Chapter 1

Communication – Sharing of info

 Local – Face to face

 Remote – Takes place over a distance
Telecommunication – includes telephony, telegraphy, etc
Tele – Greek work means “far”
Data – Refers to info
Data communications – Exchange of data between 2 devices via some
form of medium

4 Fundamental Characteristics

 Delivery – Deliver data in the correct destination

 Accuracy – Data must be delivered accurately
 Timeliness – Data must be delivered in a timely manner
 Jitter – Refers to the variation in the packet arrival time

5 Components

 Message
 Receiver
 Sender
 Transmission Medium
 Protocol – Set of rules that govern data comms
Data Representation

 Text – Represented as bit patterns

 Number – Also represented by bit patterns
 Images – In simplest form, it is composed of a matrix of pixels. In the
second case, there is a better representation but more memory is
needed to store the image.
 Audio – It refers to the recording of broadcasting of sound or music
 Video – It refers to the recording of a picture or movie.
Data Flow

 Simple
 Half Duplex
  Full Duplex

NETWORKS
Network – Set of device connected by links.
Nodes – Can be a pc, printer or any device.
Distributed Processing – A task is divided among multiple computers.

Network Criteria

 Performance – Can be measured in transit and response time

o Transit Time – Time required for message to travel from one
device to another
o Response Time – elapsed time between an inquiry and a
response.
 Reliability – It is measured by the frequency of failure.
 Security – Protecting the data from unauthorized access.

Physical Structures
Point to point connection - provides a link between 2 devices
Multipoint connection – More than 2 devices.

Physical Topology – Refers to the way in which a network is laid out

physically.
Topology – It is the geometric representation of the relationship of all
nodes.

Categories of Topologies

 Mesh – Every device has a dedicated point to point link to every

device
o simplex mode – n(n-1)
o duplex mode – n(n-1)/2
 Star – Each device is connected to a controller called hub.
  Bus – It is multipoint. One long cable as backbone.
o Drop line – Line from a device to the cable
o Tap – connector that either splices into the main cable.
 Ring – Each device has 2 point to point connections.

Categories of Networks
1m – PAN
10 100 1km - LAN
10km – MAN
100km 1000km – WAN
10000km – The Internet

LAN – Privately owned and links devices in a single office, building or

campus.
MAN – Covers the area inside a city or town
WAN – Provides long distance transmission of data.
 Switched WAN - connects the end of systems which is usually a
router that connects LAN to WAN
 Host – A machine used to run user program and owned by customers.
 Subnet – Consists of transmission lines and switching elements.
 Switching Elements – Specialized computers that connect three or
more lines and they are called routers.

Wireless Networks
System Interconnection – It is about interconnecting the components of a
computer using a radio that uses master – slave program.
Wireless LAN – Every computer has a radio modem and antenna used to
communicate with other systems.
  IEEE 802.11 – WiFi
Wireless WAN – similar to wireless LAN but with lower BW
 IEEE 802.16 – WiMAX

Interconnection of Network / Internetwork – when 2 or more networks

are connected, they become an internetwork or internet.
Intranet – A private business network.
Distributed System – software build on top of a network.
WWW – distributed system that runs on top of the Internet.

Internet
internet- 2 or more networks connected
Internet – thousands of networks connected
ARPANET – A small network of connected computers
October 29,1969 – First successful connection on ARPANET by:
 Bill Duvall
 Charley Kline
November 21,1969 – First permanent ARPANET link

INTERNET TODAY
 International Internet Service Provider – at the top of the
hierarchy that connect nations.
 National Internet Service Provider – The backbone networks
created and maintained by specialized companies
 Regional Internet Service Provider – Smaller ISPs that are
connected to one or more national ISPs.
 Local ISP – Provide direct service to end users.

Protocols – Same with rules

Standards – are agreed upon rules. It is essential in creating an open and
competitive market for manufacturers and in guaranteeing national and
international interoperability of data and telecomms.
 Syntax – Refers to the format of data in which they are presented
 Semantics – Refers to the meaning of each section of bits
 Timing – Refers to: when data should be sent and how fast they can
be sent

2 Categories of Data communications standards

 De facto – Standards that have not been approved by a body but have
been adopted as standards
 De Jure- Standards that have been approved.

Organizations
 International Organization for Standardization
 International Telecommunications Union – Telecommuncation
Standardization Sector – Coordinates standards for telecomms and
information communication
 Americal National Standards Institute – Oversees the
development of voluntary consensus standards for products, services
and etc in the USA.
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers – Aims to
advance theory and creativity in the fields of EE and ECE. It oversees
the development of international standards form computing and
comms.
 Internet Engineering Task Force – Develops and promotes
voluntary internet standards
  Forums – Special interest groups that quickly evaluate new
technologies.
 Regulatory Agencies – All comms technology is subject to regulation
by government agencies
 Internet Standards – It is a formalized regulation that must be
followed.

Chapter 2
Network - Combination of hardware and software that send data
Hardware – Physical Equipment
Software - Consists of instruction sets
International Standards Organization (ISO) – Multinational body
dedicated to worldwide agreement on standards.
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) – ISO Standard that covers all
aspect of network communication. Its purpose is to show how to facilitate
communication between systems without changing the logic.
OSI MODEL – A layered framework for design of network systems that
allows communication between all types of computer systems.

OSI LAYERS
Ate – A – Application
Pota – P – Presentation
Sya – S – Session
Talaga – T – Transport
Na – N – Network
Da – D – Data Link
Pa – P – Physical

Physical – Coordinates the functions reqd to carry a bit over a medium. It

deals with mechanical and electrical specs.
Data Link – Transforms the physical layer to a reliable link. It makes the
physical layer error free.
Network – Responsible for source to destination delivery
Transport – Responsible for process to process delivery of entire message
Session – The network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains and syncs
the interaction among systems.
Presentation – Concerned with the syntax and semantics of the info.
Application - Enables the user to access a network. It provides UI, support
such as emails, remote file access and transfer.
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE –It is a hierarchical protocol made up of
interactive modules. It has 5 layers

 Physical- no defined protocol

 Data Link – no defined protocol
 Network – It supports internetworking protocol
 Transport – Uses 3 protocols, TCP, UDP, SCTP
 Application – Equivalent to the combines session, presentation
and application in OSI.
Hierarchical – Means that each upper level is supported by one or more
lower level protocols.
3 Protocols Used by TCP IP

 Transmission Control Protocol – It provides full transport

layer services to apps.
 User Datagram Protocol – process to process protocol that
adds port address, checksum error control and length info
 Stream Control Transmission Protocol- It provides support
for new applications such as voice over the internet

ADDRESSING – It has 4 levels

 Physical Address – Known as link address. It is the address of a node.

 Logical Address – Necessary for universal comms. It is a universal
addressing system in which each host can be identified uniquely.
 Port Address – It is 16 bits in length represented by 1 decimal
number. It is the label assigned to a process.
 Specific Address – Some apps use user friendly addresses. These
addresses get changed to the corresponding port and logical
addresses. Examples are Emails and Universal Resource Locator (URL).

CHAPTER 3
Analog Data - Continuous Data
Digital Data - Has discrete states
Sine Wave – Most fundamental form of a periodic analog signal.
Nonperiodic Signal –Changes without exhibiting a pattern that repeats
overtime.
Periodic Signal – It completes a pattern within a time frame.
Simple Periodic Analog Signal – A sine wave. Can’t be decomposed
into simpler signals.
Composite Periodic Analog Signal – Composed of many sine waves
Periodic Composite Signal – Can be decomposed into series of simple sine
waves.
Nonperiodic Composite Signal – can be decomposed into combination of
an infinite number of sine waves.

Bit rate – It is another term used to describe digital signals. It is the number
of bits sent expressed in bps.
Bit Length – the size occupied by the bits.

Baseband Transmission – Sending a digital signal over a channel without

changing the digital to an analog signal.

 Low Pass Channel with Wide Bandwidth – if we want to

preserve the exact form of nonperiodic digital signal, we need to
send the entire spectrum. Continuous range of freq from 0 to
infinity.
 Low Pass Channel with Limited Bandwidth – Approximation
is used.
Broadband Transmission – It is a baseband transmission that preserves
the shape of the digital signal is only possible if we have a low pass channel
with infinite of wide bandwidth.
Broadband Transmission (Modulation) - It is changing the digital signal
to an analog signal for transmission. Modulation allows the use of a bandpass
channel.

Transmission Impairments
  Attenutaion – Loss of energy.
 Distortion – Signal changes its form or shape.
 Noise – Thermal noise, induced noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise
may corrupt the signal.

Decibel – It measures the relative strength of 2 signals

Signal to Noise Ratio – Ratio of wanted signal over unwanted signal.
Data Rate Limit – How fast data can be sent. 3 factors:

 Bandwidth
 Level of signals
 Quality of Channel

Nyquist Bit Rate – Defines the theoretical max bit rate for a noiseless
channel
Bit rate = 2Blog2 L or 2B log22n
L = signal levels
B = BW

Shannon Capacity – Highest data rate for a noisy channel

Capacity = Blog2(1+SNR)

BANDWIDTH

 BW in Hz – refers to the range of frequencies

 BW in bps – refers to the speed of bit transmission
Throughput – Measure of how fast we can actually send data through a
network.
Latency (Delay) – Defines how long it takes for a message to completely
arrive at the destination from time to time.
Latency = propagation time + transmission time + queuing time +
processing delay
Propagation Time – Time from source to destination
Propagation time = distance/ prop speed
Transmission Time – message size / BW
Queuing Time – Time needed for each end to hold message before it is
processed.

Bandwidth Delay Product – Defines the number of bits that can fill the
link.