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Re-suspension of road dust: contribution, assessment and control through

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DOI: 10.1007/s13762-018-2001-7

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International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-018-2001-7

REVIEW

Re‑suspension of road dust: contribution, assessment and control

through dust suppressants—a review
S. Gulia1   · P. Goyal1 · S. K. Goyal1 · R. Kumar2

Received: 6 December 2017 / Revised: 13 August 2018 / Accepted: 15 September 2018

© Islamic Azad University (IAU) 2018

Abstract
High level of particulate matter pollution in the urban areas of major cities is significantly affecting the human health due to
its toxic chemical constituents. Re-suspension of road dust along with tyre and brake wear are the dominant sources of PM
pollution in the urban area in both developed and developing countries. This paper mainly reviews the contribution of road
dust in ambient PM level, factors affecting re-suspension of road dust and chemical reagents available for dust suppression.
The emission of road dust re-suspension significantly varies based on amount of silt deposited on the road, type of road
(paved and unpaved road, concrete material of the paved road), number and types of vehicles movement. The chemical reagent
such as calcium magnesium acetate, magnesium chloride and calcium chloride are reported to significantly reduce the PM
emissions from road dust in developed countries. Therefore, the efficacy of these chemicals in reducing the road dust from
the urban road in developing countries needs to be evaluated along with the cost–benefit analysis and comparison with the
conventional approach of dust control (road cleaning and washing). However, the associated factors in different countries
may vary significantly as compared to Western countries.

Keywords  Road transport · Road dust · Particulate matter · Chemical dust suppressant · Water sprinkling

Introduction pollution episode during the months of October and Novem-

The elevated level of air pollution in major cities of the
world, especially fast-growing developing countries, is one
of the major concerns due to its associated adverse effects
on human health and the surrounding environment. High
exposure to elevated particulate matter (PM) concentrations
results in both chronic and acute health diseases based on the
toxicity of chemical constituents in PM (Wargo et al. 2006;
Heal et al. 2012; HEI 2017). The high levels of airborne PM
also create low visibility and cause material damage. Man-
agement of urban air pollution is a very complex issue with
high spatiotemporal variability and dependence on mete-
orological factors which sometimes results in severe smog
episodes (Gokhale and Khare 2007). The occurrence of air
Editorial responsibility: M. Abbaspour.
* S. Gulia
s_gulia@neeri.res.in
1 movement of vehicles on the road generates both gaseous
CSIR-NEERI Delhi Zonal Centre, A‑93/94, Naraina
Industrial Area Phase‑1, New Delhi 110028, India
2
CSIR-NEERI, Nehru Marg, Nagpur 440020, India
ber from last few years in Delhi and surrounding cities is one
of the examples of the impact of seasonal effects and high
activities of various sources. During this period, pollution
levels exceed almost 9–10 times of the National Ambient
Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) values (CPCB 2009; Gulia
et al. 2017). The primary sources of air pollution including
PM and gaseous pollutants in the urban area are vehicular
exhaust emissions, re-suspension of road dust, dust emission
from construction activities, industries, waste burning, diesel
generator (DG) sets emission and many more unidentified
and unaccounted sources (Sharma and Dikshi 2016). This
heterogeneity in sources is less in developed countries as
compared to developing ones.
The major significant sources of PM in urban areas are re-
suspension of the road dust, emission from vehicle exhaust
and open biomass burning. Numerous studies reported that
the road transport-related air pollution is one of the domi-
nant sources of urban air pollution and continuously contrib-
uting emission throughout the year (Sahu et al. 2011). The
and PM pollution, and the later one generates from vehicles

13
Vol.:(0123456789)

exhaust (due to combustion of fossil fuel) and re-suspension
of road dust due to the movement of tyres.
Re-suspension of road dust is the major contributor dur-
ing the months of summer season, while vehicular emissions
and biomass burning are the major contributors during the
winter season in Delhi city (Sharma and Dikshi 2016). It is
a serious problem in urban cities worldwide (Etyemezian
et al. 2003a, b). Review of non-exhaust vehicular emissions
of ­PM10 and P­ M2.5 and evaluation of its control options are
the main focus of the present analysis. The paper reviewed
and discussed the contribution of re-suspension of road dust
in PM level at different environmental conditions, factors
affecting the re-suspension of road dust, its measurement
and estimation methodologies and different control options
with more focus on dust suppressants. Further, in the end,
possible applications of dust suppressant on major roads in
Delhi city have been estimated for road dust control. The
literature review has been carried out during the year 2017.
Re‑suspension of road dust
The most important sources of PM from non-exhaust emis-
sions are tyre and brake wear and road surface wear that
emit fine and coarser particles, respectively (Keuken et al.
2010). Besides, re-suspension of deposited road dust is one
of the direct sources of PM. In Madrid, road dust re-suspen-
sion contributed ~ 29% of the total P­ M10 concentrations (in
range of 23.2–44.1 µg m−3) in the urban area which can be
reduced up to 15% by efficient street washing (Karanasiou
et al. 2011). The dust re-suspension influencing parameters
such as ambient temperature, relative humidity and wind
speed are observed to be 31 °C, 30% and 1.5 m s−1. Later,
they have analysed that early morning street washing just
before peak traffic hours is the most effective way of dust
control (Karanasiou et al. 2014).
Further, Amato et al. (2011) estimated that out of total
non-exhaust vehicle’s PM emission, the road wear con-
tributed 30–60% in Barcelona and Girona cities in Spain
compared to Zurich city where contribution was 15–30%.
This difference might be due to low silt loading rate on the
road in Zurich (0.2–1.3 mg m−2) compared to Barcelona
(3.7–23.1 mg m−2) and Girona (1.3–7.1 mg m−2). Later,
Amato et al. (2016a, b) reported that in Barcelona, road dust
contributed 9–15% of ambient P ­ M10 at the residential urban
location and 23–44% at road kerbside site. However, Ho
et al. (2003) reported that crustal matter contributed 11% of
­PM10 and 6% of P ­ M2.5 at urban location in Hong Kong. On
the other hand, in Mexico City, this estimate was about 54%
13
International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology
of ­PM10 (Vega et al. 2001). In another study, Grigoratos and
Martini (2015) found that at an urban location, brake wear
contributed up to 55% by mass to total non-exhaust traffic-
related ­PM10 emissions and up to 21% by mass to total traf-
fic-related ­PM10 emissions. Recently, Bogacki et al. (2018)
conducted a study at four selected streets of Krakow (South-
ern Poland) to determine P ­ M10 emissions from re-entrained
road dust. It was observed that road dust contributes up to
25% of total P­ M10 concentrations in winter season and 50%
in summer season. The contribution of road dust in Asian
tropical countries is found more compared to cold European
countries due to high silt loading rate on roads. In one of the
studies, Gupta et al. (2007) found that road dust contributes
21% of ambient P ­ M10 at a residential location in Kolkata.
However, Gummeneni et al. (2011) found that the road dust
contributes 40% of P ­ M10 emissions and 26% of P ­ M2.5 emis-
sions at an urban location in Hyderabad. In another study,
Gupta et al. (2012) reported highest P­ M10 levels at an indus-
trial area (27%) followed by urban residential area (18%) and
least at a slum residential area (15%) in Mumbai.
Further, Pipalatkar et al. (2014) reported highest P ­ M2.5
levels at commercial location (10%) followed by industrial
location (7%) and least at a residential location (6%) in Nag-
pur city. Recently, Nagpure et al. (2016) estimated the trend
of non-exhaust vehicle emission load of PM in India from
the year 1991–2020 and found that about 5000 tons of ­PM10
emissions from all total non-exhaust sources (including road
dust suspension, tyre wear and break wear) was in 1991,
followed by 8000 tons in 2001 and 20,000 tons in 2011,
and as per business as usual scenario, this would become
60,000 tons in 2020. Among all three sources, road dust
contributed 91–92%, while brake and tyre wear contributed
only 7% and 2%, respectively. It was estimated that share of
heavy-duty commercial vehicles (HDCVs) and buses was
highest (34–35%) among the vehicles types moving on road
during the entire study period (1991–2020) which might be
due to their high dust spreading capacity. For tyre wear, the
share of cars was highest (47–62%) throughout the study
period. In the case of ­PM10 emissions from brake wear, the
contribution of cars, HDCVs and buses was estimated to be
the highest compared to other vehicles. CPCB (2010a) in
source apportionment study found that road dust contributes
up to 56% of ­PM10 concentration during summer period in
Delhi city. Later, Sharma and Dikshi (2016) found that road
dust contributes up to 27% in P ­ M10 concentrations in Delhi
city during summer season. This change might be due to
improvement in road infrastructure and road cleaning prac-
tices adopted by local authorities in Delhi city and also due
International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

Table 1  Contribution of road dust in ambient PM level

Authors Study location Study period Contribution from non-exhaust PM emission

Gupta et al. (2007) Kolkata, India November 2003–November 2004 PM10 (paved road in residential area): 21%
Amato et al. (2009) Barcelona, Spain 15–22 June 2007 PM10 (urban environment)
City centre (8.9%), ring road (34.5%)
Harbour (1.65%)
Amato et al. (2011) Zurich, Girona, Barcelona Zurich: Barcelona and Girona: 30–60% (road wear)
February 2008 Zurich: 15%–30% (road wear)
Girona: July 2008
Barcelona: June 2007
Karanasiou et al. (2011) Madrid, Spain 22–24 September 2010 Road dust contribute 29% of ambient P ­ M10 in urban
area
Gummeneni et al. (2011) Hyderabad, India January 2004–May 2005 Contribution of road dust at urban location in ­PM10
(40%) and P­ M2.5 (26%)
Gupta et al. (2012) Mumbai, India April 2007–March 2008 Contribution of road dust in ­PM10 level
Industrial: 27%;
Urban residential area: 18%;
Slum residential area: 15%
Pipalatkar et al. (2014) Nagpur, India Residential: Contribution of road dust in ­PM2.5 level
September–November 2009 Residential: 6%;
Commercial:
Commercial: 10%;
December 2009–January 2010
Industrial: Industrial: 7%
January–February 2010
Amato et al. (2016a, b) Barcelona, Spain February–March 2009 Contribution of road dust in ambient ­PM10 level
Background site: 9–15%;
Kerbside: 23–44%

to different monitoring locations used in both the studies.
Table 1 describes the national and international studies on
the contribution of road dust re-suspension in total ambient
­PM10 and ­PM2.5 level in urban areas.
The results of various published studies indicate that
contribution of road dust re-suspension was found sig-
nificant in urban areas of both developed and develop-
ing countries. However, the contribution of road dust in
ambient PM level in tropical countries is considered more
due to dry meteorological conditions when compared to
cold countries. The scarce scientific knowledge on non-
exhaust fugitive emissions from road traffic especially
in developing countries leads to unreliable description
of these particles in air quality models which results in
under-prediction/forecasting of air pollution level. Such
dispersion models are key tools for decision-making in
urban air quality management.
Factors affecting re‑suspension of road dust
The literature discussed above concludes that significant
fraction of urban P­ M10 and P
­ M2.5 concentrations is due
to non-exhaust traffic emissions such as road dust re-
suspension, brake wear and tyre wear. Nicholson (1988)
described the process of particle re-suspension and its
influencing parameters. The major influencing factors of
road dust emission are silt loading on the road, vehicle
types, tyre type (studded and non-studded), pavement
type, vehicle speed and surrounding land use type.
Road conditions
The movement of vehicles on paved road generates less
­PM10 when compared to unpaved road type. Further, the
size of deposited dust particles and the topography of the
road surface are also important influencing parameters. The

13
 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

re-suspension of particles is more on a smooth surface than
irregular surface of an asphalt road. Further, wetness of road
(wet road) prevents re-suspension of particles when com-
pared to dry road.
Surrounding environment
The surrounding area also influences the road dust re-sus-
pension and its chemical composition. Amato et al. (2009)
estimated that contribution of re-suspension of road dust in
the total urban ­PM10 level was 8.9% at the city centre and
34.5% at heavy trafficked ring road in Barcelona, Spain. In
one of the studies in China, Jia et al. (2011) reported that
road dust originates mainly from soil (50%), smoke (25%),
and coal and cement dust (15%) in Changzhi city; however,
these values are 47%, 26% and 20% in Taiyuan city and
48%, 21% and 22% in Jincheng city. It is also reported that
vehicle-induced turbulence is more influencing factor than
wind speed in road dust re-suspension in urban area.
as 0.2–1.3 mg m−2, 1.3–7.1 mg m−2 and 3.7–23.1 mg m−2,
respectively. In Utrecht, Netherland and Madrid, Spain,
these values were measured to be 2.3  mg  m −2 and
1.35–4.40 mg m−2, respectively (Amato et al. 2012; Kara-
nasiou et al. 2014). The silt loading rate is always observed
to be higher side on the industrial paved road than an urban
road which might be due to poor maintenance and deposition
of dust during transport of materials in uncovered trucks.
Turoczi et al. (2013) found that silt loading rate on urban
road in three cities (Egyetem, Cholnoky and Jutasi) of Hun-
gary was observed to be in the range of 3.4 - 4.9 mg m−2.
In the recent study, Amato et al. (2016a, b) measured silt
loading of 3–6 mg m−2 and 20–40 mg m−2 for urban and
industrial paved roads, respectively. However, in Indian cit-
ies, the silt loading rates have been measured in the range
of 36–90 mg m−2 which seems to be very high compared
to Western countries. The high silt loading rate is basically
due to poor cleaning of roads and tropical meteorological
conditions. The comparative analysis of silt loading rate in
different cities of the world is presented in Table 2.

Silt loading rate Traffic characteristics

The silt loading rate is an important parameter to evalu- The intensity of turbulence generated at the back of the vehi-
ate the deposited dust on the road which directly emits and cle influences the re-suspension of road dust which varies
contributes to ambient PM level. Amato et al. (2011) meas- as per vehicles speed and shape as well as vehicle body dis-
ured the silt loading rate in Zurich, Giorana and Barcelona tance (ground clearance) from the road surface (Amato et al.

Table 2  Comparative analysis of silt loading rate in different cities

References Study Area Study Period PM10 Silt Loading Rate
Concentration

CPCB (2010b) Pune (India) 2007–08 123–254 µg m−3 (daily Average on urban road
Bangalore (India) 2007 average) 90 mg m−2
41–266 µg m−3 (daily aver- 36 mg m−2
age)
Amato et al. (2011) Zurich February 2008 30–40 µg m−3 (monthly Zurich: 0.2–1.3 mg m−2
AIRUSE (2016a, b) Girona July 2008 average) Girona: 1.3–7.1 mg m−2
Barcelona June 2007 Barcelona: 3.7–23.1 mg m−2
Sahu et al. (2011), Delhi, India 2010 238 µg m−3 (daily average Average on urban paved (10%
Marrapu et al. (2014) of city) unpaved) road 53.1 mg m−2
Amato et al. (2012), Barcelona (Spain) 17 June–20 July 2009 30 - 40 µg m−3 (monthly Barcelona: 3.6 mg m−2
AIRUSE (2016a) Utrecht (Netherland) average) Utrecht: 2.3 mg m−2
Han and Jung (2012), Seoul (Korea) Icheon 2010 Annual average Average on urban paved road
Sharma et al. (2014) (Korea) ~50 µg m−3 50 mg m−2
~ 60 µg m−3 25 mg m−2
Karanasiou et al. (2014) Madrid, and Barcelona June–July 2009 23–46 µg m−3 in Madrid, On urban paved road
(Spain) daily average) 1.35–4.40 mg m−2
Utrecht (Netherland)

13
International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology
2011). Further, particles re-suspend at a threshold value of
the airflow speed which depends on speed and size of the
vehicles (Nicholson 1988). Abu-Allaban et al. (2003) com-
pared the dust re-suspension from different types of vehi-
cles and reported that heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) emit
6–8 times more dust when compared to light-duty vehi-
cles (LDDVs) because of their high vehicles weight and
more friction with the road surface. They have observed
that ­PM10 was generated in the range of 40–780 mg km−1
­vehicle−1 for LDV and 230–7800 mg km−1 vehicle−1 for
HDV from re-suspension of road dust in different cit-
ies of USA. However, re-suspension of road dust emit-
ted ­PM2.5 in the range of 2–25  mg  km −1  vehicle −1 for
LDV and 15–300 mg km−1 vehicle−1 for HDV. Further,
Bukowiecki et  al. (2010) reported that in Switzerland,
­PM10 emissions from road dust re-suspension due to the
movement of LDVs were 24 ± 8 mg km−1 vehicle−1, and
HDVs were 498 ± 86 mg km−1 vehicle−1 in street canyon
urban road. However, these values along freeway were
measured to be 50 ± 13 mg km−1 vehicle−1 for LDV and
288 ± 72 mg km−1 vehicle−1 for HDV. In another study,
Denby et al. 2013 found that HDVs contribute more to road
wear as compared to LDVs which is mainly due to high-
friction generation by large weighted vehicles.
Type of vehicle’s tyre
Further, studded tyres cause more pavement wear as com-
pared to non-studded tyres as they provide enhanced vehicle
grip to the road (Zubeck et al. 2005). The high wearing effect
of the studded tyre is due to stud impact and abrasion due
to scratching when stud leaves the surface (Lampinen 1993;
Kupiainen 2007). Gertler et al. (2006) reported that the
wintertime abrasives for traction control result in increased
PM emissions. In one of the studies, Pirjola et al. (2010)
indicated that the studded tyre gives 2–28 times higher con-
centration as compared to a non-studded tyre in summer. In
another study, Kupiainen and Pirjola (2011) reported that
studded tyres result in higher emission levels than studless
tyres.
Speed of vehicle
Nicholsan et al. (1989) reported that increase in vehicle’s
speed increases dust re-suspension because of the greater
amounts of turbulence that induces re-suspension at higher
speeds. In one of the studies, Hussein et al. (2008) reported
that the particle mass concentrations behind the studded tyre
at vehicle speed 100 km h−1 were about ten times higher
than at 20 km h−1. Similarly, Pirjola et al. (2010) reported
that by increasing vehicles speed from 50 to 80 km h−1, the
emission level increased by approx. 60% for studded tyres.
Road dust emission assessment
Estimation of road dust emissions
The assessment of PM emission load from road dust re-
suspension is necessary to further design the control strate-
gies of overall ambient PM level in an area. Presently, an
empirical equation developed under USEPA AP-42 emission
factors is in practice worldwide (where indigenous emission
factor is not developed) to estimate the road dust emission
load (USEPA 2011). Separate equations are used for paved
and unpaved road. The input variables required for these
formulations are constant values (specific to particle size),
silt loading rate deposited on the road surface and average
vehicles weight on the road (Han and Jung 2012).
In one of the studies, Denby et al. 2013 developed NOR-
TRIP (NOn-exhaust Road TRaffic Induced Particle) model
and tested in seven European countries to assess the non-
exhaust road dust particle load. NORTRIP is a coupled
road dust and surface moisture model, with sub-models
for calculating road dust emissions and the road surface
moisture. Road dust sub-models predict road dust through a
mass balance approach and determine emissions through re-
suspension of dust along with tyre and brake wear sources.
Road surface moisture sub-models determine road surface
moisture which is essential for the prediction of suspension
and retention of dust from road surface. Later, Kauhaniemi
et al. 2014 evaluated performance of NORTRIP model with
monitored road dust in Central Helsinki and found satisfac-
tory results. In another study, Norman et al. (2016) used
NORTRIP model to simulate real-time road dust emissions
in Oslo and Stockholm and found model performance satis-
factory at kerbside. Amato et al. (2016a, b) applied a model
called URBan Information System (URBIS) for road dust
emissions that allows for a more robust estimation of popu-
lation exposure and health outcomes. On simulation, it was
observed that road dust contributes 9–15% to P ­ M10 levels at
background sites and 23–44% at traffic sites.
13

Measurement of road dust emission
Other than above estimation, researchers used different
measurement techniques to assess the re-suspension of road
dust. For example, TRAKER (Testing Re-entrained Aerosols
Kinetic Emissions from Roads) is a technique for measure-
ment of concentrations of suspendable ­PM10 above road
surfaces which represent an estimate of a road’s potential
to emit particular size PM. It uses real-time aerosol sensors
fixed on a moving vehicle to monitor concentration of dust
suspended from the road (Kuhns et al. 2003). It estimates
­PM10 concentrations by subtracting background concentra-
tions measured in the form of the monitoring system from
the concentrations measured immediately behind the front
tyres of the system (Han and Jung 2012).
Another dust emission monitoring system, SNIFFER,
measures non-exhaust particles under real-world driving
conditions. In this technique, dust samples are monitored
approx. 5 cm behind the left rear tyre using TEOM (Tapered
Element Oscillating Microbalance) and ELPI (Electrical
Low Pressure Impactor) principle-based sampler. Another
ELPI sampler is located at the front of vehicle to measure
background concentrations (Pirjola et al. 2010, 2012).
Dust suppressant for road dust control
Based on the discussions above, it is concluded that re-sus-
pension of road dust is one of the major sources of PM con-
centration in urban environment. Therefore, control of PM
emissions from re-suspension of road dust can significantly
reduce the ambient PM level.
In developing countries including India, sprinkling of
water on road (road washing) is one of the measures for
road dust control at selected road. The manual and mechani-
cal cleaning of deposited road dust is also being practiced
in many cities. Presently, water is one of the most primitive
agents which is used as dust control measure in these coun-
tries. But it is less efficient as compared to other chemical
agents (Amato et al. 2010). Amato et al. (2010) reviewed the
effectiveness of street sweeping, washing and dust suppres-
sants for control of road dust emissions and suggested that
more observations are needed to address exhaustively the
performance of these road dust control mechanisms. Foam-
based systems are also used to reduce dust in many places
in developed countries.
13
International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology
Numerous chemical dust suppressants of different varie-
ties are available to suppress the fugitive dust emissions, but
they are more expensive than that of water, though they are
more effective in suppressing dust and are applied in much
less quantity. While the applications of water and chemical
dust suppressants are proven as effective options for miti-
gating dust, they have to be used judiciously. Their usage,
while reducing dust, can trigger hazardous environmental
consequences which should be considered before deciding
on the extent to which water and chemical dust suppressants
are to be utilized.
Calcium magnesium acetate (CMA) and magnesium
chloride ­(MgCl2) have been proposed as dust binder and
thus used for application on paved roads in Sweden, Austria,
Germany and UK in order to mitigate road dust emissions
(Norman and Johansson 2006; Barrett et al. 2012). CMA and
­MgCl2 were used in combination in a South European city,
characterized by a relatively dry climate. In this scenario,
emissions of road dust were estimated to reduce ­PM10 and
­PM2.5 background levels by 16–17% and 6–8%, respectively
(as annual average between 2003 and 2009). Application of
CMA on daily basis in Hornland and Manor road in London
reduced the road dust emission by 31–59% and 41%, respec-
tively (Barrett et al. 2012). The frequency of 4- to 5-day
interval of ­CaCl2 and mixture of CMA/CaCl2/MgCl2 could
reduce dust emissions by 30–40% in Helsinki and Sweden,
respectively (Gustafsson et al. 2010; Kupiainen et al. 2011).
Road dust control activities (using M ­ gCl2) have been
recently tested in one of the commercial districts of Barce-
lona. This has resulted in a daily reduction in ­PM10 meas-
ured at traffic site by 7–10%, wherein larger decrease was
observed for specific tracers of mineral and brake dust. The
application of C­ aCl2 reduced road dust by 12% at one of the
roadways in Netherland in four months duration (McCrae
2009). Similarly, the frequency of 10-day interval of M ­ gCl2
suppression on road can reduce 56% of dust emissions in
Norwegian tunnel (Norway), whereas active asphalt (as
dust suppressants) if applied on daily basis can reduce up
to 10% (Aldrin et al. 2008). The application of ­MgCl2 or
mixture of ­CaCl2/MgCl2 on daily basis could reduce up
to 17% and 50–70% of road dust emissions in Trondheim
(Norway) and Colorado (USA), respectively (Sanders et al.
1997; Berthelsen 2003). The recurrence of CMA after
every 21 days or after several days in a row can reduce road
dust emissions by 35% in Stockholm (Sweden) (Norman
and Johansson 2006). In recent past, Gatosa et al. (2015)
International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

assessed the effects of water and stillage molasses on Gravel
road at a sugarcane estate in Zimbabwe and observed that
dust deposition rates decreased by 77–83% when treated
with molasses as compared to water which reduced only
(18–39%). Recently, Amato et al. (2016a, b) compared the
street washing (with water) and calcium magnesium ace-
tate (CMA) efficiencies at two industrial roads (paved and
unpaved) in the ceramic industrial site of L’Alcora (Eastern
Spain). The results indicated that street washing (18%) was
more effective than CMA in first few hours observations.
However, effectivity of both control measures should be
evaluated for longer period along with the economic aspect
as dust suppressant adheres for longer duration as compared
to water. In another study, Plessis et al. (2016) compared
the road washing (water) and lingosulphonate efficacies at
two mine haulage road sections, and it was observed that in
case of dust palliative, application frequency decreased by
50% and dust fallout by 53.8%. Also, the economic aspect
in terms of savings on maintenance, running and fuel cost of
the vehicles was 30% less for dust suppressant as compared
to water only scenario. However, no particular study was
found during literature review which shows the application
of chemical dust suppressant in India for reduction in dust
emissions.
Table 3 describes the reduction in road dust re-suspension
due to the use of dust suppression chemicals on the road in
different cities of the world. The quantity of chemical used
on road varies according to the type of road, i.e. paved and
unpaved road, concrete or black top road.
Factors affecting efficiency of dust
suppressant
The chemical and physical properties of the dust suppres-
sants are one of the important influencing parameters in
deciding their efficacy in controlling the road dust. It is
found that most of them are whitish and transparent in col-
our and having pH in the range of 6–10. All these chemicals
are water soluble and sprinkled on the road in water mix-
ture. The chemical mix in water is suggested as 4% (CMA),
30–35% ­(MgCl2) and 32–38% ­(CaCl2). This percentage
range varies based on the moisture absorbing efficiency
of the chemical. The principle of dust control of all these
chemicals is more or less same. They are spread on the road
in solution form and a film is formed over the dust particles
which reduces the evaporation rate of water and absorbs
moisture from the air, thus resulting in dust attachment with
the road, even at higher movement of traffic on the road. The
duration of effectiveness of dust suppressant always depends
on chemical dose and its moisture absorbing capacity; the
higher the dose, the more will be the time interval for next
spray. It is also reported that quantity of chemical that needs
to be applied second time is always less than the first one or
approx. 40–50% of the initial dose. These chemicals are non-
toxic and biodegradable but generate heat due to exothermic
reactions which need to be handled with precautions. Table 4
describes physiochemical properties of selected well-known
dust suppressants discussed in the previous section.

Table 3  Review of the chemical agent used for dust suppression on paved roads
Study Name of chemical City/country Quantity of Frequency of PM10 emission reduc-
chemical applied chemical applied tion from road dust (%)
(g m−2) on road

Sanders et al. (1997) CaCl2/MgCl2 Colorado (USA) – Daily 50–70%

Berthelsen (2003) MgCl2 Trondheim (Norway) – Daily 17%
Norman and Johansson CMA Stockholm (Sweden) 40 21 days 35%
(2006)
Aldrin et al. (2008) MgCl2 Norwegian tunnel (Nor- 20–40 Daily 56%
way)
McCrae (2009) CaCl2 Roadway (Netherland) – 4 months 12%
Gustafsson et al. (2010) CMA/CaCl2/MgCl2 Sweden 20 4–5 days 30–40%
Kupiainen et al. (2011) CaCl2 Helsinki (Finland) 20–30 Daily 60%
Barrett et al. (2012) CMA Manor Road (UK) 10 Daily 41%
Barrett et al. (2012) CMA Horn Lane (UK) 10 Daily 31–59%

13
 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

Table 4  Comparative analysis of physiochemical properties of selected dust suppressants

Sr. no. Parameters Calcium magnesium acetate (CMA) Magnesium chloride Calcium chloride

1 Colour White to grey White to grey white Colourless, white, off-white

2 pH 8–10 7 9
3 Chemical formula C8H12CaMgO8 MgCl2·6H2O CaCl2
4 Form of use
 Water 96% 65–70% 62–68%
 Chemical 4% 30–35% 32–38%
5 Principle of dust When CMA spreads, dust particles On application of ­MgCl2, com- Used as dust palliative for unpaved
suppressants on the surface are imprisoned in pound attracts moisture from air surfaces to control dust. Being
agent the substrate and cling firmly to it. and resists evaporation, thereby hygroscopic and deliquescent, it
It is the Calcium and magnesium binding with fine dust particles to keeps the surface moist and inhib-
ion that remain on the dust surface keep road dust stabilized its dust creation over a wide range
and absorb moisture thereafter of temperatures and humidity
6 Toxicity Low toxicity and biodegradable Non-toxic and safe for handling Non-toxic, but generates heat when
mixed with water. Need precau-
tion for handling
7 Cost ($ per ton) 1150–2100 150–160 105
Reference AIRUSE (2017) Eddie and Roger (2009) Leo Caouette (2017), OCE (2017)

The cost of these chemicals (per ton) is about
$1150–2100, $400–700, $150–160 and $105 for CMA,
sodium alginate, M ­ gCl2 and C­ aCl2, respectively. These
chemicals have low corrosive nature, safe for concrete road,
excellent inhibitor which reduces chloride corrosion and
safe for human health. However, at high dosage, CMA solu-
tion may reduce friction between road pavement and tyres
(AIRUSE 2016b). For traffic safety, a number of measures
need to be taken such as low-speed limit, i.e. it needs to be
50–30 km h−1 and needs to put warned road signals for driv-
ers of possible slippery conditions.
Application of dust suppressants for Delhi
city: a scenario analysis
The particulate matter pollution in Delhi city is at alarming
stage and has already exceeded the daily as well as annual
average NAAQS. Road dust emissions are reported as one
of the significant sources of PM in Delhi city (CPCB 2010b;
Pant et al. 2015; Sharma and Dikshi 2016). Therefore, it is
necessary to control the PM emissions from re-suspension
of the dust due to the movement of vehicles to further bring
down the ambient PM levels.
Delhi city has a population of 16.8 million, which has
grown at a decadal growth rate of 47% (Census of India
2011) and spread over an area of 1483  km 2 at average
altitude of ~ 215 m above mean sea level. The vehicles popu-
lation has increased up to 8.83 million in 2015. The current
total road length in Delhi city is 33,198 km with 864 signal-
ized and 418 blinker traffic intersections. Out of the total
road length, arterial/ring road/NHs is about 470 km, main
road length is about 350 km, and main feeder road length is
about 2000 km, where high traffic movement takes place and
road dust control will be more desirable (CPCB 2010a). As
per Indian Meteorological Department (IMD 2017), Delhi
city experiences four major seasons across the year: summer
(March–May), monsoon (June–September), post–monsoon
(October–November) and winter (December–February).
However, monsoon in Delhi city starts rarely in the month
of June. It generally reaches Delhi during second/third week
of July month. The summer is dry with ambient temperature
going up to 48 °C. During winter, frequent ground-based
inversion conditions occur with temperatures going down
to 4 °C.
As discussed earlier, street washing and cleaning are not
so effective to manage the dust emissions; therefore, a theo-
retical estimation has been done to see the application of dust
suppressants in reducing the dust emissions from roads in
Delhi city. However, no such study is found during literature
survey which shows effectivity of these dust suppressants in
tropical atmospheric city. So, some assumptions have been
considered in estimation of dust suppressant’s efficiency in
reduction in road dust emissions in Delhi city. Some of these
are :(1) The dust suppressant performs with same efficacies

13
International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

Table 5  Theoretical estimation of cost required for reduction of road dust in Delhi by applying dust suppressant
Sr. no. Description of items Dust suppressant used in
developed countries
CMA MgCl2 CaCl2

1 Initial dose required (in g m−2) which may be effective up to 1 week (Table 3) 10 30 25
2 Efficiency of dust emission control-based doses as mentioned in Sr. no. 1 (in %) (from Table 3) 40 56 60
3 Quantity of dust suppressants (kg) required for 1-km road stretch of width 3.5 m (single-lane road) 35 105 87.5
4 Cost of materials (in USD per ton) (from Table 4) 1625 155 105
5 Total cost of material for 1-km road stretch (in USD) 57 16 9
6 Total cost required for arterial/ring road/NHs—470 km (assuming average four lane road, two lane 160 46 26
on both sides into and fro way), main road—350 km (assuming average four lane road, two lane
on both sides into and fro way) and main feeder road—2000 km (assuming average two-lane road,
single lane on both sides into and fro way (in thousand USD)
7 Total cost required for Delhi (in million INR) 27 8 4
8 Reduction in ambient P ­ M10 concentration in Delhi city (assuming daily average concentration level of ~14% ~20% ~21%
250 µg m−3 and road dust contribution is 35%, Sharma and Dikshi 2016)

as performed in cold climatic countries (Table 3), (2) silt Conclusion

loading on road does not significantly impact its efficiency,
and (3) it performs with same dose and frequency of applica-
tion on roads having different silt loading rates.
Table  5 describes the theoretical estimation of cost
required for reduction in road dust in Delhi by applying dust
suppressant. These dust suppressants, i.e. CMA, M ­ gCl2 and
­CaCl2, have been compared for the same.
It is found that C
­ aCl2 is more effective and economical
in reduction in dust emission from re-suspension of road
dust compared to other two selected dust suppressants. The
­CaCl2 can reduce the ambient ­PM10 concentration by 21%
with cost of ~ INR 4 million (only material cost) for selected
road for a week. Other related costs such as manpower and
water tanker cost are not included in this. The given cost is
for dust suppressant applying first time on the road, which
will be reduced almost half for the second time on the same
road and this will be reduced further in subsequent appli-
cations of dust suppressant. Therefore, annual cost of dust
suppressants can be worked out based on the frequency and
quantity of materials required in subsequent applications.
The calculation provides just an idea on the application of
dust suppressants on Delhi road and its efficacy in reduc-
tion in dust emission which is based on some assumptions.
However, comprehensive study including experimental setup
can give more insight into the application of these dust sup-
pressants for Delhi city which has different climatic condi-
tions, road infrastructures, road materials, traffic volumes,
etc., than the cities of developed Western countries where
these dust suppressants work satisfactorily.
The present paper has critically reviewed the literature to
find out the contribution of road dust in ambient PM level,
factors affecting re-suspension of road dust and chemical
reagents for control of dust emission. The analysis of review
can be summarized as:
1. Re-suspension of road dust along with tyre and brake
wear are the dominant sources of PM pollution in the
urban area in both developed and developing countries.
2. The type of vehicles (HDV or LDV), the speed of vehi-
cles, silt loading rate on the road, climatic conditions,
type of road and surrounding land use are important
influencing parameters of PM emission from re-suspen-
sion of road dust.
3. The chemical reagents such as calcium magnesium ace-
tate, magnesium chloride and calcium chloride are found
to be used as dust suppressants in individual form and/
or in combinations. These chemical reagents are found
to significantly reduce the PM emission from road dust
in developed countries.
4. Based on theoretical estimations and assumptions, C­ aCl2
is found to be more effective and economical dust sup-
pressant to reduce road dust emission on Delhi roads
when compared to CMA and ­MgCl2.
5. The efficacy of these chemicals in reducing the road dust
from the road in developing and tropical countries needs
to be evaluated along with cost–benefit analysis. It is
also suggested to compare the chemical reagents with

13

the conventional approach of road dust control (road
cleaning and washing) used in developing countries as
the road and meteorological conditions in these coun-
tries are different than developed Western cold climatic
countries.
Acknowledgments  The authors wish to thank all who assisted in con-
ducting this work.
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