides a lagging phase angle with respect to the input voltage Vz. As Ris varied from 0 0 to 100 KO, the phase angle between Vand V; inereases from 0° to about ~62°. If R were changed so that it varied from 0 to 1 MP, the phase angle between Vand V, would vary between 0° and —90° approximately. 18-4 Sclf-Review Answers at end of chapter. In Fig. 18-S, give the phase angle between a. Vyand Vj. b. Vand Vo. c. Veand Vp. 18-5 X, and R in Parallel For parallel circuits with X; and R, the 90° phase angle must be considered for each of the branch currents. Remember that any series circuit has different voltage drops but one common current. A parallel circuit has different branch curtents but one common voltage In the parallel circuit in Fig. 18-6a, the applied voltage V, isthe same across Xe, R, and the generator, since they are all in parallel. There cannot be any phase differ- ence between these voltages. Each branch, however, has its own individual current. For the resistive branch, I, = V4/R; for the capacitive branch, Ie = V,/Xo ‘The resistive branch current J, is in phase with the generator voltage V,. The capacitive branch curtent J; leads Vq, however, because the charge and discharge 540 Chapter 18TERE Figure 18-5 capoctneectanceX and in paral (@ Ge WaeTomsef te applied vokage Vy banch carers and (, and total current i, (6 Phasorelagram. aaa Yann ion y= s0v (A) Bawa 108 ie 108 @ Figure 18-7. Phasor viangle of capacitive and resistive brarch currents 80° ot of phase in a parallel cuit to find the resulta b= 108 current ofa capacitor leads the capacitor voltage by 90°. The waveforms for V. fy Jc, and I, i Fig. 18-6a are shown in Fig. 18-6, The individual branch currents /, and J; mist add to equal the total current The 10-A peak values for fy and total 14.14, however, instead of 20 A, because of the 90° phase difference Consider some instantaneous values in Fig. 18-6b to see why the 10-A peak for Jj, and 10-A peak for J, cannot be added arithmetically. When is atts maxirwum (of 0A, for instance, fis at 2er0, The total for Fy at this instant then is 10 A. Simi- larly, when fi at its maximum of 10 A, Je is at Zer0 and the total current Jat this instant is also 10.4. ‘Actually, f-has its maximum of 14.14 A when fy and [, ate each 7.07 A. When ‘branch currents that are out of phase are combined, therefore, they cannot be added ‘without taking the phase difference into account. Figure 18-6e shows the phasors representing Va, [y, and J. Notice that J. leads Vqand J, by 90° In this case, the applied voltage V, is used as the reference phasor since itis the same across oth branches Phasor Current Triangle Figure 18-7 shows the phasor current triangle for the parallel RC circuit in Fig, 18-64, Note that the resistive branch current Jy is used as the reference pha- sor since V, and fy ate in phase. The capacitive branch current J; is drawn upward at an angle of +90" since /; leads V, and thus , by 90°, The sum of the fy and J phasors is indicated by the phasor for [,, which connects the tal of the J, phasor to the tip of the J- phasor. The J, phasor is the hypotenuse of the right triangle. Capacitive Circuits 541GOOD TO KNOW For Rin parallel with X, Zi can also be calculated as: GOOD TO KNOW For parallel RC circuits, tan 0, can R also be calculated as tan 0, = The phase angle between /, and I, represents the phase angle of the circuit. Peak values are shown hete for convenience, but ms and peak-to-peak values could also be used Using the Pythagorean theorem, the total current I could be calculated by tak- ing the square root of the sum of the squares of the sides. For the current triangle in ig. 18-7 therefore, the resultant [is t= (Reh (18-4) For the values in Fig. 18-6, 1, = VI + 10 = VIO FTO = =A Impedance of X, and R in Parallel A practical approach tothe problem of calculating the total or equivalent impedance of X_ and R in parallel isto calculate the total line current /, and divide the applied voltage V, by this value «as-s) For the circuit in Fig, 18-64, V, is 100 V, and the total current [,, obtained as the phasor sum of J, and Ic, is 14.14 A. Therefore, we can calculate the equivalent impedance Zag a8 100 V mo J Tae, = 7070 This impedance, the combined opposition i ohms aeross the generator, is equal to the 10-0 resistance in parallel with the 10-0. X.. Note tha the impedance Zo for equal values of R and X. in parallel is not one- half but instead equals 70.7% of ether one. Stl, the value of Zy will always be less than the Towest ohm value in the parallel branches For the general case of calculating the Z,, of X. and Xin parallel, any number can be assumed for the applied voltage V, because, inthe calculations for Zin terms ofthe branch currents, the value of V, cancels. A good value to assume for V, is the value of either R or X., whichever isthe larger number. This way, there are n0 fractions smaller than that in the calculation of the branch currents. Phase Angle in Parallel Circuits In Fig. 18-7, the phase angle 0 is 45° because R and X- are equal, resulting in equal branch currents, The phase angle is between the total current I; and the gen- erator voltage V,, However, V, and J, ate in phase. Therefore @ is also between Ty and fy ‘Using the tangent formula to find 0 from the current triangle in Fig. 18-7 gives ke tan 0, = «as-6) "The phase angle is postive because the J, phasor is upwad, leading V, by 90°. This direction is opposite from the lagging phasor of series X,. The effect of Xe is no dif- ferent, however. Only the reference is changed for the phase angle Note that the phasor tiangle of branch currents for parallel cixcuits gives 6, as the angle of /, with respect to the generator voltage Vy. This phase angle for J, is labeled , with respect to the applied voltage. For the phasor triangle of voltages in series circuit, the phase angle for Z, and V, is labeled @, with respect to the series current, 542 Chapter 18,Example 18-2 ‘A30-mA [ys in parallel with another branch current of 40 mA for Ic. The applied voltage V, is 72°V. Caleulate Is, Zo and 8, ANSWER This problem can be calculated in mA units for Fand kO for Z without powers of 10. I= {I+ & = YG0F + GO 300 1600 = ¥2500 Oma my 30m = artan (1.333), 31° Parallel Combinations of X_ and R _all of the line current is resistive. GOOD TO KNOW ‘As X, becomes smaller, it provides more leading capacitive current in the main line, When X- is Yo R, practically all ofthe line curren i the J; component, Theo, ‘the parallel ciruit is practically all capacitive with a total impedance practically When X= 10R, as = Rk ‘equal to Xp. The phase angle of 84.3° is almost 90° because the line current is 5 7 -mostly capacitive, Note that these conaltions are opposite (othe case of Ke and R When R =O eS in series. With X, and R equal, their branch currents are equal and the phase angle is 45° For a parallel RC circuit, Table 18-2 | Parallel Resistance and Capacitance Combinations" HA Zo, 2 Phase Ro Xo Ie A eA (Approx) (Approx) Angle 8, 1 10 10 1 vi0T = 10 1 sr 10 10 1 1 vo=14 707 45° 10 1 1 10 vioT = 10 1 843° 1 V.= 10Ve Notes she pata of with epee reference Va pre ee, ‘Capacitive Circuits 543Figure 18-8 Series circuit for RC coupling. Small X compared ith Rallows practically all the apples volage to be Heveloped across forthe output with Tile across ¢ Xe= 1040 — & ne Sa oi iy te vS heen 22 As additional comparisons between series and parallel RC circuits, remember that 1. The series voltage drops V_. and V- have individual values that are 90° ‘out of phase. Therefore, Vz and V- are added by phasors to equal the applied voltage V;. The negative phase angle —8, is between V; and ‘the common series current I. More series X¢ allows more Ve to make the cixcuit more capacitive with a larger negative phase angle for Vy ‘with respect to J 2. The parallel branch currents /j and J, have individual values that are 90° ‘out of phase, Therefore, J, and J. are added by phasors to equal /;, which is the main-line current. The positive phase angle #, is between the line ccurtent f; and the common parallel voltage V,. Less parallel X, allows ‘more [to make the circuit more capacitive with a larger positive phase angle for I, with respect to Va. 18-5 Self-Review Answers at end of chapter. a. How much is F, for branch currents I, of 2A and I, of 2 A? b. Find the phase angle 0, between I, and Vy 18-6 RF and AF Coupling Capacitors In Fig. 18-8, Ce is used in the application of a coupling capacitor. Its low reactance allows developing practically all the ac signal voltage of the generator across R. Very litle ofthe ac voltage is across Co The coupling capacitor is used for this application because it provides more re- actance at lower frequencies, resulting in less ac voltage coupled across R and more across Cp. For de voltage, all voltage is across C with none across R, since the ca- pacitor blocks direct current, As a result, the output signal voltage across R includes the desired higher frequencies but not direct current or very low frequencies. This application of C., therefore, is called ac coupling. “The dividing line for C.to be a coupling capacitor ata specific frequency can be taken as X- one-tenth or less of the series R. Then the series RC circuit is primarily resistive, Practically all the voltage drop of the ac generator is across R, with little across C. In addition, the phase angle is almost 0° ‘Typical values of a coupling capacitor for audio or radio frequencies can be cal- culated if we assume a series resistance of 16,000 0, Then Xe must be 1600 {2 or less. Typical values for C, are listed in Table 18-3. At 100 Hz, a coupling capacitor must be 1 aF to provide 1600 1 of reactance. Higher frequencies allow a smaller F a Remarks 100 Hz 1 ae Low audio frequencies 1000 Hz On aF ‘Audio frequencies 10 kHz 001 WF ‘Audio frequencies 1000 kHz 100 pF Radio frequencies 100 MHz 1 pF Very high frequencies 544 Chapter 18,