15/03/2022

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

B. Huyssen
15 March 2022

OUTLINE

Converging-diverging nozzle
Chapter 10

Isentropic Flow Through Converging Nozzles

Chapter 10

Normal Shock Waves

Chapter 8

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QUASI ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC FLOW

Area-velocity relation

dA dP

A u 2

1 M 2 
This eq governs the shape of a nozzle or
dA
A

du
u
1 M 2   a diffuser in subsonic or supersonic
isentropic flow

Since A and u are positive

For subsonic flow (M < 1) dA/du < 0 increase of velocity, du is associated with a
decrease in area, dA
For supersonic flow (M > 1) dA/du > 0 increase of velocity, du is associated with a
increase in area, dA
For sonic flow (M = 1) dA/du = 0 even dA=0 the du exists, that is the
minimum area

QUASI ONE-DIMENSIONAL
ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC
ISENTROPIC FLOW
FLOW

Comparison of flow properties in subsonic and supersonic nozzles and diffusers

Max velocity is at sonic condition

If we want to converging If we want to

accelerate the flow
decelerate the flow

diverging

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ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES

CONVERGING NOZZLES
The highest velocity in a converging nozzle is
limited to the sonic velocity (M = 1), which
occurs at the exit plane (throat) of the nozzle.
In a nozzle, the velocity of fluid increases at the
expense of its pressure energy.
Accelerating a fluid to supersonic velocities
(M > 1) requires a diverging flow section
Converging-diverging (C-D) nozzle. Standard
equipment in supersonic aircraft and rocket
propulsion
Forcing fluid through a C-D
nozzle does not guarantee
supersonic velocity. Requires
proper back pressure Pb

Back pressure, as stated, is the

static pressure of the atmosphere
into which the nozzle exits; think
of it as the pressure that exists
when the nozzle flow is turned off

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QUASI ONE-DIMENSIONAL
ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC
ISENTROPIC FLOW
FLOW
Example illustrates
M = 1 at the location of the smallest flow area, called the throat
Velocity continues to increase past the throat, and is due to decrease in
density
Area decreases, and then increases. Known as a converging - diverging
nozzle. Used to accelerate gases to supersonic speeds.

QUASI ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC FLOW

To take a gas to supersonic speed we must accelerate the gas subsonically through a
convergent duct reach sonic condition in the throat and than expand the gas to
supersonic speed through a divergent duct.

To slow down isentropically a supersonic flow to subsonic flow we must decelerate the
gas through a convergent duct reach sonic condition in the throat and than decelerate to
subsonic speed.

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ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES

CONVERGING NOZZLES
Converging or converging-diverging nozzles are found in many
engineering applications
Steam and gas turbines, aircraft and spacecraft propulsion,
industrial blast nozzles, torch nozzles

The flow is considered compressible, isentropic trough a varying area

channels as nozzles.

Here, we will study the effects of area change on flow properties, as the
exit velocity, mass flow rate, and pressure distribution along the
nozzle.

ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES

CONVERGING NOZZLES
Under steady flow conditions, mass flow rate is constant
P


 
RT
 P  
m  AV    A M RT  PAM M
V
 RT  RT a
a  RT
Substituting T and P from the expressions
of total conditions T0  1 2 p0    1 2 

 1
 1 M1  1  M1 
T1 2 p1  2 

Mass flow rate is a function of

 stagnation properties, flow area, and M
P0 AM
RT0
m   1
2  1
  1 2 
1  M 
 2 

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ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES

CONVERGING NOZZLES
The maximum mass flow rate through a nozzle with a given throat area A* is fixed
by the P0 and T0 and occurs at M= 1 3

  4
P0 AM P0 A* 2
RT0 RT0
m   1 m   1
2  1
  1 2  2  1
1  M    1
 2    1
 2 
=Pb=P*
The maximum mass flow rate through a
nozzle (point 3) with a given throat area is fixed by the m  AV
stagnation pressure and temperature of the inlet flow!
The flow at the throat is frozen, once the flow As Pe decreases V increases
becomes sonic the disturbances cannot work their way and ρ decreases slightly
upstream of the throat. No communication between
convergent section and divergent section.
This principal is important for chemical processes,
medical devices, flow meters, and anywhere the mass
flux of a gas must be known and controlled.

ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES

CONVERGING NOZZLES
Consider the subsonic flow through the converging nozzle. The reservoir is
so big and field with gas, so that the fluid velocity is zero. For a constant
reservoir pressure we desire to determine the rate of mass flow through the
nozzle as a function of the back pressure imposed on the nozzle. The
pressure level Pb at the exit of the nozzle is referred to as the Back Pressure.
Back pressure, as stated, is the static pressure of the atmosphere into which
m  AV the nozzle exits. Exit pressure is the static pressure of the flow (not the
atmosphere) in the nozzle's exit plane. When the exit-plane flow is
subsonic, the exit and back pressures are equal.

p   1 2   1
 1  M1 
p0  2 
•State 1: Pb = P0, there is no flow, and pressure is constant. To create a flow
movement we need to decrease the pressure at the exit.
•State 2: Pb < P0, pressure along nozzle decreases the velocity increases.
•State 3: Pb =P* , flow at exit is sonic, creating maximum flow rate called
choked flow.
3 •State 4: Pb < P* , there is no change in flow or pressure
4 distribution in comparison to state 3
2 3
•State 5: P =0, same as state 4.
b
2
1 As P at exit decreases the mass flow increases until
P* the flow is chocked, max mass flow rate is reached 1

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EXAMPLE

GIVEN the converging nozzle below with throat area of 50cm2 and
back pressure of 0.7MPa

FIND mass flow rate


m  AV  PAM
RT
cp
  1.289
cv 
P1=1MPa P0 AM
T1=600C c p  cv  R m 
RT0
V1=150m/s  1
2  1
  1 2 
1  M 
 2 

R=287J/kgK=287m2/Ks2

ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH

CONVERGING NOZZLES
Let’s get an expression for the ratio of local duct area to the sonic throat area
in function of M. Equate the mass flow at any location in the duct to the
mass flow under sonic conditions.

A  * a*
m  Au   * A*u * 
A*  u  *  * 0

1
 *  2   1  0 
 
 0    1  2 2 2 2 2
 A   *   0   a*   a*  1
 *            *2
1
 A   0    u  u  M
0    1 2   1  
 1  M1 
1  2 
M *2 
  1M 2
2    1M 2
Area Mach number relation  1
This eq is tabulated in appendix A, A 
2
1  2 
 *   2  1 
 1 M 2  
 
   1

1
isentropic flow. It yields to two
A  M   1  2  
solutions of M 

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ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH

CONVERGING NOZZLES
Consider the eq Area Mach number relation
 1
A 
2
1  2 
 *   2  1 
 1 M 2  
 
   1

A  M   1  2  


M at any location in the

duct is a function of the
ratio of the local duct area
to the sonic throat area.
Two solutions for M at
given A/A*, a subsonic or
supersonic value. The
value of M depends on the
ratio of pressure at the
inlet and exit of the duct.

ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH

CONVERGING NOZZLES

Let’s consider air as fluid in the nozzle, γ=1.4

 1
A 
2
1  2 
 *   2  1 
 
 1 M 2  
 
 1

A  M   1  2  

3
A 1 1  0.2M 2 
  
A* M 2  1.728 

 For γ=1.4
P0 A* * For isentropic flow through a duct, the
RT0 P0 A 0.6847
m   maximum mass flow rate possible is
  1
 1
2  1 RT0 1/ 2 proportional to the throat area and stagnation
  pressure and inversely proportional to the
 2  square root of stagnation temperature

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ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH

CONVERGING –DIVERGING NOZZLES
Fluid stored in a large reservoir is to be discharged through
a converging-diverging nozzles. We need to find m and p in
the nozzle over the range of Pb/P0. Assume we have an
isentropic expansion of the gas through the nozzle to a
supersonic Me at exit. At each A=A(x) we can get the
subsonic M value (convergent part) and the supersonic M
value (Divergent part). We can plot the M curve through the
nozzle.
 1
A 
2
1  2 
 *   2  1 
 
 1 M 2  
 
 1

A  M  1  2  

When we get the variation of M we can get any other fluid
ratio parameter as p/p0, T/T0. To be able to get Me>1, pe
must have a specific value for which
3
the eq Ae/A* is satisfied.
For all converging-diverging nozzles,
the maximum value of Pb/P0 is For a given shape of nozzle there
always 1 and the minimum is always 0. is only one supersonic solution
This leaves three other pressure ratios. and depends from A/A*

ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH

CONVERGING –DIVERGING NOZZLES
Let’s consider all the possible cases that can happen in the
C-D nozzle by changing the Pb. We need to find m and p
in the nozzle over the range of Pb/P0
0. Pb = P0 the velocity through the nozzle is zero.
4
Let’s decrease the back pressure.
1. Pb =Pe1 <P0 Flow remains subsonic, and mass flow is
less than for choked flow. Diverging section acts as
diffuser
3. Pb = Pe3 Sonic flow achieved at throat. Diverging
0
section acts as diffuser. Subsonic flow at exit. Further
decrease in Pb has no effect on flow in converging portion
of nozzle.
4. Pb = Pe6 Flow in diverging section is supersonic.
There is one specific value of back pressure for which a
supersonic exit flow has exit pressure=back pressure.

There are infinite number of

subsonic solution and they
depend from A/A* and pe/po

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EXAMPLE

GIVEN A converging-diverging nozzle operates with an exit of

Mach number 1.5. The air reservoir has pressure 500kPa and a
temperature of 400 K. The nozzle throat area is 5cm2 . R=0,2870kJ/kg*K

FIND The ratio of exit area to throat area.

The range of back pressure over which the nozzle is chocked.
The mass flow rate for a back pressure of 450 Pa and 0Pa

  1
m  AV  PAM A 
2
1  2   
 1 M 2  
 1

 A*   M 2    1 1   
RT
     2  
p0    1 2   1

 1  Me  P0 AM
pe  2  RT0
m   1
2  1
  1 2 
1  M 
 2 

SHOCK WAVES AND EXPANSION WAVES

Sound waves are created by small pressure disturbances and travel at

the speed of sound. For some back pressures, abrupt changes in fluid
properties occur in C-D nozzles, creating a shock wave, stronger
pressure disturbances.

Here, we will study the conditions under which shock waves develop
and how they affect the flow.

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DISTURBANCES
IN SUBSONIC & SUPERSONIC FLOW

The disturbances work their way

upstream, giving the incoming flow
plenty of time to move out of the way
of the body

the pressure waves will build up

the shock wave position is defined as the

boundary between the zone having no
information about the shock-driving event,
and the zone aware of the shock-driving
event

MACH CONE

Beeper is stationary

V 0
M  0
a a

At time t the beeper, in 0, emits a sound wave that propagate a distance at. The beeper
has zero velocity. The wave fronts spread out spherically and can be drawn as
concentric circles with position corresponding to times t0, t1, t2, t3.

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MACH CONE
Beeper is moving slow, Subsonic compressible Flow

V
M 1
a

At time t the beeper emits a sound wave that propagate a distance at. In the meantime A
moved to B with v<a while emitting several sound waves. The beeper is slower than the
sound wave. It is inside the family of circular sound waves. The circles can not overlap

MACH CONE
Beeper is moving at sound speed
V
M 1
a
B A

At time t the beeper emits a sound wave that propagate to distance at. In the meantime
A moved to B while emitting several sound waves. The rate of spread of the disturbance
upstream is exactly balanced by the beeper velocity.

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MACH CONE
Beeper is moving faster than sound speed, SUPERSONIC Flow
Zone of V
silence M 1
a

Zone of action
Mach angle
at a 1
sin    
Vt V M

At time t the beeper emits a sound wave that propagate a distance at. In the meantime A moved to
B while emitting several sound waves. The beeper is faster than the sound wave, disturbances are
swept downstream at a greater speed than they can propagate upstream. The beeper is outside the
family of circular sound waves tangent to BC. BC line of disturbances is called Mach wave. The
disturbances(messages) emitted by the beeper do not have the opportunity to warn the fluid ahead
of its arrival. The fluid that knows about the presence of the beeper is restricted to the Mach cone.
The Mach wave is the envelope of disturbances in the supersonic flow and it is oblique to the
direction of motion. The effect of the disturbances does not go beyond the Mach lines into the
surrounding fluid.

EXAMPLE

GIVEN a slender missile flying at Mach 1.5 at low altitude. Assume the wave
generated by the nose of the missile is a mach wave. This wave intersects the
ground 170m behind the nose.

FIND the altitude at which the missile is flying.

1
sin  
M

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PROPAGATION OF FINITE WAVES

SHOCK WAVES

Wave 2

Gas at rest

Wave 1

So far we have dealt only with weak pressure

waves(sound wave), disturbances, which travel at
the speed of sound. As stronger disturbances travel
through a gas, they can compress it and thus raise
its temperature. The piston is accelerating from rest
to finite velocity increment of delta V( consisting of a
large number of infinitesimal increments dv) moving
to the right. Each wave travels at sound speed. Later
disturbances can then travel through the gas slightly
faster( it is moving in a gas that is already moving)
and catch up with the earlier ones as in figure.
Strong compression waves always steepen, like
waves on the beach, to form shock waves with very
large changes of pressure, density and temperature.

PROPAGATION OF FINITE WAVES

EXPANSION WAVES

The piston is given a suddenly an increment of

velocity dV on the opposite side in a fluid at
rest, a weak expansion wave propagates to the
right at sound velocity. With a second
increment of velocity, a second expansion
wave moves into the expanded gas behind the
first one. The waves and the gas are moving in
opposite directions reducing the absolute
wave velocity. Stronger expansion waves
become less steep as they propagate, so that is
not possible to form an expansion shock wave.

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SHOCK WAVES
NORMAL SHOCKS

 Shocks which occur in a plane normal to

the direction of flow are called normal shock
waves

 Flow process through the shock wave is

highly irreversible and cannot be
approximated as being isentropic

 Develop relationships for flow properties

before and after the shock using
conservation of mass, momentum, and
energy

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NORMAL SHOCK WAVES

DETACHED SHOCK WAVES

Normal shock wave model still

works well

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ATTACHED VS. DETACHED SHOCK WAVES

WHY DOES ENTROPY INCREASE ACROSS

THE SHOCK WAVE?
Within the shock wave large gradients in velocity and temperature occur, friction and
thermal conduction are strong irreversible mechanics that increase entropy!

There is no external heat transfer across the control volume so the shock is adiabatic.
cpT0,2 =cp T0,1
By applying the thermodynamics eq we arrive to the result of T0,2 = T0,1 s2 > s1

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NORMAL SHOCK WAVES

The shock wave is a surface across which the flow properties change
discontinuously. After a NORMAL shock wave the flow is always subsonic!
Downstream: 2
Upstream: 1
M2 < 1
M1 > 1
V2 < V1
V1
p0,2 < p0,1
p1
P2 > p1
1
2 > 1
T1
T2 > T1
s1
s2 > s1
p0,1
h0,2 = h0,1
h0,1
T0,2 = T0,1 (if calorically perfect,
T0,1
h0=cpT0)

Typical shock wave is thin region, thickness 1/1,000 mm, highly viscous flow. Normal
shock wave is one dimensional supersonic flow.

NORMAL SHOCK WAVES

Consider the normal shock wave in a steady flow. There is no external heat transfer
across the control volume so the shock is adiabatic.
Control volume Conservation of mass

Conservation of energy

Conservation of momentum

Increase in entropy

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NORMAL SHOCK WAVES

We know the condition upstream we need to find out those ones after the shock wave.
There is no heat added or taken away from the flow.
ADIABATIC FLOW and calorically perfect gas

Momentum p1  1u12  p2   2u22 p1 p

 u1  2  u2
continuity
1u1   2u2 1u1 1u2
p1 p
 2  u 2  u1 a12 a22
1u1 1u2   u2  u1
u1 u2

a  p / 
a1
2
1  1
 u12  a *2
 1 2 2  1 a* stays constant because the flow is adiabatic

a2
2
1  1
 u 22  a *2 u1 u2
 1 2 2  1 a *2  u1u 2 1
a* a*
 M *1M * 2

NORMAL SHOCK WAVES

Prandtl -Meyer relation for a normal shock wave

u1 u 2 1
1  M *1M * 2 M *2  1
a* a* M *1

1
  1 M 2
  1M 2 M 22  2
1

   1
*2
M
2    1M 2 M 12 
2

Mach number after the shock is function only of Mach number ahead the
shock. The upstream Mach number dictates the shock wave parameters.
If M1=1 than M2=1

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SUMMARY NORMAL SHOCK RELATIONS

1
  1 M 2 M behind a normal shock
 Normal shock is adiabatic
wave is a function only of
but non isentropic
1
M 22  2 M ahead the wave!
M 12 
  1 M1>1 than M2<1 more M1>1  Equations are functions of
2 more stronger becomes M1, only
 2 u1
 
  1M 12 the normal shock wave and
 Mach number behind a normal
less is M2
1 u2 2    1M 12 shock wave is always subsonic
(M2 < 1)
2
p2
p1
 1
 1
M 12  1  Density, static pressure, and
temperature increase across
T2 h2  2  2    1M 12
  1  M 12  1    a normal shock wave
T1 h1    1    1M 1  Velocity and total pressure
2

T0,1  T0, 2 decrease across a normal

shock wave

   1 2     1 2   1  Total temperature is
  s2  s1   2 M 1  1  2 M 1  constant across a stationary
p0 , 2
e     
normal shock wave
R
1
 2  1
p0,1  1 
   1 M 1    1 
2

 

SUMMARY NORMAL SHOCK RELATIONS

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SUMMARY NORMAL SHOCK RELATIONS

1 20
Downstream Mach Number, M2
0.9 Total Pressure Ratio, P02/P01 18
Density Ratio, Rho1/Rho2
0.8 Static Pressure Ratio, P2/P1 16
Static Temperature Ratio T2/T1
0.7 14

2/1, p2/p1, T2/T1

0.6 12
M2, P02/P01

0.5 10

0.4 8

0.3 6

0.2 4

0.1 2

0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Upstream Mach Number, M1

TABULATION NORMAL SHOCK PROPERTIES

Valid for γ=1.4

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EXAMPLE
GIVEN the pressure upstream of a normal shock wave is 1 atm. The pressure and
the temperature downstream of the wave are 10.33 atm and 772.2 K˚ respectively.

FIND Mach number and the temperature upstream of the wave and the
total temperature and total pressure downstream of the wave.

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