0-IR Equations PDF

Infrared Thermal Testing
IR Equations
My ASNT Level III
Pre-Exam Preparatory
Self Study Notes
20th April 2015
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Infrared Thermography

Fion Zhang at Shanghai
20th May 2015
http://meilishouxihu.blog.163.com/

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://greekhouseoffonts.com/
IVONA TTS Capable.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.naturalreaders.com/

IR Equations
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang Handbook of nondestructive evaluation

Constants

 Planck's constant, h = 6.6256 x 10-34, and, the radiation frequency, ʋ
cycles per second. (E = hʋ)
 c = 2.9979 x 108 ms-1. If these photons traveled at the speed of light, then
they must obey the theory of relativity, stating E2 = c2p2, and each photon
must have the momentum p = E/c = h/ λ, The frequency can be found by
dividing the speed of light by its particle wavelength ʋ = c/λ

Heat Transfers

Zeroth law of thermodynamics:
If two systems are in thermal equilibrium respectively with a third system, they
must be in thermal equilibrium with each other. This law helps define the
notion of temperature.

First law of thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics is a version of the law of conservation of
energy, adapted for thermodynamic systems. The law of conservation of
energy states that the total energy of an isolated system is constant; energy
can be transformed from one form to another, but cannot be created or
destroyed. The first law is often formulated by stating that the change in the
internal energy of a closed system is equal to the amount of heat supplied to
the system, minus the amount of work done by the system on its
surroundings. Equivalently, perpetual motion machines of the first kind are
impossible.
First law of thermodynamics: When energy passes, as work, as heat, or with

matter, into or out from a system, its internal energy changes in accord with
the law of conservation of energy. Equivalently, perpetual motion machines of
the first kind are impossible.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_law_of_thermodynamics

Second law of thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics states that every natural thermodynamic
process proceeds in the sense in which the sum of the entropies of all bodies
taking part in the process is increased. In the limiting case, for reversible
processes this sum remains unchanged.
The second law is an empirical finding that has been accepted as an axiom of
thermodynamic theory. Statistical thermodynamics, classical or quantum,
explains the law. The second law has been expressed in many ways. Its first
formulation is credited to the French scientist Sadi Carnot in 1824 (see
Timeline of thermodynamics).
In a natural thermodynamic process, the sum of the entropies of the

interacting thermodynamic systems increases.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_law_of_thermodynamics

Third law of thermodynamics:
The entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature
approaches absolute zero.[2] With the exception of non-crystalline solids
(glasses) the entropy of a system at absolute zero is typically close to zero,
and is equal to the log of the multiplicity of the quantum ground states.
The third law of thermodynamics is sometimes stated as follows, regarding
the properties of systems in equilibrium at absolute zero temperature:
The entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero is exactly equal to zero.
At absolute zero (zero kelvin), the system must be in a state with the
minimum possible energy, and the above statement of the third law holds true
provided that the perfect crystal has only one minimum energy state. Entropy
is related to the number of accessible microstates, and for a system
consisting of many particles, quantum mechanics indicates that there is only
one unique state (called the ground state) with minimum energy.[1] If the
system does not have a well-defined order (if its order is glassy, for example),
then in practice there will remain some finite entropy as the system is brought
to very low temperatures as the system becomes locked into a configuration
with non-minimal energy. The constant value is called the residual entropy of
the system.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_law_of_thermodynamics

Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation
In thermodynamics, Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation refers to wavelength-
specific radiative emission and absorption by a material body in
thermodynamic equilibrium, including radiative exchange equilibrium.
A body at temperature T radiates electromagnetic energy. A perfect black

body in thermodynamic equilibrium absorbs all light that strikes it, and
radiates energy according to a unique law of radiative emissive power for
temperature T, universal for all perfect black bodies. Kirchhoff's law states
that:
For a body of any arbitrary material, emitting and absorbing thermal
electromagnetic radiation at every wavelength in thermodynamic equilibrium,
the ratio of its emissive power to its dimensionless coefficient of absorption is
equal to a universal function only of radiative wavelength and temperature.
That universal function describes the perfect black-body emissive power
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirchhoff%27s_law_of_thermal_radiation

Kirchhoff's circuit laws
Kirchhoff's circuit laws are two equalities that deal with the current and
potential difference (commonly known as voltage) in the lumped element
model of electrical circuits. They were first described in 1845 by German
physicist Gustav Kirchhoff.[1] This generalized the work of Georg Ohm and
preceded the work of Maxwell. Widely used in electrical engineering, they are
also called Kirchhoff's rules or simply Kirchhoff's laws.
Both of Kirchhoff's laws can be understood as corollaries of the Maxwell

equations in the low-frequency limit. They are accurate for DC circuits, and for
AC circuits at frequencies where the wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation
are very large compared to the circuits.
The current entering any

junction is equal to the current
leaving that junction.
i2 + i3 = i1 + i4
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirchhoff%27s_circuit_laws

Newton's law of cooling
Newton's law of cooling states that the rate of heat loss of a body is
proportional to the difference in temperatures between the body and its
surroundings while under the effects of a breeze. As such, it is equivalent to a
statement that the heat transfer coefficient, which mediates between heat
losses and temperature differences, is a constant. This condition is generally
true in thermal conduction (where it is guaranteed by Fourier's law), but it is
often only approximately true in conditions of convective heat transfer, where
a number of physical processes make effective heat transfer coefficients
somewhat dependent on temperature differences. Finally, in the case of heat
transfer by thermal radiation, Newton's law of cooling is not true.
dQ/dt = hA∆T(t)
Q is the thermal energy in joules

H is the heat transfer coefficient (assumed independent of T here) (W/m2 K)
A is the heat transfer surface area (m2)
∆T(t) is the time-dependent thermal gradient between environment and object
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_cooling

Fourier's law
The law of heat conduction, also known as Fourier's law, states that the time
rate of heat transfer through a material is proportional to the negative gradient
in the temperature and to the area, at right angles to that gradient, through
which the heat flows. We can state this law in two equivalent forms: the
integral form, in which we look at the amount of energy flowing into or out of a
body as a whole, and the differential form, in which we look at the flow rates
or fluxes of energy locally.
Newton's law of cooling is a discrete analog of Fourier's law, while Ohm's law
is the electrical analogue of Fourier's law.
→
q = K∇T
→
q = is the local heat flux density, W·m-2
K = is the material's conductivity, W·m-1· K-1
∇T = is the temperature gradient, K·m-1.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_conduction#Fourier.27s_law

∇ Del, or nabla, is an operator used in mathematics, in particular, in
vector calculus, as a vector differential operator, usually represented by the
nabla symbol ∇. When applied to a function defined on a one-dimensional
domain, it denotes its standard derivative as defined in calculus. When
applied to a field (a function defined on a multi-dimensional domain), del may
denote the gradient (locally steepest slope) of a scalar field (or sometimes of
a vector field, as in the Navier–Stokes equations), the divergence of a vector
field, or the curl (rotation) of a vector field, depending on the way it is applied.
Strictly speaking, del is not a specific operator, but rather a convenient

mathematical notation for those three operators, that makes many equations
easier to write and remember. The del symbol can be interpreted as a vector
of partial derivative operators, and its three possible meanings—gradient,
divergence, and curl—can be formally viewed as the product of scalars, dot
product, and cross product, respectively, of the del "operator" with the field.
These formal products do not necessarily commute with other operators or
products
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Del

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang NASA EDDY CURRENT TESTING RQA/M 1-5330 .17
Fourier’s law - The One Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation
Heat conduction is one of the three modes of heat transfer. In 1822, a French
physicist published a treatise giving a complete theory and mathematical
model. Who was he, and which mathematical formulation is he most famously
known for?
Introduction
Heat conduction is transfer of heat from a warmer to a colder object by direct
contact. A famous example is shown in A Christmas Story, where Ralphie
dares his friend Flick to lick a frozen flagpole, and the latter subsequently gets
his tongue stuck to it.
The mathematical model was first formulated by the French physicist Jean
Baptiste Joseph Fourier, he of the eponymous Fourier Series. He found that
heat flux is proportional to the magnitude of a temperature gradient. His
equation is called Fourier's Law.
Fourier's Law Of Heat Conduction (Joseph Fourier)
In a one dimensional differential form, Fourier's Law is as follows:
1) The heat flux per unit area, q = Q/A = - kdT/dx.
The symbol q is the heat flux, which is the heat per unit area, and it is a vector.
Q is the heat rate. dT/dx is the thermal gradient in the direction of the flow.
The minus sign is to show that the flow of heat is from hotter to colder. If the
temperature decreases with x, q will be positive and will flow in the direction
of x. If the temperature increases with x, q will be negative, and will flow
opposite to the direction of x. In the International System of Units SI, q is
watts per meter squared (w/m2).
The constant k is the thermal conductivity, and is used to show that not all
materials heat up or retain heat equally well. In SI units, k is W/m ∙ K, where
W is watts, m is meters, and K is Kelvin. It may also be J/m ∙ s ∙ K, where J is
joules and s is seconds. In the English system, it is Btu/h∙ft∙ºF, or British
thermal units per horsepower∙ foot∙ Fahrenheit.
The thermal conductivity is larger for conductors than insulators. Silver is an
excellent conductor at 428 W/m ∙ k, and so is copper with its value of 401
W/m*k. Air and wool are insulators and are poor conductors; they are 0.026
and 0.043 W/m ∙ k, respectively.
The heat transfer or conduction rate is a scalar and is
2) The total heat flow, Q = -kA ΔT/L,
where L is the length of the slab. ΔT is the temperature difference between

two different surfaces.
Equations 1 and 2 show that heat can be considered to be a flow. The flow of
heat depends upon the thickness of the material, the area, and the
conductivity, all of which combine to retard or resist this flow.
Example
A slab that is made from copper has a length of 10 cm and an area that is 90
cm2. The front side is heated to 150ºC and the back to 10ºC. Find the heat
flux q and the heat flow rate Q in the slab once steady state is reached.
Assume dT/dx is constant.
From equation 1, we have q = -kA (Tback - Tfront) / L = - (401 W/m*K) * (10ºC -

150ºC)/0.1 m = 5.6 x 105 W/m2. The heat rate is Q = qA = q(90 x 10-4 m2) =
5.1 x 103 watts or J/s.
Fourier’s Law
An empirical relationship between the conduction rate in a material and the
temperature gradient in the direction of energy flow, first formulated by
Fourier in 1822 [see Fourier (1955)] who concluded that "the heat flux
resulting from thermal conduction is proportional to the magnitude of the
temperature gradient and opposite to it in sign". For a unidirectional
conduction process this observation may be expressed as:
q = k∙dT/dx
where the vector q is the heat flux (W/m2) in the positive x-direction, dT/dx is
the (negative) temperature gradient (K/m) in the direction of heat flow (i.e.,
conduction occurs in the direction of decreasing temperature and the minus
sign confirms this thermodynamic axiom) and the proportionality constant k is
the Thermal Conductivity of the material (W/mK). Fourier's Law thus provides
the definition of thermal conductivity and forms the basis of many methods of
determining its value. Fourier's Law, as the basic rate equation of the
conduction process, when combined with the principle of conservation of
energy, also forms the basis for the analysis of most Conduction problems.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://thermopedia.com/content/781/

Convection
Heat energy is transferred in fluids, either gases or liquids, by convection.
During this process, heat is transferred by conduction from one molecule to
another and by the subsequent mixing of molecules. In natural convection,
this mixing or diffusing of molecules is driven by the warmer (less dense)
molecules’ tendency to rise and be replaced by more dense, cooler
molecules.
Cool cream settling to the bottom of a cup of hot tea is a good example of
natural convection. Forced convection is the result of fluid movement caused
by external forces such as wind or moving air from a fan. Natural convection
is quickly overcome by these forces, which dramatically affect the movement
of the fluid. Figure 9-2 shows the typical, yet dramatic, pattern associated, in
large part, with the cooling effect of convection on a person’s nose.

FIGURE 9-2.

Newton’s Law of Cooling describes the relationship between the various
factors that influence convection:
Q = h × A × ∆T
where
Q = heat energy
h = coefficient of convective heat transfer
A = area
∆T = Temperature difference
The coefficient of convective heat transfer is often determined experimentally

or by estimation from other test data for the surfaces and fluids involved. The
exact value depends on a variety of factors, of which the most important are
velocity, orientation, surface condition, geometry, and fluid viscosity.

Changes in h can be significant due merely to a change in orientation. The
topside of a horizontal surface can transfer over 50% more heat by natural
convection than the underside of the same surface. In both natural and forced
convection, a thin layer of relatively still fluid molecules adheres to the
transfer surface. This boundary layer, or film coefficient, varies in thickness
depending on several factors, the most important being the velocity of the
fluid moving over the surface. The boundary layer has a measurable thermal
resistance to conductive heat transfer. The thicker the layer, the greater the
resistance. This, in turn, affects the convective transfer as well. At slow
velocities, these boundary layers can build up significantly. At higher
velocities, the thickness of this layer and its insulating effect are both
diminished. Why should thermographers be concerned with convection? As
forced convection, such as the wind, increases, heat transfer increases and
can have a significant impact on the temperature of a heated or cooled
surface. Regardless of velocity, this moving air has no affect on ambient
surfaces (?) . Thermographers inspect a variety of components where an
increase in temperature over ambient is an indication of a potential problem.
Forced convection is capable of masking these indications.

Radiation
In addition to heat energy being transferred by conduction and convection it
can also be transferred by radiation. Thermal infrared radiation is a form of
electromagnetic energy similar to light, radio waves, and x-rays. All forms of
electromagnetic radiation travel at the speed of light, 186,000 miles/second (3
× 108 meters/second).
All forms of electromagnetic radiation travel in a straight line as a waveform;

they differ only in their wavelength. Infrared radiation that is detected with
thermal imaging systems has wavelengths between approximately 2 and 15
microns (μm). Electromagnetic radiation can also travel through a vacuum, as
demonstrated by the sun’s warming effect from a distance of over 94 million
miles of space. All objects above absolute zero radiate infrared radiation. The
amount and the exact wavelengths radiated depend primarily on the
temperature of the object. It is this phenomenon that allows us to see radiant
surfaces with infrared sensing cameras.

Thermal diffusivity
In heat transfer analysis, thermal diffusivity is the thermal conductivity divided
by density and specific heat capacity at constant pressure.[1] It measures the
ability of a material to conduct thermal energy relative to its ability to store
thermal energy. It has the SI unit of m²/s. Thermal diffusivity is usually
denoted α but a, κ, K,and D are also used. The formula is:
α = k/(ρCp)
Where:
k = Heat conductivity
ρ = density
Cp = Specific heat
The diffusivity determine how fast a material heat up or cool down.

Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity k is the relative one dimensional capability of a material
to transfer heat. It affects the speed (thus time, t) that a given quantity of heat
applied to one point in a slab of material will travel a given distance within that
material to another point cooler than the first. Thermal conductivity is high for
metals and low for porous materials. It is logical. therefore. that heat will be
conducted more rapidly in metals than in more porous materials. Although
thermal conductivity varies slightly with temperature in solids and liquids and
with temperature and pressure in gases, for practical purposes it can be
considered a constant for a particular material. Table 2.1 is a list of thermal
properties for several common materials.

Heat Capacity (thermal capacitance)
The heat capacity of a malerial or a structure describes its ability to store heat.
It is the product of the specific thermal energy Cp and the density ρ of the
material. When thermal energy is stored in a structure and then the structure
is placed in a cooler environment, the sections of the structure that have low
heat capacity will change temperature more rapidly because less thermal
energy is stored in them. Consequently, these sections will reach thermal
equilibrium with their surroundings sooner than those sections with higher
heat capacity.
thermal capacitance (Volumetric heat capacity) J/(m³·K) = Cp x ρ
where
ρ is density kg/m³
Cp is specific heat capacity J/(kg·K)

The term thermal capacitance is used to describe heat capacity in terms of an
electrical analog. where loss of heat is analogous to loss of charge on a
capacitor. Structures with low thermal capacitance reach equilibrium sooner
when placed in a cooler environmcnt than those with high thermal
capacitance. This phenomenon is exploited when performing unstimulated
nondestructive testing of structures, specifically when locating water saturated
sections on flat roofs. This is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 5,

Thermal Diffusivity
As in emissivity ε. the heat conducting properties of materials may vary from sample
to sample. depending on variables in the fabrication process and other factors.
Thermal diffusivity α is the 3D expansion of thermal conductivity in any given material
sample. Diffusivily relates more to transient heat flow, whereas conductivity relates to
steady state heat flow. It takes into account the thermal conductivity k of the sample,
its specific heat Cp and its density ρ. Its equation is
α = k/(ρ∙Cp) cm2s-1.
where
α = Heat diffusivity m²/s
ρ is density kg/m³
Cp is specific heat capacity J/(kg·K)
k is thermal conductivity W/(m·K)
Together, can be considered the volumetric heat capacity J/(m³·K).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_diffusivity

Because thermal diffusivity of a sample can be measured directly using infrared
thermography, it is used extensively by the materials flaw evaluation community as an
assessment of a test sample's ability to carry heat away, in all directions, from a heat
injection site. Table 2.1 lists thermal diffusivities for several common materials in
increasing order of thermal diffusivity. Several protocols for measuring the thermal
diffusivity of a test sample are described by Maldague.

Radiation Principle of
Blackbody

Radiation Principles of a Black Body
The radiation law by Planck shows the basic correlation for non-contact
temperature measurements: It describes the spectral specific radiation Mλs of
the black body into the half space depending on its temperature T and the
wavelength λ. A blackbody doesn't emit equal amounts of radiation at all
wavelengths; instead, most of the energy is radiated within a relatively narrow
band of wavelengths. The location of that band varies with the body's
temperature; for example: very cold gas in inter-stellar space 20K (radio) a
live human being 310K (infrared)
The exact amount of energy emitted at a particular wavelength λ is given by
the Planck function: energy (Joules) emitted per second per unit wavelength
Where: c light speed, C1 3.74∙10-16 W m2, C2 1.44∙10-2 K∙m, h Planck‘s

constant
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://spiff.rit.edu/classes/phys317/lectures/planck.html
Obviously, if one integrates from the shortest possible wavelength (lambda =
0) to the longest possible wavelength (lambda = infinity), and multiplies by (pi),
one ought to end up with the same total energy emitted per second as given
by the Stefan-Boltzmann Law:
energy per second per square meter, R(T) = σT4

where σ is the Stephan-Boltzman constant (= 5.67×10-8 W/(m2·K4)) and T is
the temperature of the surface in kelvin.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://spiff.rit.edu/classes/phys317/lectures/planck.html

The Sun’s Electromagnetic Spectrum
The energy that reaches the Earth is known as solar radiation. Although the sun emits radiation at all
wavelengths, approximately 44% falls within visible-light wavelengths. The region of the spectrum referred to as
visible light (light our eyes can detect) is composed of relatively short wavelengths in the range 400
nanometers (nm), or 0.4 micrometers (μm), through 700 nm, or 0.7 μm.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.ces.fau.edu/nasa/module-2/radiation-sun.php

Infrared radiation that is detected with thermal imaging systems has
wavelengths between approximately 2 and 15 microns (μm). (2 x 10 m ~15 x 10
-6 -6
m)

Stephen-Boltzmann Law
Is the wavelength independent rate of emission of radiant energy per unit
area, given by;
W = ε B T4
Planck Law
Is the radiation intensity of the emittance at each particular differential
wavelength, given by;
W(λ) = 2πhc2/(λ5)∙(e hc/λkT – 1)-1
W(λ) = The rate of emission, radiant energy per unit energy as a function of
wavelength
λ = The wavelength of the emitted radiation
h = Planck constant 6.625 x 10-34 J∙s
c = Speed of light 2.998 x 108 m∙s-1
k = Boltzmann constant 1.380 x 10-23 J∙K-1

Wien Law
Wavelength of maximum emittance is given by the single temperature
evaluation;
λmax =b/T
b = Wien displacement constant 2879 μm∙K-1

Due to atmospheric absorption, significant transmission through air occurs in
only two “windows” or wavebands: the short (2~6 μm) and long (8~15 μm)
wavebands. Both can be used for many thermal applications. With some
applications, one waveband may offer a distinct advantage or make certain
applications feasible. These situations will be addressed in subsequent
sections. The amount of energy emitted by a surface depends on several
factors, as shown by the Stefan–Boltzmann formula:
Q = σ × Ɛ × T4 absolute
Where:
Q = energy transmitted by radiation (per unit area?)
σ = the Stefan–Boltzmann constant (0.1714 × 10-8 Btu/hr × ft2 × R4)
Ɛ = the emissivity value of the surface
T = the absolute temperature of the surface
The rate of change of energy transmitted by radiation;

∆Q/ ∆t = σ × Ɛ × A x T4 absolute ？

Thermal Radiation and Stefan-Boltzmann Equation
■ https://www.youtube.com/embed/93-_JhGNn1Y
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=93-_JhGNn1Y

wavebands. (1μm = 1x 10-6 m, 1nm= 1 x 10-9 m)
0.7 ~ 1.4 μm
1.4 ~ 3.0 μm
3.0 ~ 1.0 x 106 μm


wavebands. (1μm = 1x 10-6 m, 1nm= 1 x 10-9 m)
0.7 μm ~ 1 mm
Due to atmospheric absorption, significant

transmission through air occurs in only two
“windows” or wavebands: the short (2~6 μm)
and long (8~15 μm) wavebands.

When electromagnetic radiation interacts with a surface several events may
occur. Thermal radiation may be reflected by the surface, just like light on a
mirror. It can be absorbed by the surface, in which case it often causes a
change in the temperature of the surface. In some cases, the radiation can
also be transmitted through the surface; light passing through a window is a
good example. The sum of these three components must equal the total
amount of energy involved.
This relationship, known as the conservation of energy, is stated as follows:
R+A+T=1
where
R = Reflected energy
A = Absorbed energy
T = Transmitted energy

Radiation is never perfectly transmitted, absorbed, or reflected by a material.
Two or three phenomena are occurring at once. For example, one can see
through a window (transmission) and also see reflections in the window at the
same time. It is also known that glass absorbs a small portion of the radiation
because the sun can cause it to heat up. For a typical glass window, 92% of
the light radiation is transmitted, 6% is reflected, and 2% is absorbed. One
hundred percent of the radiation incident on the glass is accounted for.
Infrared radiation, like light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation, also
behaves in this way. When a surface is viewed, not only radiation that has
been absorbed may be seen, but also radiation that is being transmitted
through the target and/or reflected by it. Neither the transmitted nor reflected
radiation provides any information about the temperature of the surface.

The combined radiation reflecting from a surface to the infrared system is
called its radiosity. The job of the thermographer is to distinguish the emitted
component from the others so that more about the target temperature can be
understood. Only a few materials transmit infrared radiation very efficiently.
The lens material of the camera is one. Transmissive materials can be used
as thermal windows, allowing viewing into enclosures. The atmosphere is
also fairly transparent, at least in two wavebands. In the rest of the thermal
spectrum, water vapor and carbon dioxide absorb most thermal radiation. As
can be seen from Figure 9-3, radiation is transmitted quite readily in both the
short (2–6 μm) and long (8–14 (15) μm) wavebands. Infrared systems have
been optimized to one of these bands or the other. Broadband systems are
also available and have some response in both wavebands.
A transmission curve for glass would show us that glass is somewhat

transparent in the short waveband and opaque in the long waveband. It is
surprising to try to look thermally through a window and not be able to see
much of anything!

FIGURE 9-3.
(6μm ~ 8μm)
The atmosphere is also fairly transparent, at least in two

wavebands. In the rest of the thermal spectrum, water vapor and
carbon dioxide absorb most thermal radiation. (6μm ~ 8 μm)

Radiosity:
The combined radiation reflecting from a surface to the infrared system is
called its radiosity.
Radiosity (radiometry)
In radiometry, radiosity is the radiant flux leaving (emitted, reflected and transmitted by) a surface per unit area,
and spectral radiosity is the radiosity of a surface per unit frequency or wavelength, depending on whether the
spectrum is taken as a function of frequency or of wavelength
The SI unit of radiosity is the watt per square metre (W/m2), while that of spectral radiosity in frequency is the
watt per square metre per hertz (W·m−2 ·Hz−1) and that of spectral radiosity in wavelength is the watt per
square metre per metre (W·m−3) - commonly the watt per square metre per nanometre (W·m−2 ·nm−1). The
CGS unit erg per square centimeter per second (erg·cm−2 ·s−1) is often used in astronomy. Radiosity is often
called "intensity" in branches of physics other than radiometry, but in radiometry this usage leads to confusion
with radiant intensity.
radiant intensity (radiometry)

In radiometry, radiant intensity is the radiant flux emitted, reflected, transmitted or received, per unit solid angle,
and spectral intensity is the radiant intensity per unit frequency or wavelength, depending on whether the
spectrum is taken as a function of frequency or of wavelength. These are directional quantities. The SI unit of
radiant intensity is the watt per steradian (W/sr), while that of spectral intensity in frequency is the watt per
steradian per hertz (W·sr−1 ·Hz−1) and that of spectral intensity in wavelength is the watt per steradian per
metre (W·sr−1 ·m−1) - commonly the watt per steradian per nanometre (W·sr−1 ·nm−1). Radiant intensity is
distinct from irradiance and radiant exitance, which are often called intensity in branches of physics other than
radiometry. In radio-frequency engineering, radiant intensity is sometimes called radiation intensity.

Many thin plastic films are transparent in varying degrees to infrared radiation.
A thin plastic bag may be useful as a camera cover in wet weather or dirty
environments. Be aware, however, that all thin plastic films are not the same!
While they may look similar, it is important to test them for transparency and
measure the degree of thermal attenuation. Depending on the exact atomic
makeup of the plastic, they may absorb strongly in very narrow, specific
wavebands. Therefore, to measure the temperature of a thin plastic film, a
filter must be used to limit the radiation to those areas where absorption (and
emission) occurs.

The vast majority of materials are not transparent. Therefore, they are opaque to
infrared radiation. This simplifies the task of looking at them thermally by leaving
one less variable to deal with. This means that the only radiation we detect is that
which is reflected and absorbed by the surface (R + A = 1).
If R = 1, the surface would be a perfect reflector. Although there are no such
materials, the reflectivity of many polished shiny metals approaches this value.
They are like heat mirrors. Kirchhoff’s law says that for opaque surfaces the
radiant energy that is absorbed must also be reemitted, or A = E. By substitution,
it is concluded that the energy detected from an opaque surface is either reflected
or emitted (R + E = 1). Only the emitted energy provides information about the
temperature of the surface.
In other words, an efficient reflector is an inefficient emitter, and vice versa. For
thermographers, this simple inverse relationship between reflectivity and
emissivity forms the basis for interpretation of nearly all of that is seen. Emissive
objects reveal a great deal about their temperature. Reflective surfaces do not. In
fact, under certain conditions, very reflective surfaces typically hide their true
thermal nature by reflecting the background and emitting very little of their own
thermal energy.

If E = 1, all energy is absorbed and reemitted. Such an object, which exists
only in theory, is called a blackbody. Human skin with an emissivity of 0.98, is
nearly a perfect blackbody, regardless of skin color. Emissivity is a
characteristic of a material that indicates its relative efficiency in emitting
infrared radiation. It is the ratio of thermal energy emitted by a surface to that
energy emitted by a blackbody of the same temperature. Emissivity is a value
between zero and one. Most nonmetals have emissivities above 0.8. Metals,
on the other hand, especially shiny ones, typically have emissivities below 0.2.
Materials that are not blackbodies—in other words everything!—are called
real bodies. Real bodies always emit less radiation than a blackbody at the
same temperature. Exactly how much less depends on their emissivity.
Several factors can affect what the emissivity of a material is. Besides the
material type, emissivity can also vary with surface condition, temperature,
and wavelength. The emittance of an object can also vary with the angle of
view.

It is not difficult to characterize the emissivity of most materials that are not
shiny metals. Many of them have already been characterized, and their
values can be found in tables such as Table 9-2. These values should be
used only as a guide. Because the exact emissivity of a material may vary
from these values, skilled thermographers also need to understand how to
measure the actual value. It is interesting to note that cracks, gaps, and holes
emit thermal energy at a higher rate than the surfaces around them. The
same is true for visible light. The pupil of your eye is black because it is a
cavity, and the light that enters it is absorbed by it. When all light is absorbed
by a surface, we say it is “black.” The emissivity of a cavity will approach 0.98
when it is seven times deeper than it is wide.
From an expanded statement of the Stefan–Boltzmann law, the impact that
reflection has on solving the temperature problem for opaque materials can
be seen:
Q = σ × Ɛ × T4 + (σ × (1 – Ɛ ) × T 4 background)

The second part of the equation (in boldface) represents that portion of the
radiosity that comes from the reflected energy. When using a radiometric
system to make a measurement, it is important to characterize and account
for the influence of the reflected background temperature. Consider these two
possible scenarios:
 When the object being viewed is very reflective, the temperature of the
reflected background becomes quite significant.
 When the background is at a temperature that is extremely different from
the object being viewed, the influence of the background becomes more
pronounced.

It becomes clear that repeatable, accurate radiometric measurements can be
made only when emissivities are high. This is a fundamental limitation within
which all thermographers work. Generally, it is not recommended to make
temperature measurements of surfaces with emissivities below approximately
0.50, in other words all shiny metals, except under tightly controlled laboratory
conditions. However, with a strong understanding of how heat energy moves
in materials and a working knowledge of radiation, the value of infrared
thermography as a noncontact temperature measurement tool for
nondestructive evaluation is remarkable.

Fourier’s Law
■ https://www.youtube.com/embed/7U9tza1DaqI
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7U9tza1DaqI

Stefan–Boltzmann formula:
Q = σ × Ɛ × T4 absolute

Stefan–Boltzmann law
■ https://vimeo.com/51844267

Stefan–Boltzmann law
■ https://www.youtube.com/embed/8hJx2Kjtz0U
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8hJx2Kjtz0U

Thermal Radiation Principles
The intensity of the emitted energy from an object varies with temperature and
radiation wavelength. If the object is colder than about 500°C, emitted radiation lies
completely within IR wavelengths. In addition to emitting radiation, an object reacts to
incident radiation from its surroundings by absorbing and reflecting a portion of it, or
allowing some of it to pass through (as through a lens). From this physical principle,
the Total Radiation Law is derived, which can be stated with the following formula:
W = αW + ρW +τW,
which can be simplified to: 1 = α+ ρ +τ ,
The coefficients a, r, and t describe the object’s incident energy absorbtion alpha (α),
reflection Rho (ρ), and transmission Tau (τ ). Each coefficient can have a value from
zero to one, depending on how well an object absorbs, reflects, or transmits incident
radiation. For example, if ρ = 0, τ = 0, and α = 1, then there is no reflected or
transmitted radiation, and 100% of incident radiation is absorbed. This is called a
perfect blackbody. In the real world there are no objects that are perfect absorbers,
reflectors, or transmitters, although some may come very close to one of these
properties. Nonetheless, the concept of a perfect blackbody is very important in the
science of thermography, because it is the foundation for relating IR radiation to an
object’s temperature.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.flirmedia.com/MMC/THG/Brochures/T559243/T559243_EN.pdf

Keywords:
Object’s incident energy:
 absorbtion alpha (α),
 reflection Rho (ρ),
 transmission Tau (τ ),
 emissivity epsilon (Ɛ).

Fundamentally, a perfect blackbody is a perfect absorber and emitter of
radiant energy. This concept is stated mathematical as Kirchhoff’s Law. The
radiative properties of a body are denoted by the symbol Ɛ, the emittance or
emissivity of the body. Kirchhoff’s law states that α = Ɛ, and since both values
vary with the radiation wavelength, the formula can take the form α(λ) = Ɛ(λ),
where λ denotes the wavelength.
The total radiation law can thus take the mathematical form 1 = Ɛ + ρ + τ,
which for an opaque body (τ = 0) can be simplified to 1 = Ɛ + ρ or ρ = 1 – Ɛ
(i.e., reflection = 1 – emissivity). Since a perfect blackbody is a perfect
absorber, ρ = 0 and Ɛ = 1. The radiative properties of a perfect blackbody can
also be described mathematically by Planck’s Law. Since this has a complex
mathematical formula, and is a function of temperature and radiation
wavelength, a blackbody’s radiative properties are usually shown as a series
of curves (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Illustration of Planck’s Law
W α T4

Wien’s displacement law
These curves show the radiation per wavelength unit and area unit, called the
spectral radiant emittance of the blackbody. The higher the temperature, the
more intense the emitted radiation. However, each emittance curve has a
distinct maximum value at a certain wavelength. This maximum can be
calculated from Wien’s displacement law,
λmax = 2898/T, or (λmax x T = 2.898 x 10-3 m.K)
where T is the absolute temperature of the blackbody, measured in Kelvin (K),

and λmax is the wavelength at the maximum intensity (in μm). Using blackbody
emittance curves, one can find that an object at 30°C has a maximum near
10μm, whereas an object at 1000°C has a radiant intensity with a maximum
of near 2.3μm. The latter has a maximum spectral radiant emittance about
1,400 times higher than a blackbody at 30°C, with a considerable portion of
the radiation in the visible spectrum.

Wien’s displacement law
These curves show the radiation per wavelength unit and area unit, called the
spectral radiant emittance of the blackbody. The higher the temperature, the
more intense the emitted radiation. However, each emittance curve has a
distinct maximum value at a certain wavelength. This maximum can be
calculated from Wien’s displacement law,
λmax = 2898/T, or (λmax x T = 2.898 x 10-3 m.K)
where T is the absolute temperature of the blackbody, measured in Kelvin (K),

and λmax is the wavelength at the maximum intensity (in μm). Using blackbody
emittance curves, one can find that an object at 30°C has a maximum near
10μm, whereas an object at 1000°C has a radiant intensity with a maximum
of near 2.3μm. The latter has a maximum spectral radiant emittance about
1,400 times higher than a blackbody at 30°C, with a considerable portion of
the radiation in the visible spectrum.
λmax in meter, T in Kelvin.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/wien.html

Wien's Displacement Law
When the temperature of a blackbody radiator increases, the overall radiated energy
increases and the peak of the radiation curve moves to shorter wavelengths. When
the maximum is evaluated from the Planck radiation formula, the product of the peak
wavelength and the temperature is found to be a constant.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/wien.html#c3

This relationship is called Wien's displacement law and is useful for the
determining the temperatures of hot radiant objects such as stars, and indeed
for a determination of the temperature of any radiant object whose
temperature is far above that of its surroundings.
It should be noted that the peak of the radiation curve in the Wien relationship
is the peak only because the intensity is plotted as a function of wavelength. If
frequency or some other variable is used on the horizontal axis, the peak will
be at a different wavelength.

Wien's displacement law states that the black body radiation curve for different
temperatures peaks at a wavelength inversely proportional to the temperature. The shift of that
peak is a direct consequence of the Planck radiation law which describes the spectral brightness
of black body radiation as a function of wavelength at any given temperature. However it had
been discovered by Wilhelm Wien several years before Max Planck developed that more general
equation, and describes the entire shift of the spectrum of black body radiation toward shorter
wavelengths as temperature increases. Formally, Wien's displacement law states that the
spectral radiance of black body radiation per unit wavelength, peaks at the wavelength λmax
given by:
λmax x T = b (2.898 x 10-3 m.K)

where T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin. b is a constant of proportionality called Wien's
displacement constant, equal to 2.8977721(26)×10−3 m K. If one is considering the peak of black
body emission per unit frequency or per proportional bandwidth, one must use a different
proportionality constant. However the form of the law remains the same: the peak wavelength is
inversely proportional to temperature (or the peak frequency is directly proportional to
temperature). Wien's displacement law may be referred to as "Wien's law", a term which is also
used for the Wien approximation.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wien%27s_displacement_law

Stefan-Bolzmann law
From Planck’s law, the total radiated energy W from a blackbody can be
calculated. This is expressed by a formula known as the Stefan-Bolzmann
law:
W = σ ∙ T4 (W/m2), (here the emissivity Ɛ was assumed =1)
where σ is the Stefan-Bolzmann’s constant (5.67 × 10–8 W/m2K4). As an

example, a human being with a normal temperature (about 300 K) will radiate
about 500W/ m2 of effective body surface. As a rule of thumb, the effective
body surface is 1m2, and radiates about 0.5kW - a substantial heat loss. The
equations described in this section provide important relationships between
emitted radiation and temperature of a perfect blackbody. Since most objects
of interest to thermographers are not perfect blackbodies, there needs to be
some way for an IR camera to graph the temperature of a “normal” object.

Radiation Curves (Intensity Plot)
The wavelength of the peak of the blackbody radiation curve decreases in a

linear fashion ? as the temperature is increased (Wien's displacement law).
This linear variation is not evident in this kind of plot since the intensity
increases with the fourth power of the temperature (Stefan- Boltzmann law).
The nature of the peak wavelength change is made more evident by plotting
the fourth root of the intensity.

Radiation Curves (Intensity Plot)
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wien%27s_displacement_law

Summarizing
How a perfect black body changes with temperatures?
 The λmax changes in a linear manner ? ( inversely proportionally)
according to Wien's Displacement Law
 The total total radiated energy W changes in a fourth power T4
proportionally according to Stefan-Bolzmann law

Thermal Diffusivity
As in emissivity Ɛ. the heat conducting properties of materials may vary from sample
to sample. depending on variables in the fabrication process and other factors.
Thermal diffusivity α is the 3D expansion of thermal conductivity in any given material
sample. Diffusivily relates more to transient heat flow, whereas conductivity relates to
steady state heat flow. It takes into account the thermal conductivity k of the sample,
its specific heat Cp, and its density ρ. Its equation is
α = k/ρ Cp cm2s-1.
Because thermal diffusivity of a sample can be measured directly using infrared
thermography, it is used extensively by the materials flaw evaluation community as an
assessment of a test sample's ability to carry heat away, in all directions, from a heat
injection site. Table 2.1 lists thermal diffusivities for several common materials in
increasing order of thermal diffusivity. Several protocols for measuring the thermal
diffusivity of a test sample are described by Maldague.

Emissivity ε, reflection ρ ,
transmission τ and
absorption σ

The Black Body
A black body is a radiator, which absorbs all incoming radiation. It shows
neither reflection nor transmissivity. α = ε = 1 (α absorption, ε emissivity) A
black body radiates the maximum energy possible at each wavelength. The
concentration of the radiation does not depend on angles. The black body is
the basis for understanding the physical fundaments of non-contact
temperature measurement and for calibrating the infrared thermometers.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://physics.unm.edu/Courses/Finley/p262/ThermalRad/ThermalRad.html

Drawing of a black body: 1 - ceramic conduit, 2 - heating, 3 - conduit
made from Al2O3, 4 – aperture

Cavity radiator——A hole, crack, scratch, or cavity that will have a higher
emissivity that the surrounding surface because reflectivity is reduced. A
cavity seven times deeper than wide will have an emissivity approaching 0.98.

The following illustration shows the graphic description of the formula
depending on λ with different temperatures as parameters.
Spectral specific radiation

Mλs of the black body
depending on the
wavelength

With rising temperatures the maximum of the spectral specific radiation shifts
to shorter wavelengths. As the formula is very abstract it cannot be used for
many practical applications. But, you may derive various correlations from it.
By integrating the spectral radiation intensity for all wavelengths from 0 to
infinite you can obtain the emitted radiation value of the body as a whole. This
correlation is called Stefan-Boltzmann-Law.
σ = 5,67∙10-8 WM-2K-4

The entire emitted radiation of a black body within the overall wavelength
range increases proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
The graphic illustration of Planck’s law also shows, that the wavelength,
which is used to generate the maximum of the emitted radiation of a black
body, shifts when temperatures change. Wien’s displacement law can be
derived from Planck’s formula by differentiation.
The wavelength, showing the maximum of radiation, shifts with increasing

temperature towards the range of short wavelengths.

The Grey Body
Only few bodies meet the ideal of the black body. Many bodies emit far less
radiation at the same temperature. The emissivity ε defines the relation of the
radiation value in real and of the black body. It is between zero and one. The
infrared sensor receives the emitted radiation from the object surface, but
also reflected radiation from the surroundings and perhaps penetrated
infrared radiation from the measuring object:
ε + ρ +τ = 1
ε emissivity
ρ reflection
τ transmissivity
Most bodies do not show transmissivity in infrared, therefore the following

applies:
ε+ρ=1
This fact is very helpful as it is much easier to measure the reflection than to
measure the emissivity.

Infrared energy reflected at a body surface
Hence emissivity is expressed as:-

Emissivity = Radiation emitted by an object at temperature T
Radiation emitted by a Black Body at temperature T

Emission, reflection and transmission
ρ
τ
ε

Emissivity Setting
1. Where the temperature of the target object is higher than the ambient
temperature (see heater shown) :
■ Excessively high emissivity settings result in excessively high
temperature readings.
■ Excessively low emissivity settings result in excessively low
1. Where the temperature of the target object is lower than the ambient
temperature (see door shown):
■ Excessively high emissivity settings result in excessively low
■ Excessively low emissivity settings result in excessively high
temperature readings .

Spectral Transmission

Recalling: FIGURE 9-3.
(6μm ~ 8μm)
(2–6 μm) (8–14 (15) μm)

The atmosphere is also fairly transparent, at least in two
wavebands. In the rest of the thermal spectrum, water vapor and
carbon dioxide absorb most thermal radiation. (6μm ~ 8μm)

Not Mid IR Not Long IR
Used Used
(Used for Thermography)

Spectral emissivity of
some materials &
measurement techniques

Spectral emissivity of some materials: 1 - Enamel, 2 - Plaster, 3 - Concrete,
4 - Chamotte

Spectral emissivity of metallic materials: 1 - Silver, 2 - Gold, 3 - Platin,
4 - Rhodium, 5 - Chrome, 6 - Tantalum, 7 - Molybdenum
This may result in varying measuring

results. Consequently, already the choice
of the infrared thermometer depends on
the wavelength and temperature range, in
which metallic materials show a relatively
high emissivity. For metallic materials the
shortest possible wavelength should be
used, as the measuring error increases in
correlation to the wavelength. The optimal
wavelength for metals ranges with 0.8 to
1.0μm for high temperatures at the limit
of the visible area. Additionally,
wavelengths of 1.6 μm, 2.2 μm and 3.9
μm are possible.

Temperature Measurement of Plastics
Transmissivities of plastics vary with the wavelength. They react inversely
proportional to the thickness, whereas thin materials are more transmissive
than thick plastics. Optimal measurements can be carried out with
wavelengths, where transmissivity is almost zero independent from the
thickness.
■ Polyethylene, polypropylen, nylon and polystyrene are non- ransmissive at

3.43 μm
■ Polyester, polyurethane, teflon, FEP and polyamide are non-transmissive
at 7.9 μm.
For thicker and pigmented films wavelengths between 8 and 14 μm will do.
The manufacturer of infrared thermometers can determine the optimal
spectral range for the temperature measurement by testing the plastics
material. The reflection is between 5 and 10 % for almost all plastics.

Spectral permeability of plastics made from polethylene PE.
Spectral transmissivity of plastic layers made of polyester

Plastics Transmission Spectra
Wave number = 1/λ = 1/(3.33 x 10-4) = 3000 cm-1
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.globalspec.com/reference/50771/203279/Chapter-3-Plastics-Transmission-Spectra

Temperature Measurement of Glass
If you measure temperatures of glass it implies that you take care of reflection
and transmissivity. A careful selection of the wavelength facilitates
measurements of the glass surface as well as of the deeper layers of the
glass. Wavelengths of 1.0μm, 2.2μm or 3.9μm are appropriate for measuring
deeper layers whereas 5 μm are recommended for surface measurements. If
temperatures are low, you should use wavelengths between 8 and 14μm in
combination with an emissivity of 0.85 in order to compensate reflection. For
this purpose a thermometer with short response time should be used as glass
is a bad heat conductor and can change its surface temperature quickly.

Spectral transmissivity of glass

Spectral transmissivity of : Optical Glass (N-BK7 and others)
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.crystran.co.uk/optical-materials/optical-glass-n-bk7-and-others

Transmissivity of typical infrared materials (1 mm thick)
1 - Glass, 2 - Germanium, 3 - Amorphous Silicon, 4 - KRS5

Transmissivity of typical infrared materials

Synthetic Quartz Glass, UV-Grade Fused Silica, Transmission
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.pgo-online.com/intl/katalog/curves/quartz_glass_transmission.html

Reflection ρ , Spectral &
Diffuse

Reflections off Specular and Diffuse Surfaces



Lambert radiator
A Lambert radiator is an object that reflects incident radiation with the
optimum diffusion; in other words the incident radiation is reflected with equal
strength in all directions. You can measure the temperature of the reflected
radiation on a Lambert radiator using the thermal imager.

FOV, IFOV geometric , IFOV measured -
calculations

FOV (field of view)
Field of view of the thermal imager. It is specified as an angle (e.g. 32°) and
defines the area that can be seen with the thermal imager. The field of view is
dependent on the detector in the thermal imager and on the lens used. Wide-
ngle lenses have a large field of view for the same detector.

IFOVgeo (Instantaneous Field of View)
Geometric resolution (spatial resolution). Measure of the ability of a detector,
in conjunction with the lens, to resolve details. The geometric resolution is
specified in mrad (= milliradian) and defines the smallest object that,
depending on the measuring distance, can still be depicted on the thermal
image. On the thermal image, the size of this object corresponds to one pixel.
IFOVmeas (Measurement Instantaneous Field of View)

Designation of the smallest object for which the temperature can be
accurately measured by the thermal imager. It is 2 to 3 times larger than the
smallest identifiable object (IFOV geo). The following rule of thumb applies:
IFOVmeas ≈ 3 x IFOVgeo. IFOV meas is also known as the measuring spot.

Field of View (FOV)
A field of view (FOV) is a specification that defines the size of what is seen in
the thermal image. The lens has the greatest influence on what the FOV will
be, regardless of the size of the array. Large arrays, however, provide greater
detail, regardless of the lens used, compared to narrow arrays. For some
applications, such as work in outdoor substations or inside a building, a large
FOV is useful. While smaller arrays may provide sufficient detail in a building,
more detail is important in substation work. See Figure 4-7.

Figure 4-7. The field of view
(FOV) is a specification that
defines the area that is seen in
the thermal image when using a
specific lens.

What is IFOV?
A measure of the spatial resolution of a remote sensing imaging system.
Defined as the angle subtended by a single detector element on the axis of
the optical system. IFOV has the following attributes:
■ Solid angle through which a detector is sensitive to radiation.

■ The IFOV and the distance from the target determines the spatial
resolution.
A low altitude imaging instrument will have a higher spatial resolution than a
higher altitude instrument with the same IFOV
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.ssec.wisc.edu/sose/tutor/ifov/define.html

What is IFOV?
IFOV (instantaneous field of view) – smallest object detectable
The IFOV (instantaneous field of view), also known as IFOVgeo (geometric
resolution), is the measure of the ability of the detector to resolve detail in
conjunction with the objective. Geometric resolution is represented by mrad
and defines the smallest object that can be represented in the image of the
display, depending on the measuring distance. The thermography, the size of
this object corresponds to a pixel. The value represented by mrad
corresponds to the size of the visible point [mm] a pixel at a distance of 1 m.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.academiatesto.com.ar/cms/?q=ifov

Instantaneous Field of View (IFOV)
An instantaneous field of view (IFOV) is a specification used to describe the
capability of a thermal imager to resolve spatial detail (spatial resolution). The
IFOV is typically specified as an angle in milliradians (mRad). When projected
from the detector through the lens, the IFOV gives the size of an object that
can be seen at a given distance. An IFOV measurement is the measurement
resolution of a thermal imager that describes the smallest size object that can
be measured at a given distance. See Figure 4-8. It is specified as an angle
(in mRad) but is typically larger by a factor of three than the IFOV. This is due
to the fact that the imager requires more information about the radiation of a
target to measure it than it does to detect it. It is vital to understand and work
within the spatial and measurement resolution specific to each system.
Failure to do so can lead to inaccurate data or overlooked findings.
H
IFOV, θ in milli-radian
H in mm = D∙ θ
D in meter

Figure 4-8. An IFOV measurement is the measurement resolution of a thermal imager that describes the
smallest size object that can be measured at a given distance. IFOV is similar to seeing a sign in the distance
while IFOV measurement is similar to reading the sign, either because it is closer or larger.
Instantaneous field of view (spatial resolution)/ IFOV measurement (measurement of resolution)

Discussion
Subject: Answer this web queries from: http://www.thesnellgroup.com/community/ir-talk/f/9/p/1402/5433.aspx
wonder if anyone can help me here. I am studying for my employer's Level 2 certification exam and I am using
the ASNT supplement booklet to help. They ask a few question about IFOV and spot size calculation and I do
not quite understand how they get the answers. basically it is not the answer I want but how they got to the
answers.
Question #1: A camera has an IFOV of 1.9 mRad. What is it's theoretical minimum spot size at a distance of
100 cm? Answer is: 0.19 cm (What formula is used for this and are there any units conversion like mm to cm or
mRad to something else?)
Question #2: The IFOV measurement of a radiometric system is 1.2 mRad. What is the maximum size object
this system can accurately measure at a distance of 25 m? Answer is: 3 cm (now clearly there are unit
conversions going on here from meters to cm. So how is it done?)
Question #3: You are looking at an electrical connection 20 m in the air. What IFOV measurement is required to
accurately measure the temperature on the 2.54 cm (1 in.) head of a bolt? Answer is: 1.25 mRad (I know it's
just a matter of transposing the formula, but again there is units changes and I do not know the formula to apply)
Last question: Using an IR system with an IFOV measurement ratio of 180:1. What is the smallest size object
you can accurately measure at a distance of 3m (3.3 ft)? Answer is: 16.6 mm or (0.65 in).
NOW this one I kind of figured out using: 1/180 = 0.0055 & 3 m = 3000mm therefore 0.0055 x 3000 = 16.5
Let me know if you all know how to do these problems. I think all I need is the formula and an understanding
when and which units to convert.

Answer: D= σ•d, IFOV ration= 1/σ = d/D
Question #1: A camera has an IFOV of 1.9 mRad. What is it's theoretical
minimum spot size at a distance of 100 cm? Answer is: 0.19 cm (What
formula is used for this and are there any units conversion like mm to cm or
mRad to something else?)
Calculation: D= 1.9 x 1 = 1.9mm or 0.19cm, (100cm = 1m)
Question #2: The IFOV measurement of a radiometric system is 1.2 mRad.

What is the maximum size object this system can accurately measure at a
distance of 25 m? Answer is: 3 cm (now clearly there are unit conversions
going on here from meters to cm. So how is it done?)
Calculation: D= 1.2 x 25m = 30mm = 3cm

Question #3: You are looking at an electrical connection 20 m in the air. What
IFOV measurement is required to accurately measure the temperature on the
2.54 cm (1 in.) head of a bolt? Answer is: 1.25 mRad (I know it's just a matter
of transposing the formula, but again there is units changes and I do not know
the formula to apply)
Calculation: 25.4 = σ x 20, σ = 1.27mRad
Last question: Using an IR system with an IFOV measurement ratio of 180:1.

What is the smallest size object you can accurately measure at a distance of
3m (3.3 ft)? Answer is: 16.6 mm or (0.65 in).
Calculation: 1/ σ = d/D = 180, σ = 1/180,

D = σ∙d, D = 1/180 x 3 = 0.01667m = 16.7mm
(when calculating IFOV ratio, good to use the same unit for all inputs)

FOV-Field of view
The field of view (FOV) of the thermal imager describes the area visible with
the thermal imager (See Fig. 1.3). It is determined by the lens used (e.g. 32°
wide-angle lens or 9° telephoto lens
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.testo.in/knowledge-base/online-training/thermography/measuring-spot-measuring-distance/index.jsp

IFOV- Instantaneous Field of View (Smallest measurable object)
This defines the size of a pixel according to the distance. With a spatial
resolution of the lens of 3.5 mrad and a measuring distance of 1 m, the
IFOVgeometric has an edge length of 3.5 mm and is shown on the display as a
pixel (See Fig. 1.4).
IFOVgeo = Distance x θ
To obtain a precise measurement, the measuring object should be 2~3 times

larger than the smallest identifiable object (IFOVgeo).
The following rule of thumb therefore applies to the smallest measurable

object (IFOVmeasured ):
IFOVmeas ≈ 3 x IFOVgeo

IFOV- Instantaneous Field of view
IFOVmeas ≈ 3 x IFOVgeo

Figure 3.8: Instrument field-of-view determination

More Reading: IFOVmeas: Measurement Spot Size
The one specification related to IFOV and Spatial resolution but perhaps of
more practical importance to quantitative thermographers than the IFOV
angle, and unfortunately continues to be missing from many imager data
sheets, is “Measurement Spot Size“. Defined as the size of the area from
which radiometric measurement data are derived, it is used to determine the
minimum size of the measurement area where accurate measurements can
be made for a given target / distance. As mentioned before, the measurement
spot size is not a single IFOV footprint.
Measurement spot size is intrinsically dependent on the IFOV footprint size,

but usually consists of several single IFOV footprint elements. Measurement
Spot Size is not easily derived from IFOV because imager software
algorithms typically rely on several pixels to derive the measurement value,
even if ultimately only one pixel is used for the measurement. Without
knowing how many pixels are used in the algorithm, or the effect of adjacent
pixels on the one the data is taken from, it is impossible to use IFOV alone to
calculate an accurate, real world spot size.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.irinfo.org/11-01-2012-swirnow/

How many pixels (IFOV footprints) are needed for an accurate measurement
and in what orientation is the manufacturer’s trade secret? Some
manufacturers imply the measurement is made from a 3 x 3 array of pixels or
9 pixels total. Although this does not appear to be an absolute number, no
other information is given. Some manufacturers have Field of View
calculators on their websites; these will calculate the IFOV value for a given
camera, lens and distance, but still give spot size as an IFOV value of a
single footprint which then needs to be multiplied by some number of pixels.
There is a term “MFOV” which stands for the “Measurement FOV”, also
known as IFOVmeas, and it defines the resolution of the imager for
measuring temperature. It is also expressed as an angle in mRad and
because multiple IFOV elements are required to make a measurement, it is
always larger than the IFOV value and is more representative of the actual
spot size required for an accurate measurement.

There are a couple of ways to determine the measurement spot size. As
previously stated, most manufacturers have a spot size measurement
calculator which will allow you to approximate the measurement spot size.
However, the best way to measure it is using your camera / lens combination
with a procedure such as the one detailed in the standard for measuring
distant / target size values for infrared imaging radiometers. This standard is
available from Infraspection Institute.

NETD (Noise Equivalent Temperature Difference)
Key figure for the smallest possible temperature difference that can be
resolved by the imager. The smaller this value, the better the measuring
resolution of the thermal imager.
MRTD - Minimum Resolvable Temperature Difference

Minimum Resolvable Temperature Difference is a test developed by the
Department of Defense (ASTM Standard E1213) and used to measure the
performance of a infrared cameras ability discern the minimum level of
thermal sensitivity that a operator of the camera can see. The test involves
selecting the smallest test pattern (4 bars with a 7:1 length to width aspect
ratio) that can be clearly distinguished by the operator as viewed on a display.
Minimum detectable temperature difference
Minimum detectable temperature difference (MDTD), also called minimum detectable temperature
(MDT), is not the same phenomenon as MRTD and is only subtly different. Like MRTD, it is a
measure of the performance of infrared cameras. However, MDTD is a measure of visibility, not
resovability.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_resolvable_temperature_difference
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.prothermographer.com/training/IRBasics/qualitative_thermography/mrtd_minimum_resolvable_temperature_difference.htm

MRTD - Minimum Resolvable Temperature Difference
ASTM Standard E1213
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.prothermographer.com/training/IRBasics/qualitative_thermography/mrtd_minimum_resolvable_temperature_difference.htm

Thermal Detectors

Figure 1.2. Examples of detector materials and their spectral responses
relative to IR mid wave (MW) and long wave (LW) bands
InSb, InGaAs, PtSi, HgCdTe (MCT), and layered GaAs/AlGaAs for QWIP
(Quantum Well Infrared Photon) detectors.

SWS- Short Wave System LWS- Long Wave System
Short-wave systems in particular are Long-wave systems, on the other

susceptible to attenuation by the hand, are generally more susceptible
atmosphere (SWIR/MWIR) to error when used to measure
temperatures of very low-emissive
Shortwave systems are particularly surfaces.(LWIR)
sensitive to problems with solar glint
or excessive solar reflection.
operate at 8 to 12μm
operate at 2 to 6μm

Thermal Detector QWIP
Thermopile detector (non imaging?) Quantum detectors are made from
Pyroelectrical detector (non imaging?) materials such as InSb, InGaAs, PtSi,
Thermal Imaging detector: HgCdTe (MCT), and layered
Microbolometer: The detectors respond to GaAs/AlGaAs for QWIP (Quantum Well
radiant energy in a way that causes a Infrared Photon) detectors. The operation
change of state in the bulk material (e.g., of a quantum detector is based on the
resistance or capacitance, impedance, change of state of electrons in a crystal
voltage, current ). structure reacting to incident photons.

Figure 2.2. Detectivity (D*) curves for different detector materials

Table 2.1. Detector types and materials commonly used in IR cameras.
The Kelvin is a unit of measure for temperature based upon an absolute scale. It is one of the seven base units in the International System of Units (SI) and
is assigned the unit symbol K. The Kelvin scale is an absolute, thermodynamic temperature scale using as its null point absolute zero, the temperature at
which all thermal motion ceases in the classical description of thermodynamics. The Kelvin is defined as the fraction 1⁄273.16 of the thermodynamic
temperature of the triple point of water (exactly 0.01 °C or 32.018 °F). In other words, it is defined such that the triple point of water or approximately 0ºC is
exactly 273.16 K

Figure 1.2. Examples of detector materials and their spectral responses
relative to IR mid wave (MW) and long wave (LW) bands
InSb, InGaAs, PtSi, HgCdTe (MCT), and layered GaAs/AlGaAs for QWIP
(Quantum Well Infrared Photon) detectors.

Figure 4. Atmospheric attenuation (white areas) with a chart of the gases and
water vapor causing most of it. The areas under the curve represent the
highest IR transmission.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.universe-galaxies-stars.com/infrared.html

Figure 4. Atmospheric attenuation (white areas) with a chart of the gases and
water vapor causing most of it. The areas under the curve represent the
highest IR transmission.

Figure 2.13. Relative response
curves for a number of IR cameras

Figure 1.6: Typical blackbody distribution
curves and basic radiation laws
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
Radiant Flux per Unit Area In W/cm2
W= σεT4
ε = emissivity (unity for a blackbody target)
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
= 5.673 x I0-8 W/m-2∙K-4
T = absolute temperature of target (K)
Wien's Displacement Law

λmax = b/T
where: λmax = peak wavelength (μm)
b = Wien's displacement constant
(2897 or 3000 approximately)

The Fourier conduction Law ( One dimension heat flow)
The mathematical relationship that describes heat transfer as a function of the
material that heat is conducting through is known as Fourier's law and is
given below.
Fourier’s Law: q = k∙A∙(TH-TC)∙L-1
Where:
q = heat transfer per unit time (W)
A = heat transfer area (m2)
k = thermal conductivity of material (W/m∙K)
L = material thickness (m)

Figure 1.8: Spectral distribution of a blackbody, graybody and nongraybody

Figure 1.11: Transmission, absorption and reflectance characteristics of
glass

Figure 1.12: Transmission curves of various infrared transmitting material

Figure 1.12: Transmission curves of various infrared transmitting material

Figure 3.2: Response Curves of Various Infrared Detectors

Performance parameters of qualitative thermographic
instruments, therefore, do not include temperature accuracy, temperature
repeatability and measurement spatial resolution.

Transformation of
Infrared Radiation into
an Electrical Signal

Transformation of Infrared Radiation into an Electrical
Signal and Calculation of the Object Temperature
As per the Stefan-Boltzmann law the electric signal of the detector is as
follows:
U~ εT4obj
As the reflected ambient radiation and the self radiation of the infrared
thermometer is to be considered as well, the formula is as follows:
ρ = 1−ε Reflection of the object

U detector signal
Tobj object temperature
Tamb temperature of background radiation
Tpyr temperature of the device
C device specific constant
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.luchsinger.it/pdf/BasicsInfrared.pdf

As infrared thermometers do not cover the wavelength range as a whole, the
exponent n depends on the wavelength λ. At wavelengths ranging from 1 to
14 μm n is between 17 and 2 (at long wavelengths between 2 and 3 and at
short wavelengths between 15 and 17).
Thus the object temperature is determined as follows:
The results of these calculations for all temperatures are stored as curve
band in the EEPROM of the infrared thermometer. Thus a quick access to the
data as well as a fast calculation of the temperature are guaranteed.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.luchsinger.it/pdf/BasicsInfrared.pdf

Fourier Transform
Infrared Spectrometry

Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry
FT-IR stands for Fourier Transform InfraRed, the preferred method of infrared
spectroscopy. In infrared spectroscopy, IR radiation is passed through a
sample. Some of the infrared radiation is absorbed by the sample and some
of it is passed through (transmitted). The resulting spectrum represents the
molecular absorption and transmission, creating a molecular fingerprint of the
sample. Like a fingerprint no two unique molecular structures produce the
same infrared spectrum. This makes infrared spectroscopy useful for several
types of analysis.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://mmrc.caltech.edu/FTIR/FTIRintro.pdf

Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://mmrc.caltech.edu/FTIR/FTIRintro.pdf

Fourier Transformations

Fourier transformation/ (inverse)/ Fourier synthesis
The Fourier transform decomposes a function of time (a signal) into the
frequencies that make it up, similarly to how a musical chord can be
expressed as the amplitude (or loudness) of its constituent notes. The Fourier
transform of a function of time itself is a complex-valued function of frequency,
whose absolute value represents the amount of that frequency present in the
original function, and whose complex argument is the phase offset of the
basic sinusoid in that frequency.
The Fourier transform is called the frequency domain representation of the

original signal. The term Fourier transform refers to both the frequency
domain representation and the mathematical operation that associates the
frequency domain representation to a function of time. The Fourier transform
is not limited to functions of time, but in order to have a unified language, the
domain of the original function is commonly referred to as the time domain.
For many functions of practical interest one can define an operation that
reverses this: the inverse Fourier transformation, also called Fourier synthesis,
of a frequency domain representation combines the contributions of all the
different frequencies to recover the original function of time.

In the first frames of the animation, a function f is resolved into Fourier series:
a linear combination of sines and cosines (in blue). The component
frequencies of these sines and cosines spread across the frequency
spectrum, are represented as peaks in the frequency domain (actually Dirac
delta functions, shown in the last frames of the animation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirac_delta_function ). The frequency domain
representation of the function,f, is the collection of these peaks at the
frequencies that appear in this resolution of the function.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Fourier_transform_time_and_frequency_domains_%28small%29.gif

Fourier transformation
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://ranabasheer.wordpress.com/2014/03/16/why-do-we-use-fourier-transform/

IRT Applications

Range:
The temperature range defines the maximum to minimum temperature
measurement capability of an infrared camera. Many infrared cameras have
several ranges, similar to the ranges in a volt-ohm meter. If your target has a
temperature higher or lower than the limits of your temperature range,
temperature measurement will be impossible. Once an image is saved, its
range is locked and cannot be changed with software.

Span: is the part within the temperature range that we can see on the
screen, from black to white. It is a subset of the range and can be adjusted in
the camera as well as post analysis computer software. By adjusting the span
controls we can make the span larger for less contrast, or smaller to improve
contrast. Note how the thermal image changes.
Level: is the middle point of the Span. Level can also be changed in the
computer. We can think of Span as thermal contrast and Level as thermal
brightness. Adjusting the level allows us to change the thermal brightness of
the image. Again note how the thermal image changes as we do this.

End Of Reading

Terms & Definitions:
http://www.infraredtraininginstitute.com/thermography-terms-definitions/
More Reading: http://www.testo.in/knowledge-base/online-

training/thermography/measurements-of-glass-and-metal-and-specular-
reflection/index.jsp

Good Luck

Good Luck

https://www.yumpu.com/en/browse/user/charliechong

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Infrared Thermal Testing

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.naturalreaders.com/

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang Handbook of nondestructive evaluation

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

First law of thermodynamics: When energy passes, as work, as heat, or with

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_law_of_thermodynamics

In a natural thermodynamic process, the sum of the entropies of the

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_law_of_thermodynamics

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_law_of_thermodynamics

A body at temperature T radiates electromagnetic energy. A perfect black

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirchhoff%27s_law_of_thermal_radiation

Both of Kirchhoff's laws can be understood as corollaries of the Maxwell

The current entering any

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirchhoff%27s_circuit_laws

Q is the thermal energy in joules

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_cooling

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_conduction#Fourier.27s_law

Strictly speaking, del is not a specific operator, but rather a convenient

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Del

1) The heat flux per unit area, q = Q/A = - kdT/dx.

The heat transfer or conduction rate is a scalar and is

2) The total heat flow, Q = -kA ΔT/L,

where L is the length of the slab. ΔT is the temperature difference between

From equation 1, we have q = -kA (Tback - Tfront) / L = - (401 W/m*K) * (10ºC -

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://thermopedia.com/content/781/

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

The coefficient of convective heat transfer is often determined experimentally

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

All forms of electromagnetic radiation travel in a straight line as a waveform;

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

The diffusivity determine how fast a material heat up or cool down.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

thermal capacitance (Volumetric heat capacity) J/(m³·K) = Cp x ρ

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Together, can be considered the volumetric heat capacity J/(m³·K).

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Where: c light speed, C1 3.74∙10-16 W m2, C2 1.44∙10-2 K∙m, h Planck‘s

energy per second per square meter, R(T) = σT4

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://spiff.rit.edu/classes/phys317/lectures/planck.html

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.ces.fau.edu/nasa/module-2/radiation-sun.php

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

W(λ) = 2πhc2/(λ5)∙(e hc/λkT – 1)-1

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

b = Wien displacement constant 2879 μm∙K-1

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

The rate of change of energy transmitted by radiation;

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=93-_JhGNn1Y

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Due to atmospheric absorption, significant transmission through air occurs in

Due to atmospheric absorption, significant

From equation 1, we have q = -kA (Tback - Tfront) / L = - (401 W/mK) (10ºC -