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Subject Notes

Subject: Wireless Network Subject Code: EC803(A)

Unit II
Introduction to 3GPP, LTE & LTE-A standards, LTE uplink/downlink, E-UTRAN architecture-Mobility and
resource management, services, UTRAN- Architecture , HSDPA, HSUPA, OFDM, OFDMA, SISO system, MIMO
system, OFDM-MIMO.

2.1 Introducing 3GPP

The common misunderstanding is that 3GPP (Third Generation Partnership Project) is a “standardization
body”. On the contrary, 3GPP only develops and maintains global technical specifications with the objective to
make sure that network equipment and handset manufacturers can develop products that are interoperable
all over the world. 3GPP is a collaborative activity between well-established regional standard organizations.
The 7 telecommunications standard development organizations (or 3GPP’s Organizational Partners) use these
specifications to create the standards.
3GPP Organizational Partners and their Role
The 3GPP organizational partners or standard development organizations include:
ARIB – The Association of Radio Industries and Businesses, Japan
ATIS – The Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions, USA
CCSA – China Communications Standards Association
ETSI – The European Telecommunications Standards Institute
TSDSI – Telecommunications Standards Development Society, India
TTA – Telecommunications Technology Association, Korea
TTC – Telecommunication Technology Committee, Japan
The role of these standardization bodies is to:

 Approve and maintain the 3GPP scope

 Maintain the Partnership Project Description
 Decide the creation or cessation of Technical Specification Groups:
 Approve their scope and terms of reference;
 Approve Organizational Partner funding requirements
 Allocate human and financial resources to the Project Co-ordination Group
 Act as a body of appeal on procedural matters referred to them

The 3GPP Specification

The 3GPP specification covers the “GSM” family of cellular telecommunications technologies, including: radio
access, core network and service capabilities.
The 3GPP specification provides a complete system description for mobile telecommunications and also
provides connectivity for non-radio access to the core network and interworking with non-3GPP networks.
The three Technical Specification Groups (TSG) in 3GPP are:

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Radio Access Networks (RAN)

Core Network & Terminals (CT)
Services & Systems Aspects (SA)
2.2 LTE & LTE-A standards
LTE or Long Term Evolution is a series of 4G network standards that were agreed in 2008.
The architecture used in LTE was designed to surpass the mobile data rates that were available using 3G
technologies. In 3G networks, the radio network controller or RNC, controlled what were called NodeB base
stations in the network. However, with LTE networks, the base stations had an embedded control functionality
which was called eNB (evolved NodeB), removing the need for an RNC altogether.
This simplified, flatter version of the network architecture mean response times are much quicker and
therefore users of the network would realise much better data rates.

LTE-A (advanced) improved on the architecture of LTE, before being superseded by LTE-A Pro which aimed to
not only improve the existing network but prepare itself for the introduction of 5G in the next few years.

Key differences between LTE & LTE-A and LTE-A Pro

 The main aim for LTE-A Pro is to increase the data speeds and bandwidth that are currently available
for mobile communications. Data speeds are set to be three times faster than LTE-A (in excess of
3Gbps whereas LTE-A was just 1Gbs).
 User experience will be significantly improved as a result optimising the capacity, performance and
functionality of existing LTE-A networks. For example, carriers will have 640MHz bandwidth with LTE-A
Pro (compared to 100MHz with LTE-A).
 Latency will also decrease, allowing for much quicker response times; vital for the development of IoT
(internet of things) technology. It will lessen to just 2ms (compared with 10ms at LTE-A).

2.3 LTE uplink/downlink

LTE works on two different types of air interfaces (radio links), one is downlink (from tower to device), and one
is uplink (from device to tower). By using different types of interfaces for the downlink and uplink, LTE utilizes
the optimal way to do wireless connections in both of the ways which makes a better optimized network and
better battery life on LTE devices.
For the downlink, LTE uses an OFDMA (orthogonal frequency division multiple access) air interface as opposed
to the CDMA (code division multiple access) and TDMA (time division multiple access). OFDMA mandates that
MIMO (multiple in, multiple out) is used. Having MIMO means that devices have multiple connections to a
single cell, which increases the stability of the connection and reduces latency tremendously and it also
increases the total throughput of a connection.
MIMO is what lets 802.11n WiFi reach the speeds of up to 600Mbps. MIMO works better when the carrier
antenna are more further apart. So on smaller phones, the noise caused by the antennae being so close to
each other will cause LTE performance to drop.

For the uplink, LTE uses the DFTS-OFDMA (discrete Fourier transform spread orthogonal frequency division
multiple access) scheme to generate a SC-FDMA signal. SC-FDMA is better for uplink because it has a better
peak-to-average power ratio over OFDMA for uplink. LTE-enabled devices, in order to conserve battery life,

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typically don’t have a strong and powerful signal going back to the tower, so a lot of the benefits of normal
OFDMA would be lost with a weak signal. Despite the name, SC-FDMA is still a MIMO system. LTE uses a SC-
FDMA 1×2 configuration, which means that for every one antenna on the transmitting device, there’s two
antennae on the base station for receiving.

Comparison between Uplink and Downlink of LTE

The major difference between the OFDMA signal for downlink and the SC-FDMA signal for uplink is that it uses
a discrete Fourier transform function on the data to convert it into a form that can be used to transmit.
Discrete Fourier transform functions are often used to convert digital data into analog waveforms for
decoding audio and video and it can be used for outputting the proper radio frequencies too.
The LTE technology itself also comes in two flavors: an FDD variant and a TDD variant. The most common
variant being used is the FDD variant. The FDD variant uses separate frequencies for downlink and uplink in
the form of a band pair. That means for every band that a phone supports, it actually uses two frequency
ranges. These are known as paired frequency bands. The TDD variant uses one single range of frequencies in a
frequency band, but that band is segmented to support transmit and receive signals in a single frequency
range.
In the United States, Clearwire is the only network operator deploying LTE in the TDD variant. Everyone else is
deploying in the FDD variant. The TDD variant becomes more important in Asia, as China Mobile (the largest
network operator in the world in terms of subscriber count) uses TDD frequencies for their 3G network and it
plans to upgrade to the TDD variant of LTE. Fortunately, LTE devices can support both variants on a single
radio chip without too much trouble.

2.4 E-UTRAN architecture-Mobility and resource management, services,

The high-level network architecture of LTE is comprised of following three main components (Figure 1):
 The User Equipment (UE).
 The Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN).
 The Evolved Packet Core (EPC).
The evolved packet core communicates with packet data networks in the outside world such as the internet,
private corporate networks or the IP multimedia subsystem. The interfaces between the different parts of
the system are denoted Uu, S1 and SGi as shown below:

EU Servers
E-UTRAN EPC PDNs

Figure1: Network architecture of LTE

The User Equipment (UE)
The internal architecture of the user equipment for LTE is identical to the one used by UMTS and GSM which
is actually a Mobile Equipment (ME). The mobile equipment comprised of the following important modules:
 Mobile Termination (MT) : This handles all the communication functions.
 Terminal Equipment (TE) : This terminates the data streams.
 Universal Integrated Circuit Card (UICC) : This is also known as the SIM card for LTE equipments. It
runs an application known as the Universal Subscriber Identity Module (USIM).

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A USIM stores user-specific data very similar to 3G SIM card. This keeps information about the user's phone
number, home network identity and security keys etc.

The E-UTRAN (The access network)

The architecture of evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN) has been illustrated below
(Figure 2).

Figure2: Architecture of evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN)

The E-UTRAN handles the radio communications between the mobile and the evolved packet core and just
has one component, the evolved base stations, called eNodeB or eNB. Each eNB is a base station that
controls the mobiles in one or more cells. The base station that is communicating with a mobile is known as
its serving eNB.
LTE Mobile communicates with just one base station and one cell at a time and there are following two main
functions supported by eNB:
 The eBN sends and receives radio transmissions to all the mobiles using the analog and digital signal
processing functions of the LTE air interface.
 The eNB controls the low-level operation of all its mobiles, by sending them signaling messages such
as handover commands.
Each eBN connects with the EPC by means of the S1 interface and it can also be connected to nearby base
stations by the X2 interface, which is mainly used for signaling and packet forwarding during handover.
A home eNB (HeNB) is a base station that has been purchased by a user to provide femtocell coverage within
the home. A home eNB belongs to a closed subscriber group (CSG) and can only be accessed by mobiles with
a USIM that also belongs to the closed subscriber group.

2.5 UTRAN- Architecture

With the introduction of 3G UMTS there were many new terms that appeared for the network elements. Two
common ones were UTRA and UTRAN.

UTRA standards for UMTS radio access and UTRAN for UMTS radio access network and they cover the
elements of the radio access network including elements like what used to be called the base transceiver
station and the Base station controller, etc.

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Sometimes the UTRAN, UMTS terrestrial access network was also referred to as the Radio Network
Subsystem, or RNS. The UMTS Radio Access Network, UTRAN, or Radio Network Subsystem, RNS comprises
two main components:
1)Radio Network Controller, RNC: This element of the UTRAN / radio network subsystem controls the Node
Bs that are connected to it, i.e. the radio resources in its domain. The RNC undertakes the radio resource
management and some of the mobility management functions, although not all. It is also the point at which
the data encryption / decryption is performed to protect the user data from eavesdropping.
2) Node B: Node B is the term used within UMTS to denote the base station transceiver. This part of the
UTRAN contains the transmitter and receiver to communicate with the UEs within the cell. It participates with
the RNC in the resource management. Node B is the 3GPP term for base station, and often the terms are used
interchangeably. In order to facilitate effective handover between Node Bs under the control of different
RNCs, the RNC not only communicates with the Core Network, but also with neighboring RNCs.

To Core
Network

RNC

Radio
Network
Subsystem
(RNS) Node B Node B Node B

UE UE UE

Figure3: UTRAN- Architecture

2.6 HSDPA
HSDPA enables much higher speed data transfer and one reason it can achieve it is because of new channels
that have been added. The three main channels are High Speed Downlink Shared Channel, HS-DSCH; High
Speed Signalling Control Channel, HS-SCCH; and High Speed Dedicated Physical Control Channel, HS-DPCCH.
The use of these channels which are overlaid on top of the existing 3G UMTS channels provides the capability
of the high speed data downloads.
a)High Speed Downlink Shared Channel, HS-DSCH
The HS DSCH channel is the data transport channel that all active HSDPA users connected to the NodeB will
use. The use of a shared channel is a key characteristic of HSDPA and being a common resource, the HS-DSCH
is dynamically shared between users.

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The HS-DSCH supports adaptive coding and modulation changing to adapt to the changing conditions within
the system. The use of the 2ms TTI means that scheduling delays are reduced and it also enables fast tracking
of the channel conditions allowing for the optimum use of the available resource.
It is worth noting that the HS-DSCH is not power controlled but rate controlled. This allows the
remaining power, after the other required channels have been serviced to be used for the HS-DSCH, and this
means that the overall power available is used efficiently.

b)High Speed Signaling Control Channel, HS-SCCH

This HSDPA channel is used to signal the scheduling to the users every 2 ms according to the TTI. The HS-SCCH
channel carries three main elements of information: It carries the UE identity to allow specific addressing of
individual UEs on the shared control channel. The HS-SCCH carries the Hybrid ARQ to enable the combining
process to proceed.This channel carries the Transport Format and Resource Indicator (TFRI). This identifies the
scheduled resource and its transmission format.

c) High Speed Dedicated Physical Control Channel, HS-DPCCH

The High Speed Dedicated Physical Control Channel, HS-DPCCH is an HSDPA channel used to provide feedback
to the scheduler and it is located in the uplink. The HS-DPCCH channel carries the following information:HARQ
ACK/NAK information which is used to provide information back about the successful receipt and decoding of
information and hence to request the resending information that has not been successfully received.
Channel Quality Information which is used to provide instantaneous channel information to the scheduler.
These new channels, HS-DSCH, HS-SCCH, & HS-DPCCH provide the high speed data capability along with the
other improvements added to HSDPA including higher order modulation adaptive HARQ and improved
scheduling.

2.7 HSUPA(High Speed Uplink Packet Access)

An upgrade for UMTS/HSDPA networks that increases upload data speeds up to 5.76 Mbps. HSUPA together
with HSDPA are sometimes referred to as HSPA. The standard is backwards compatible with UMTS and HSDPA
and will work with devices supporting only those standards. HSUPA only handles the uplink while the downlink
is handled by a related technology called HSDPA.

High Speed Uplink Packet Access, HSUPA provides a major increase in data rate and overall performance for
3G UMTS networks.

3G UMTS HSUPA key characteristics

HSUPA brings enhanced performance through the addition of new features that sit on top of the existing
UMTS technology.The key specification parameters that are introduced by the use of HSUPA are:

 Increased data rate: The use of HSUPA is able to provide a significant increase in the data rate available.
 Lower latency: The use of HSUPA introduces a TTI of 2 ms, although a 10ms TTI was originally used and is
still supported.
 Improved system capacity: In order to enable the large number of high data rate users, it has been
necessary to ensure that the overall capacity when using HSUPA is higher.

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 Modulation order: Originally only BPSK modulation, that adopted for UMTS, was used. Accordingly it did
not support adaptive modulation schemes. Higher order modulation was introduced in Release 7 of the
3GPP standards when 64QAM was allowed.
 Hybrid ARQ: In order to facilitate the improved performance the Hybrid ARQ (Automatic Repeat reQuest)
used for HSDPA is also employed for the uplink, HSUPA.
 Fast Packet Scheduling: In order to reduce latency, fast packet scheduling has been adopted again for the
uplink as for the downlink, although the implementation is slightly different.
With these specification parameters enable HSUPA to complement the performance of HSDPA, providing an
overall performance improvement for systems incorporating HSPA.

3G HSUPA basics

At the core of HSUPA, High Speed Uplink Packet Access are a number of new technologies that are very similar
to those used with HSDPA. However there are a few fundamental differences resulting from the different
conditions at either end of the link.

 The uplink in UMTS, and HSUPA is non-orthogonal because complete orthogonality cannot be maintained
between all the UEs. As a result there is more interference between the uplink transmissions within the
same cells.
 The scheduling buffers are located in a single location (NodeB) for the downlink, whereas for the uplink
they are distributed within several UEs for the uplink. This requires the UEs requiring to send buffer
information to the scheduler in the NodeB so that it can then provide an overall schedule for the data
transmission.
 In the downlink, the shared resource is the transmission power. In the uplink, the resource is limited by the
level of interference that can be tolerated and this depends upon the transmission power of the multiple
UEs.
 High order modulation techniques are able to provide higher data rates for high signal level links in the
downlink. There is not the same advantage in the uplink where as there is no need to share channelisation
codes between users and the channel coding rates are therefore lower, although higher order modulation
was introduced under Release 7.
The addition of HSUPA to the 3G UMTS network enabled the uplink as well as the downlink to provide much
improved performance. With both HSDPA (downlink) and HSUPA (uplink) active the complete package was
called HSPA - high speed packet access. Although most of the data is passed in the downlink, many users
found the uplink without HSUPA very slow and it degraded the overall user experience. With HSUPA active the
overall experience was much improved.

2.8 OFDM
OFDM, Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing is a form of signal waveform or modulation that provides
some significant advantages for data links.
Accordingly, OFDM, Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing is used for many of the latest wide bandwidth
and high data rate wireless systems including Wi-Fi, cellular telecommunications and many more.
The fact that OFDM uses a large number of carriers, each carrying low bit rate data, means that it is very
resilient to selective fading, interference, and multipath effects, as well providing a high degree of spectral
efficiency.

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OFDM is a form of multicarrier modulation. An OFDM signal consists of a number of closely spaced
modulated carriers. When modulation of any form - voice, data, etc. is applied to a carrier, then sidebands
spread out either side. It is necessary for a receiver to be able to receive the whole signal to be able to
successfully demodulate the data. As a result when signals are transmitted close to one another they must be
spaced so that the receiver can separate them using a filter and there must be a guard band between them.
This is not the case with OFDM. Although the sidebands from each carrier overlap, they can still be received
without the interference that might be expected because they are orthogonal to each another. This is
achieved by having the carrier spacing equal to the reciprocal of the symbol period.
Key features of OFDM
The OFDM scheme differs from traditional FDM in the following interrelated ways:
Multiple carriers (called subcarriers) carry the information stream,The subcarriers are orthogonal to each
other. A guard interval is added to each symbol to minimize the channel delay spread and intersymbol
interference.
OFDM advantages & disadvantages
OFDM advantages
OFDM has been used in many high data rate wireless systems because of the many advantages it provides.
Immunity to selective fading: One of the main advantages of OFDM is that is more resistant to frequency
selective fading than single carrier systems because it divides the overall channel into multiple narrowband
signals that are affected individually as flat fading sub-channels.
Resilience to interference: Interference appearing on a channel may be bandwidth limited and in this way
will not affect all the sub-channels. This means that not all the data is lost.
Spectrum efficiency: Using close-spaced overlapping sub-carriers, a significant OFDM advantage is that it
makes efficient use of the available spectrum.
Resilient to ISI: Another advantage of OFDM is that it is very resilient to inter-symbol and inter-frame
interference. This results from the low data rate on each of the sub-channels.
Resilient to narrow-band effects: Using adequate channel coding and interleaving it is possible to recover
symbols lost due to the frequency selectivity of the channel and narrow band interference. Not all the data is
lost.
Simpler channel equalization: One of the issues with CDMA systems was the complexity of the channel
equalisation which had to be applied across the whole channel. An advantage of OFDM is that using multiple
sub-channels, the channel equalization becomes much simpler.
OFDM disadvantages
Whilst OFDM has been widely used, there are still a few disadvantages to its use which need to be addressed
when considering its use.
High peak to average power ratio: An OFDM signal has a noise like amplitude variation and has a relatively
high large dynamic range, or peak to average power ratio. This impacts the RF amplifier efficiency as the
amplifiers need to be linear and accommodate the large amplitude variations and these factors mean the
amplifier cannot operate with a high efficiency level.
Sensitive to carrier offset and drift: Another disadvantage of OFDM is that is sensitive to carrier frequency
offset and drift. Single carrier systems are less sensitive.
OFDM, orthogonal frequency division multiplexing has gained a significant presence in the wireless market
place. The combination of high data capacity, high spectral efficiency, and its resilience to interference as a

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result of multi-path effects means that it is ideal for the high data applications that have become a major
factor in today's communications scene.

2.9 OFDMA
OFDMA: a multi-user extension of OFDM
Some OFDM systems serve multiple users solely through TDMA techniques. This is a practical and
straightforward approach but is not the most flexible and may not be the most efficient way to handle multi-
user demands and optimize the available spectrum and time resources. A simple TDMA scheme is also
potentially less secure and may be less robust than a more complex and dynamic allocation of spectrum and
time resources.
Orthogonal frequency domain multiple access (OFDMA) is a logical extension of OFDM techniques to serve
multiple users efficiently. The available spectral resource is broken up into two orthogonal elements—
subcarriers (frequency) and symbols (time)—which can be independently apportioned to users as needed by a
central system scheduler.
Resource allocation can be pre-arranged or managed on an ad hoc basis to respond to data demands and
channel constraints or impairments.
In addition to allowing the efficient trunking of multiple lower-rate users using a shared channel, OFDMA can
enable per-user frequency hopping to mitigate the effects of interference, jamming, or narrowband fading.
In an OFDMA system, subcarriers and symbols for an individual user can be grouped in contiguous or non-
contiguous arrangements, or some combination. This flexibility allows the system to respond as traffic
demands change, allocating capacity to meet user demands and to implement system priorities. For example a
real-time video stream may need a high data rate on a constant basis, while internet access may require
higher rates only intermittently, and voice transmission may require nearly continuous low-rate data, albeit
with high priority.
Advantages and disadvantages of OFDMA
As a multiplexing layer in wireless systems OFDMA provides a number of benefits:

 Optimum resource allocation freedom due to orthogonality in both time and frequency
 Flexible and dynamic resource allocation to match user needs and channel conditions
 Increased ability to implement quality of service (QoS) factors such as priority, latency, data rate and
error rate
 Potential to avoid pulsed carriers by eliminating the need for TDMA operation
 Reduced transmit power required for low data rate users
 Ability to enable per-user frequency switching or hopping to avoid narrowband fading or interference

However OFDMA operation may also come with disadvantages in some situations. For example in a system
with generally continuous transmissions it may be impractical to pause or hibernate signal processing.Timing
and frequency accuracy for coordinated use of the channel may be a challenge for low-cost or low-power
designs.

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2.10 SISO & MIMO system

There is a number of different MIMO configurations or formats that can be used. These are termed SISO,
SIMO, MISO and MIMO. These different MIMO formats offer different advantages and disadvantages - these
can be balanced to provide the optimum solution for any given application.
The different MIMO formats - SISO, SIMO, MISO and MIMO require different numbers of antennas as well as
having different levels of complexity. Also dependent upon the format, processing may be needed at one end
of the link or the other - this can have an impact on any decisions mad

SISO, SIMO, MISO, MIMO terminology

The different forms of antenna technology refer to single or multiple inputs and outputs. These are related to
the radio link. In this way the input is the transmitter as it transmits into the link or signal path, and the output
is the receiver. It is at the output of the wireless link.
therefore the different forms of single / multiple antenna links are defined as below:
 SISO - Single Input Single Output
 SIMO - Single Input Multiple output
 MISO - Multiple Input Single Output
 MIMO - Multiple Input multiple Output

MIMO - SISO
The simplest form of radio link can be defined in MIMO terms as SISO - Single Input Single Output. This is
effectively a standard radio channel - this transmitter operates with one antenna as does the receiver. There is
no diversity and no additional processing required.

Figure 4: SISO - Single Input Single Output

The advantage of a SISO system is its simplicity. SISO requires no processing in terms of the various forms of
diversity that may be used. However the SISO channel is limited in its performance. Interference and fading
will impact the system more than a MIMO system using some form of diversity, and the channel bandwidth is
limited by Shannon's law - the throughput being dependent upon the channel bandwidth and the signal to
noise ratio.

SIMO
The SIMO or Single Input Multiple Output version of MIMO occurs where the transmitter has a single antenna
and the receiver has multiple antennas. This is also known as receive diversity. It is often used to enable a
receiver system that receives signals from a number of independent sources to combat the effects of fading. It
has been used for many years with short wave listening / receiving stations to combat the effects of
ionospheric fading and interference.

Figure 5: SIMO - Single Input Multiple Output

SIMO has the advantage that it is relatively easy to implement although it does have some disadvantages in
that the processing is required in the receiver. The use of SIMO may be quite acceptable in many applications,

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but where the receiver is located in a mobile device such as a cellphone handset, the levels of processing may
be limited by size, cost and battery drain.
MISO
MISO is also termed transmit diversity. In this case, the same data is transmitted redundantly from the two
transmitter antennas. The receiver is then able to receive the optimum signal which it can then use to receive
extract the required data.

Figure 6: MISO - Multiple Input Single Output

The advantage of using MISO is that the multiple antennas and the redundancy coding / processing is moved
from the receiver to the transmitter. In instances such as cellphone UEs, this can be a significant advantage in
terms of space for the antennas and reducing the level of processing required in the receiver for the
redundancy coding. This has a positive impact on size, cost and battery life as the lower level of processing
requires less battery consumption.
MIMO
Where there are more than one antenna at either end of the radio link, this is termed MIMO - Multiple Input
Multiple Output. MIMO can be used to provide improvements in both channel robustness as well as channel
throughput.

Figure 7: MIMO - Multiple Input Multiple Output

In order to be able to benefit from MIMO fully it is necessary to be able to utilise coding on the channels to
separate the data from the different paths. This requires processing, but provides additional channel
robustness / data throughput capacity.

There are many formats of MIMO that can be used from SISO, through SIMO and MISO to the full MIMO
systems. These are all able to provide significant improvements of performance, but generally at the cost of
additional processing and the number of antennas used. Balances of performance against costs, size,
processing available and the resulting battery life need to be made when choosing the correct option.

2.11 OFDM MIMO

Multiple-input, multiple-output orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (MIMO-OFDM) is the dominant air
interface for 4G and 5G broadband wireless communications. It combines multiple-input, multiple-output
(MIMO) technology, which multiplies capacity by transmitting different signals over multiple antennas, and
orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM), which divides a radio channel into a large number of
closely spaced sub channels to provide more reliable communications at high speeds. Research conducted
during the mid-1990s showed that while MIMO can be used with other popular air interfaces such as time-
division multiple access (TDMA) and code-division multiple access (CDMA), the combination of MIMO and
OFDM is most practical at higher data rates.[citation needed]

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MIMO-OFDM is the foundation for most advanced wireless local area network (wireless LAN) and
mobile broadband network standards because it achieves the greatest spectral efficiency and, therefore,
delivers the highest capacity and data throughput. Greg Raleigh invented MIMO in 1996 when he showed that
different data streams could be transmitted at the same time on the same frequency by taking advantage of
the fact that signals transmitted through space bounce off objects (such as the ground) and take multiple
paths to the receiver. That is, by using multiple antennas and precoding the data, different data streams could
be sent over different paths. Raleigh suggested and later proved that the processing required by MIMO at
higher speeds would be most manageable using OFDM modulation, because OFDM converts a high-speed
data channel into a number of parallel lower-speed channels.

Operation:
In modern usage, the term "MIMO" indicates more than just the presence of multiple transmit antennas
(multiple input) and multiple receive antennas (multiple output). The word "MIMO" refers to the
simultaneous transmission of multiple signals (spatial multiplexing) to multiply spectral efficiency (capacity).

MIMO is the first radio technology that treats multipath propagation as a phenomenon to be exploited. MIMO
multiplies the capacity of a radio link by transmitting multiple signals over multiple, co-located antennas. This
is accomplished without the need for additional power or bandwidth. Space–time codes are employed to
ensure that the signals transmitted over the different antennas are orthogonal to each other, making it easier
for the receiver to distinguish one from another. Even when there is line of sight access between two stations,
dual antenna polarization may be used to ensure that there is more than one robust path.

OFDM enables reliable broadband communications by distributing user data across a number of closely
spaced, narrowband sub channels. This arrangement makes it possible to eliminate the biggest obstacle to
reliable broadband communications, inter symbol interference (ISI). ISI occurs when the overlap between
consecutive symbols is large compared to the symbols’ duration. Normally, high data rates require shorter
duration symbols, increasing the risk of ISI. By dividing a high-rate data stream into numerous low-rate data
streams, OFDM enables longer duration symbols. A cyclic prefix (CP) may be inserted to create a (time) guard
interval that prevents ISI entirely. If the guard interval is longer than the delay spread—the difference in
delays experienced by symbols transmitted over the channel—then there will be no overlap between adjacent
symbols and consequently no intersymbol interference. Though the CP slightly reduces spectral capacity by
consuming a small percentage of the available bandwidth, the elimination of ISI makes it an exceedingly
worthwhile tradeoff.

A key advantage of OFDM is that fast Fourier transforms (FFTs) may be used to simplify implementation.
Fourier transforms convert signals back and forth between the time domain and frequency domain.
Consequently, Fourier transforms can exploit the fact that any complex waveform may be decomposed into a
series of simple sinusoids. FFTs also enable OFDM to make efficient use of bandwidth.
MIMO-OFDM is a particularly powerful combination because MIMO does not attempt to mitigate multipath
propagation and OFDM avoids the need for signal equalization.
MIMO-OFDM can achieve very high spectral efficiency.

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More recent MIMO-OFDM developments include multi-user MIMO (MU-MIMO), higher order MIMO
implementations (greater number of spatial streams), and research concerning massive MIMO and
cooperative MIMO (CO-MIMO) for inclusion in coming 5G standards.

MU-MIMO is part of the IEEE 802.11ac standard, the first Wi-Fi standard to offer speeds in the gigabit per
second range.
Multi-user MIMO beam forming even benefits single spatial stream devices. Prior to MU-MIMO beam forming,
an access point communicating with multiple client devices could only transmit to one at a time. With MU-
MIMO beam forming, the access point can transmit to up to four single stream devices at the same time on
the same channel.

The 802.11ac standard also supports speeds up to 6.93 Gbit/s using eight spatial streams in single-user mode.
The maximum data rate assumes use of the optional 160 MHz channel in the 5 GHz band and 256 QAM
(quadrature amplitude modulation).
Massive MIMO consists of a large number of base station antennas operating in a MU-MIMO environment.
While LTE networks already support handsets using two spatial streams, and handset antenna designs capable
of supporting four spatial streams have been tested, massive MIMO can deliver significant capacity gains even
to single spatial stream handsets. Again, MU-MIMO beam forming is used to enable the base station to
transmit independent data streams to multiple handsets on the same channel at the same time.
Another focus of research for 5G wireless is CO-MIMO. In CO-MIMO, clusters of base stations work together to
boost performance. This can be done using macro diversity for improved reception of signals from handsets or
multi-cell multiplexing to achieve higher downlink data rates. However, CO-MIMO requires high-speed
communication between the cooperating base stations.

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