HM1 Tutorial Examples Module-5 Drilling Blasting-MIN2001

Table of Contents
5.1.1. Refreshing Some Terminologies and Definitions: ..................................................................................... 1

5.2. Blasting Induced Vibrations and PPV ............................................................................................... 2
5.3. Stress Wave Reflection and Refraction ............................................................................................ 3
5.4. Explosive Gas Pressure and Powder Factor or Specific Charge ...................................................... 7
Table 5.4.1 Range of Powder Factors in Rock Blasting ..................................................................................... 8
5.5. Explosions with Time Delays ............................................................................................................ 9
5.6. Bench Blasting Design.................................................................................................................... 10
5.7. Surface Delay Blasting ................................................................................................................... 12
5.8. Controlled Blasting and Vibration.................................................................................................... 12
5.8.1. Decking................................................................................................................................................... 13
5.8.2. Controlled Blasting.................................................................................................................................. 14
5.8.2.1. Presplitting:........................................................................................................................................................ 14
5.8.2.2. Trim Blasting ..................................................................................................................................................... 15
5.8.2.3. Buffer Blasting ................................................................................................................................................... 15
5.9. Underground Blast Design .............................................................................................................. 15
5.9.1. Underground Tunneling .......................................................................................................................... 16
5.10. Fly-Rock, Air-Blast and Vibration .................................................................................................. 16
5.10.1. Causes of Flyrock ................................................................................................................................. 17
5.10.2. Causes of Vibration .............................................................................................................................. 17
5.10.3. Causes of Air Blast ............................................................................................................................... 18
5.11. Self-assessment questions ........................................................................................................... 18
5.11.1. Some Past Multiple-Choice-Exam Questions ....................................................................................... 18
APPENDIX 1 of Module 5 ––– Units and Conversions .......................................................................... 32
APPENDIX 2 of Module 5 ––– Burden Design and Analysis ................................................................. 34
5.B.1 Maximum Burden (Bmax) and Minimum Height (Hmin)............................................................................... 34
5.B.2 Powder factor (PF) or specific charge (q) ................................................................................................ 34
5.B.3 Loading density (LD) or Loading charge concentration (lb) ..................................................................... 34
5.B.4 Burden (B) Calculations .......................................................................................................................... 35
APPENDIX 3 of Module 5 ––– Tunneling .............................................................................................. 36
APPENDIX 4 of Module 5 ––– Electrical Detonation and Circuits ......................................................... 41
5.D.1 Parallel and Series Circuits: .................................................................................................................... 41
5.D.2 Blasting Galvanometer ............................................................................................................................ 42
5.D.3. Optimum Number of Circuits .................................................................................................................. 42
Optimum number of series (Np) .......................................................................................................... 43
MIN2001 Module 5 – Drilling and blasting 2
For a parallel-series circuit the optimum number of series can be found from: ................................... 43
APPENDIX 5 of Module 5 ––– Range of Powder Factor (kg/m3) in Rock Blasting................................ 44
© University of Southern Queensland

Module 5 – Drilling and Blasting
Depth of cut is one of the most important parameters of drilling
Example 5.1.1.
Question: Calculate the force for a constant-depth of cut drilling experiment started with an
initial bit wear flat area of 2mm2, corresponding to a 1 tonne applied force, until the bit
became blunter measuring a wear flat area of 10mm2.
Solution: Assuming the rock drilling stress, S, and the depth of cut (d) and the power factor
(n) and the coefficient (C) do not change with the wear rate or bluntness of the tool during
this experiment, using equation (5.1.1), we can compare the two cases and find that F2 = 5
tonnes.
F A F 10mm 2
=2
= =
w2
=5 2
F A 1tonne 2mm
1 w1
2
5.1.1. Refreshing Some Terminologies and Definitions:
CJ plane
Shock/stress wave front
Direction of
EXPL SIVE detonation
Expanding gases
Figure 5.1.2 Explosive detonation wave travels through explosive length at CJ plane
interface.
Both bit wear rate - the rate at which cutting elements of a bit become blunt or unusable -
and specific energy (E) are measures of drilling efficiency. Most rocks are much weaker
under tensile loading (or tension) than compression. A tensile crack propagates in a
projection curve or path always normal to the major tensile principal stress direction. Cutting
rock by a chisel is the most optimum application of a tensile or undercutting mode. However,
a mechanised excavation prototype - capable of mimicking the pure tensile cutting mode of a
manual chisel - is yet to be developed for the mining industry.
Detonation is an explosive reaction that moves through an explosive material at a velocity

greater than the speed of sound in the material (supersonic). Since the velocity of detonation
is greater than the velocity of sound in the explosive, the explosive material directly in front
of the detonation head or wave front is totally unaffected until the detonation head passes
through it. The front boundary reaction zone or the plane at the wave front that divides the
two affected and unaffected zones in an explosive detonation is called the Chapman-Jouguet
(CJ) plane. See Figure 5.1.2.
Absolute Bulk Strength (ABS): Absolute amount of energy (in calories) available in each
cubic centimetre of explosive. ABS =  AWS, eg. ABS = 912 * 0.81 = 739 cal/cc for ANFO.
Relative Weight Strength (RWS): Percentage of the ratio of AWS of an explosive to AWS of
ANFO. RWS = AWS/AWSANFO, eg. RWSAgent A = (680/912)*100=75.
Relative Bulk Strength (RBS): Percentage of the ratio of ABS of an explosive to ABS of
ANFO. RBS = ABS/ABSANFO, eg. RBSAgent A = (850/739)*100=115.
Theoretical Energy per ft of Borehole (E):
E (kcal/ft borehole) = 0.155D2ABS = 0.155D2AWS.
Primer: A unit package, or cartridge of explosives, used to initiate other explosives or
blasting agents is called a Primer. It normally contains (i) a detonator, or (ii) detonating cord
to which is attached a detonator designed to initiate the detonating cord.
Booster: An explosive charge, usually of high strength and high detonation velocity, used to
improve the initiation of less sensitive explosive materials. A minimum booster corresponds
to the smallest (strength) booster producing high-order detonation in an explosive sample.
Sensitivity: Ability to propagate through an air gap - a primed half-cartridge (donor) will
detonate an unprimed half-cartridge (receptor), under unconfined conditions. Gap sensitivity
refers to the ability of an explosive to propagate across an air gap (between two separate half
or full cartridge).
5.2. Blasting Induced Vibrations and PPV

Blasting results in vibration, and vibration causes damage to both the target rock - for
fracturing and fragmentation purposes as planned - and to the surrounding protected
environment usually not well planned or designed occurring as a surprise! Blast
vibrations and air blasts causing noises with potential dusts, fumes and fly rocks,
should be carefully and regularly monitored and controlled. Measuring peak particle
velocity is an indication of the value or amplitude of the blasting induced vibration.
Explosions generate shock waves due to the rapid chemical reactions in the explosive.
The shock wave travels through not only the explosive (CJ wave in Figure 5.1.2), but
also the rock surrounding the explosive at a constant wave speed (c). As it travels
through any host material, it causes movement, velocity and acceleration of the
material particles hit by the wave. Furthermore, as it travels through the surrounding
rock mass, it loses its initial energy or amplitude, as the distance between the initial
wave source and current wave position increases. When the wave energy hits a rock
point, it changes material velocity from zero to a peak, called peak particle velocity
(v). Consequently, this peak particle velocity, v, also decreases with the increasing
radial distance (r) from the drill hole. In simple one-dimensional terms, wave stress is

nothing but multiplication of material density, wave velocity and particle velocity, i.e.
 =  c v.
As expected there will be no stress in a medium having either no density (vacuum), no
wave velocity, or no particle velocity, i.e. the wave velocity amplitude or so called
Peak Particle Velocity (PPV). Accelerometers and Geophones are widely used to
measure accelerations and velocities. For the design of blasting operations it is
important to consider and be aware of the three important parameters of the blasting
affecting vibration: (i) charge level, (ii) distance from charge, (iii) rock type and
condition. There are several formulas for PPV proposed by various researchers,
which are only applicable to vibration prediction of the same rock formations as used
in the development of their specific empirical equation.
Example 5.2.1.
Question: Using Langefors’ equation, estimate the expected value of the peak particle
velocity (PPV) from a seismograph measurement at a distance 1 km away from the blast hole
in a massive Swedish granite caused by a blast with 5kg explosive charge in a blast hole
drilled in the same continuous massive Swedish granite.
Answer: PPV ≈ 5mm/s, as can be seen from the following calculation by direct substitution:
5kg
v = 400  5mm / sec
(1000m)1.5
In practice, there are several codes and standards for monitoring, controlling and limiting
vibrations and air blasts in blasting operations, which all mines and quarries are obliged to
comply, as shown in Text-Figure 5.2.1 from Queensland Government.
5.3. Stress Wave Reflection and Refraction

Blasting results in vibration, and vibration causes damage to both the target rock - for
fracturing and fragmentation purposes as planned - and to the surrounding rock,
which should be protected and remain undisturbed. Due to explosion of the explosive
material resulting in rapid emission and expansion of explosive gases, a large
expansive pressure load is applied to the rock around the explosive material in the
drilled hole causing a sudden stress wave with stress amplitudes several times the
tensile and compressive strength of the rock. The stress, defined as force per unit area
(F/(), is proportional to material elasticity (E=  c2) times strain (). Strain is
nothing but the gradient or slope of the deformation (u/(x). Stress is directly
proportional to strain by a factor called stiffness modulus. In other words,
u E u E c 2
 =E = = v= v = cv = v
x x t
(5.3.1)
c c
t

In this equation  is material density, c is wave velocity whose magnitude depends on

the material it travels through, and  =  c is material impedance and v is the material
(peak) particle velocity. In other words wave stress is directly proportional to material
density, wave velocity and particle velocity. Impedance coupling occurs when two
different materials have the same impedance; which is normally required between a
selected explosive and a given rock surrounding the explosive for the best blasting
performance. When a stress wave 1 travels at a sound speed c1 in a medium with
density 1, its impedance (1) is simply the product of the density and the sound wave
velocity, ie. 1 = 1c1. At a given distance (or time) identified by the peak particle
velocity v1, the elastic stress (1) and strain (1) generated by a P-wave (compression
wave) are simply 1 = 1v1 and 1 = 1/E1 = v1/c1.
Stress wave
Wave Reflection
Vector
Medium 1
Medium 2
Refraction
Figure 5.3.1. Reflection and refraction of a velocity or stress wave vector at an
interface between two different materials. Equal impedances or impedance coupling
reduces wave reflection preventing energy wastes from wave reflections.
In general, if a plane compressive stress wave reaches a boundary, which is not
parallel to the wave front, four waves are generated. Two of these are reflected
waves, moving back into the medium (1) from which the original wave came from, a
shear wave and a compression or expansion wave; the other two waves, also a shear
and an expansion or compression wave, are transmitted into the new medium (2).
Figure 5.3.1 shows the stress wave reflection and refraction behaviour at an interface
between two different materials.
Let us consider the simple and special case whereby a compressive stress wave 1 hits
the boundary at a peak particle velocity v1 and at a normal (incidence) angle.
In this case no shear waves will generate and we only have two types of p-waves; a
reflected stress wave 1R at peak particle velocity v1R, and a transmitted (refracted)
stress wave 2 at peak particle velocity v2. Therefore, the following relations must
hold true:
v1 = 1 /1 (5.3.1a)
v1R = − 1R /1 (5.3.1b)
v2 = 2 /2 (5.3.1c)
If we now assume that both materials are in contact during the shock wave passage
we can further write

v2 = v1 + v1R (5.3.2a)
2 = 1 + 1R (5.3.2b)
Let m =1/2 represent the relative impedance. Substituting Equations (5.3.1) in
(5.3.2), and solving for 1R, 2, v1R and v2, we have
1− m
 =  (5.3.3a)
1+ m
1R 1
2
 =  (5.3.3b)
1+ m
2 1
1− m
v =− v (5.3.4.a)
1+ m
1R 1
2
v = v (5.3.4.b)
1+ m
2 1
Several important results are evident from Equations (5.3.3) and (5.3.4). When a wave travels
towards a medium having the same impedance (m=1), there will be no reflection (1R =0,
v1R =0; 2 = 1, v2 = v1). This is evident from direct substitution of m = 1 in these equations.
When a wave travels towards air, or a free (end) boundary (m →), there will be no
transmission (2 =0, v2=2v1), and the reflected wave becomes tensile (1R = − 1, v1R = v1).
Quiz: Can you show how and why? Hint
1 − m   m  1 / m − 1   1/ m − 1  0 − 1
Limit   = Limit    = Limit  =  = −1
m →  1 + m  m →   m  1 / m + 1  m →  1/ m + 1  0 + 1
However, when the compressive wave hits a much harder medium, i.e. a fixed rigid boundary
(m → 0), there will be again no transmission (v2= 0, 2 =21), but the reflected wave remains
the same as compressive (1R = 1, v1R= 2v1).
Example 5.3.1.
Question: Consider a compressive blasting shock wave propagates through a granitic rock
and hits an attached sandstone rock at a peak particle velocity of 200mm/s and at a normal
incidence angle. (a) Find all the reflected and refracted stresses and velocities. (b) Repeat
part (a) but assume the wave travels now from the sandstone towards the granite at the same
peak particle velocity. Assume Egranite = 50GPa, granite=2.65, Esandstone = 10GPa, sandstone=2.2.
Solution:
(a) m =1/2   v1R 84mms-1, v2 284mms-1,
1 2.3MPa, 1R −1MPa, 2 1.3MPa.
(b) m =1/2   v1R −84mms-1, v2 116mms-1,
1 0.9MPa, 1R MPa, 2 1.3MPa.
Example 5.3.2.
Questions: Select the only one best answer for the following multiple-choice questions on
drilling and blasting:

1. Due to the influence of site geology and other site-specific factors, the performance of
each blast should be quantified in terms of the:
a. Amount and origin of oversize.
b. Ground and airblast levels.
c. Floor and highwall conditions.
d. Muckpile displacement and ease of excavation.
e. All of the answers.
2. Actual damage to structures near blast sites from the use of explosives is rare.
Damage claims, however, can sometimes occur. To reduce unsubstantiated damage
claims, blasters should:
a. Keep accurate blasting operation records.
b. Monitor ground vibrations and airblasts, whenever possible.
c. Establish good public relations programs with the community near the blast site.
d. Both A and C
e. All of the answers.
3. If a P-Wave, with a wave velocity of C = 3125 m/s and a peak particle velocity of
PPV = vp = 20 mm/s, propagates in a rock with a relative density of “Rho” =  = 3.2,
the stress (“Sigma” =  ) in the rock is:
a.  = 205.
b.  = 200 GPa.
c.  = 100 MPa.
d.  = 200 MPa.
e.  = 200 kPa.
4. Material wave impedance (“Mu” = ) is proportional to material density times wave

velocity. If a P-Wave, with a wave velocity of 3400m/s and a peak particle velocity of
12mm/s, propagates (or reflects) in a rock with a relative density of 2.5. Rock wave
impedance () is:
a.  = 85.
b.  = 8.5 MPa.s/m
c.  = 850 kg.s/m2
d.  = 102 MPa.s/m
e.  = 102 GPa.s/m
5. Material stiffness or elasticity modulus (E) is proportional to material density times

wave velocity squared. If a P-Wave with a wave velocity of 3400m/s and a peak
particle velocity of 12mm/s, propagates (or reflects) in a rock with a relative density
of 2.5. Rock modulus of elasticity (E) and peak stress (“Sigma” = ) are:
a. E = 28.9 GPa and  = 102 kPa.
b. E = 28.9 MPa and  = 102 MPa.
c. E = 30.0 GPa and  = 100 kPa.
d. E = 89.2 GPa and  = 200 kPa.
e. E = 89.2 MPa and  = 200 MPa.
6. Peak wave stress in a material is proportional to material density times peak particle
velocity times material wave velocity. If a P-Wave with a wave velocity of 3400m/s

and a peak particle velocity of 12mm/s, propagates (or reflects) in a rock with a
relative density of 2.5, it will probably cause:
a. No damage to the rock.
b. Damage to the rock if either rock Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS) or
Brazilian Tensile Strength (BTS) is less than 0.1kPa
c. Damage to the rock if either rock UCS or BTS is less than 0.1MPa.
d. Damage to the rock if either rock UCS or BTS is less than 0.1 GPa.
e. None of the above answers.
7. If a P-Wave with a wave velocity of 3400m/s and a peak particle velocity of 12mm/s,
propagates (or reflects) in a rock with a relative density of 2.5, it will probably cause:
a. No damage to the rock.
b. Damage to the rock if either rock UCS or BTS is less than 0.1kPa
c. Damage to the rock if either rock UCS or BTS is less than 0.1MPa.
d. Damage to the rock if either rock UCS or BTS is less than 0.1 GPa.
e. None of the answers.
Answers: (1.E, 2.E, 3.E, 4.B, 5.A, 6.C, 7.C)
Example 5.3.3
Question: A linear relationship, in the form w = c + 1.63 v, has been developed between the
shock wave velocity, w, and the particle velocity, v, and the sound velocity, c, for Westerley
Granite ( = 2.63, c = 2.1 km/s) from several detonation pressure tests in the range of 5 to 50
GPa. The particle velocity at the shock-wave front is measured as 2 km/s. Calculate the (a)
shock wave velocity, (b) pressure, (c) density, (d) energy and (e) temperature, assuming a
relative (to water) specific heat of 0.174 for the granite and an initial temperature of 293 K.
Answer:
(a): Shock wave velocity: w = 2.1 + 1.63 x 2 = 5.36 km/s.
(b): Pressure = density x shock wave velocity x particle velocity = 2.63 x 5.36 x 2 = 28.2 GPa.
(c): Density: rock densifies by a factor of w/(w-v)= 5.36/(5.36-2) = 1.595. Therefore, density
= 1.595 x 2.63 =4.195 g/cc.
(d): Energy/kg = ½ w2 ≈ 2 MJ/kg. This energy is mostly transferred to heat. Heat energy:
Q/kg = Heat Capacity x Temperature Change = Cheat x (T2 − T1), or T2 =T1 + Q/Cheat.
(e) T = 293 K + (2000 kJ/kg)/(o.174 x 4.184 kJ/(kg K)) = 3033 K = 2760 C.
5.4. Explosive Gas Pressure and Powder Factor or Specific

Charge
Detonation pressure (pD), often measured in kilobars (0.1GPa, or 14 504 psi) is the pressure
in the reaction zone behind the detonation front at the Chapman-Jouguet (C-J) plane. It is a
significant indicator of the ability of an explosive to produce desired fragmentation in a well
consolidated burden. Detonation pressure is at least a function of explosive density (),
particle velocity and VOD. Atlas-Powder Co suggests an "empirical relation" for VOD: pD
  vP VOD where pD = detonation pressure (kbar),  = density (g/cc). The velocity of
detonation is in the units of (ft/sec), but explosive particle velocity, vP, has units of (in/sec).

In the lack of particle velocity information, detonation pressure may be further approximated
by pD  2.325E-7**VOD2. Borehole pressure (p): ranges from 0.3pD to 0.7pD with an
average of 50% of the detonation pressure. p  0.5pD. Spacing (S) is the distance between
boreholes – parallel to slope face in bench blasting, and Burden (B) is the distance from the
borehole and the nearest free face or the distance between boreholes measured perpendicular
to the spacing. We normally use S/B ratio. S/B < 1.25 for finer fragmentation and S/B >
1.25 for coarser fragmentation. Explosive critical diameter is the smallest diameter at which
the detonation will propagate along a column of that explosive. Initiation is the act of causing
an explosive material to detonate or deflagrate. Poweder Factor (PF) or specific charge is
the kg weight of explosive per one cubic metre (or a tonne) of rock.
W
PF [ kg / m 3 ]
= [ kg ] (5.4.10
B.S .H [ m3 ]
For example, if 30 kg of explosive is used in a blasting experiment on a bench where bench
height (H) = 10m, burden (B) = 2m, Spacing (S) = 2.5m, the powder factor is simply
305kg/(2m.2.5m.10m) = 30/50= 0.6 kg/m3.
See Table 5.4.1 for the range of powder factors used in various drill and blast operations
Table 5.4.1 Range of Powder Factors in Rock Blasting
Excavation Method Range of Powder Factor (kg/m3)

Surface metal mining 0.36 to 0.60
Surface coal mining:

• 46m3 dragline 0.30 to 0.42
• 23m3 shovel 0.36 to 0.65
• 13m3 front-end loader 0.36 to 0.95
Coal mining blast:

• Casting 0.53 to 0.89
Quarrying 0.36 to 0.89
Construction:
• Open excavations 0.15 to 0.47
• Trenching 1.19 to 1.78
Underground blast design 0.9 to 6.0

Hole-charge weight per meter length (kg/m) = 785  De2

• ANFO (=0.85 & D=0.1m), LD = 6.7 kg/m
Hole-charge energy per meter length (MJ/m) = 2793  De2
Presplitting*0.5kg/m2of presplit-wall, or LDPS = 8DPSSPS

* Many more drill holes must normally be drilled in presplitting along the rock boundaries, or perimeters of the
excavation, to avoid over-breakage of the rock and control the blasting results by forcing rock fracturing only
through a line passing through the centres of the blast-holes, resulting in presplit of the drill holes into semi-
circular cylinders after the blast.
5.5. Explosions with Time Delays

The use of time delays in blasting enhances fragmentation and ground vibration control.
Delayed detonators and blasting techniques are widely employed to improve fragmentation,
to control rock movement or displacement, overbreak, and to minimise ground vibrations.
Time delays with intervals of 25, 50, 100, 500 and 1000 ms are available for short (MS) or
long-period (LP) delays. Short delays are used in surface blasting operations, while longer
delays are used underground where blasting conditions are more confined with less free
surfaces. Delays are incorporated into the blast design using electric or non-electric caps or
delay connectors with detonating cord or tubes. Table 5.5.1 shows a range of time delays of
Nonel Detonators (GT/T) commonly used in various underground blasting operations. Figure
5.5.1 shows empirical time delays in various drill and blast applications (by DYNO NOBEL).
For example, a wide range of time delays from (3m).(9ms/m) = 27ms to (3m).(30ms/m) =
90ms can be used to control fly rocks in a bench blast having rows of burdens of 3m length.
Example 5.5.1:
Question: Find the optimum time delay for a blast in a highly jointed rock (6-12) requiring a
loose muckpile (9-18) and limit back break (12-33). By referring to Figure 5.5.1, calculate
time delay between rows, if burden = 6m. What should be the inter-hole or time delay
between the holes in a row if the borehole spacing is 7.5m?
Answer: The optimum time delay for the blast can be determined by selecting the time delay
range which is common and fits into all the factors considered. In this example, the range
common to the time delay ranges: (6-12), (9-18) and (12-33) is just one number, i.e. 12ms/m
of burden. If burden (B) = 6m, then the time delay between rows = 12 x 6 = 72ms. The
recommended time delay between holes is governed by two criteria: it should be between
(1/3 to 1/2) of the row time delay, and greater than 3ms/spacing (S). From the first criterion,
the time delay between holes in a row, i.e. 1/3 to 1/2 of the time interval between rows, is 24
to 36 ms. However, by the second criterion, the time delay between two consecutive holes in
a row must not be less than 3ms/m of spacing. Therefore, if the spacing is 7.5m, as is the
case in this example, then the inter-hole time delay should not be less than 22.5 ms. Hence
any number between 24 ms and 36ms can be chosen for the spacing time delay. If the
spacing was 9m, then any number in the range 27ms to 36ms could have been chosen.

Table 5.5.1 Nonel Detonators (GT/T)

Nonel Detonators (GT/T): If one uses Nonel (GT/T)
detonators, the numbers and delay times are as follows:
Nonel interval Delay time Delay time between
number (#) (ms) interval numbers (ms)
0 25 -
1 – 12 100 – 1200 100
14,16 1400, 1600 200
18, 20 1800, 2000 200
25, 30, 35 2500, 3000 500
40, 45, 50 4000, 4500, 5000 500
55, 60 5500, 6000 500
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 ms/m of burden
Massive rock (no joints)
Control Flyrock 9 to 33 ms per m burden
Limit back break
Minimise ground vibration
Spread out muckpile
Improved fragmentation
Minimise air blast
Loose muckpile
Blocky rock mass
Highly jointed rock
Explosive density > 1.3
Weak seams; slip planes
Compact muckpile
Water filled blast holes
Figure 5.5.1. Time delays for various drill and blast applications (Source DINO-NOBEL).
Example 5.5.2
Question: Suppose the time delay error for a given pyrotechnic detonator (det) is of the order
of 5% and the error from an electronic det is less than 10 s. Which det do you recommend to
be used in (a) large diameter (150mm) blast-holes of an open pit mine; and (b) small diameter
(50mm) blast-holes of a tunnel?
Answer: (a) Non-electronic detonator (ne-det), since the precision time delay here doesn’t
help much. Scattered error less than 25 ms may even reduce vibration and rate of rock
acceleration. (b) Electronic detonator (e-det), because contour blasting improves with
precision time delay (errors are in the same order of those of the e-dets).
5.6. Bench Blasting Design

The first requirement for a successful blast is the existence or creation of a free surface for
free movement or separation of the rock fragments. The less the number of free surfaces, the

harder is to break and the more energy is required to blast the rock. There is normally one or
two free surfaces available in surface mining by bench blasting. One of the most important
parameters of bench blasting design is the value of burden (B). Appendix 5.1 (or 5.A)
discusses the importance of burden and calculation methods available for its design.
However, science of drill and blast is empirical and based on collated specific experimental
data. Therefore, there is no unique or universally accepted solution or methodology for drill
and blast from various individuals and organisations. Although most of them produce similar
results, there are variations in the approach and techniques of a blast design. For example,
based on their own specific research and development (R&D) data, Dyno Nobel, ORICA, and
ISEE have developed different design techniques and criteria. Apart from burden, there are
many other factors which are considered important in most blast designs. These are: borehole
diameter (D), bench height (H), spacing (S), powder factor in relation to specific rock
strength (PF), explosive type, density and strength, sub-drill depth (U) and stemming length
(T). The best way to demonstrate their differences is through an example.
Example 5.6.1
Question: Consider a surface bench blasting exercise, where bench height (H) is 10m in a dry
medium strength rock mass having a recommended powder factor of 0.5kg/m3. The explosive
is gravity loaded ANFO with a bulk density of 0.85. Using (i) Dyno Nobel, or ORICA, and
(ii) ISEE simple blast design rules (and using simple round numbers), specify, for your first
trial, (a) a bore hole diameter (D), (b) a burden (B), (c) a spacing (S), (d) a subdrill depth (U)
and (e) a stemming length (T). (f) Calculate your actual designed powder factor (PF) and the
specific blasting energy.
Given: H = 10m, PF=0.5 kg/m3, ANFO ( =0.85)
Solution:
(i) Dyno Nobel Design Method
(a) Diameter is between 8 to 15 times the height (H):
D =(8 to 15) H = 80 to 150mm. Therefore, choose D=120mm
(b) Burden is between 20 to 35 times the diameter (D) and less than H/2:
B = (20 to 35) D =2.4 to 4.2m. Therefore, chosse B = 4m (B<H/2 OK)
(c) Spacing 1.15 times burden (B)
S = 1.15B = 4.6m. Therefore, choose S = 5m.
(d) Sub-drill depth is between 0.1 to 0.5 times burden:
U = (0.1 to 0.5)B; Choose 0.3  U = 1.2m.
(e) Stemming length is between 0.7 to 1 times burden (B):
T = (0.7 to 1.0)B  Choose 1.0  T = 4m.
(f) Charge length = H + U – T = = 10.0 + 1.2 −  = 7.2m
Charge volume = (/4)(0.120)2(7.2) = 0.0814m3
Charge weight = Wexp = 0.0814(850) = 69.19kg
PF =Wexp/(BHS)=69.19/(4 x 10 x 5) = 0.346 kg/m3
SE = 0.35 (kg/m3)(0.85 x 4.184MJ/kg) = 1.24 MJ/m3.
Design may be further modified till achieving the required PF = 0.5
(ii) ISEE Design Method

(b) B = (1/3 to ½)H = 3.3 to 5m  B = 4m (B < H/2 )
(a) D = (1/35 to 1/25)B = 114mm to 160mm  D = 140mm
(c) S = (1 to 1.15) B = 4 to 4.6m  S = 5.0 m.
(d) U = (0.1to 0.3)B = 0.4m to 1.2m  U = 0.8m

(e) T = (20 to 30)D = 2.8m to 4.2m T = 3.5m

(f) Charge length = H + U – T = 10 + 0.8 − 3.5 = 7.3m
• Charge volume = (/4)(0.140)2(7.3) = 0.112m3
• Charge weight = Wexp = 0.112(850) = 95.2kg
• PF = Wexp/(BHS)=95.2/(4 x 10 x 5) = 0.476 kg/m3
• SE = 0.48(kg/m3)(0.85x4.184MJ/kg)=1.69 MJ/m3.
Design may be further modified till achieving the required PF = 0.5
5.7. Surface Delay Blasting

Delay blasting techniques are employed to improve fragmentation, control of rock
movement or displacement, overbreak, and to reduce ground vibrations. Delays are
incorporated into the blast design using electric or non-electric caps or delay connectors with
detonating cord or tubes. The design of initiation timing for multiple-hole blasting is critical
to the blasting effectiveness. If the interhole delay is too short, the movement of row burdens
is restricted and fragmentation is poor. High ground vibrations, identified by the particle
velocity (the time rate of change of the amplitude of ground vibration), result, and backbreak
along the new highwall may persist, jeopardising the stability of the slope. If interhole delays
are too long, cutoffs of surface delays may occur.
5.8. Controlled Blasting and Vibration

Example 5.8.1
Given: Every day, a small quarry blasts 3 rows of 6 holes per row to the two corner free faces
(shown in a simple blast hole diagram). Timing between holes in each row is 17ms, and
timing between rows is 42ms. The minimum delay per unit length of burden for this quarry is
estimated around 8 ms. Each hole is charged with 100kg of ANFO. Down hole delays are not
used. However, the company has received complaints on blast vibrations from nearby homes
located 150m from the blast site.
Question: Explain why ground blast vibration has been a problem. Assume that the peak
particle velocity, v, at a distance R can be calculated from the Dyno-Nobel empirical relation
PPV = v = Q R 0.8 −1.6

(5.8.1)
where Q is the maximum charge weight per minimum delay period, and  is the Dyno-Nobel
site confinement constant (a dimensional constant!), which ranges from 500 for good relief to
5000 for poor relief. Assume  = 1200 and the allowable v = 16mm/sec for R=150m.

Free face Initiation point
17ms F
85 68 51 17 r
34 0 e
42ms
e
127 110 93 56 59 42
f
169 152 135 118 101 a
84 c
e
Solution:
Equation (5.8.1) can be rearranged to solve for charge per delay (Q) in terms of PPV and R.
If we rearrange the equation, the maximum allowable weight of charge per minimum delay
can be calculated to give:
 v 1.25 2  16 1.25 (5.8.2)

Q=  R =  (150)2  100kg / minimum delay
   1200 
In other words, allowable charge in kg per ms time delay is 100kg/8ms = 12.5kg/ms.

However, the highlighted holes, with the delay numbers 84 and 85, combined contain 200kg
of explosive charge with only 1ms difference in the time delay, i.e. 200kg/ms, which is far
above the allowable 100kg/minimum delay = 12.5kg/ms. This over-charge certainly
produced a peak particle velocity over the legal limit.
5.8.1. Decking
Decking is a technique that enables the blaster to divide the explosive column into two or
more charges. This is accomplished by loading an inert material, such as drill cuttings or
crushed stone, between the explosive charges. Decking is used for two purposes: to give
confinement of explosive gases where a soft seam or void is encountered, or to assure a
better energy distribution (e.g. to break cap rock). Another reason to employ decking
techniques is to control vibration and reduce the explosive weight per delay. Deck thickness
should never be less than six times the borehole diameter.
Example 5.8.2
Question: Decking is investigated in a bench blasting operation in a copper porphyry open
pit mine. The blasting parameters are as follows: blast hole diameter D =9.25in, bench height
H = 50ft, rock density r = 2.55 (quartz monzonite), and explosive density  = 0.85. Subgrade
drilling (subdrilling) is required and the nearest dwelling is 7 miles away. Determine the blast
design parameters: (a) when no decking is required, and (b) when decking (3 decks) is
necessary, assuming an explosive weight of 300lb/delay (ie. 300-lb decks) using the same
powder factor PF obtained in part (a).

Solution
The following values are obtained as a first approximation:
(a): Without decking:
Burden: B=(20 to 35)D  B =30(9.25in/12in) = 23 ft.
Spacing: S = (1 to 1.15)B  S = 1.15(23ft) = 27 ft.
Subdrill: J = U = (0.1to 0.3)B  J = 0.3B = 7ft.
Stemming: T = (0.7 to 1)B  0.7B = 15ft.
Thus, the drilled length L = H+J=50+7=57ft and the loaded hole length is L-T=57-15=42ft.
The ratio of H/B is 2.17, and the ratio of charge length to diameter is 54. The maximum
charge that can be loaded is: LD = 0.3405(0.85)(9.25in)2 = 24.8 lb/ft. W = 42ft(24.8
lb/ft)=1042lb loaded/hole. The powder factor PF = [(1042lb)(27ft3/yd3)]/
[(23ft)(50ft)(27ft)]=0.91lb/yd3, where breakage yield per hole is 1150yd3.
(b): With decking
Here WD = 300lb/delay at the same powder factor PF = 0.91lb/yd3. The charge length per
deck is therefore 300/(24.8lb/ft)=12ft/deck. Using 3 decks this becomes 36 ft, leaving a total
of (42-36) = 6ft of interdeck stem length, ie. 3ft stem length between two decks. The same PF
= 0.91lb/yd3 requires a new burden and spacing, ie. 0.91lb/yd3(yd3/27ft3)=
[(3decks)(300lb/deck)] /[(B)(1.15B)(50ft)], which gives B2 = 464ft, or B=22ft, with S =
1.15(22ft) = 25ft. The hole charge weight is 900lb and breakage yield per hole is 1018yd3.
5.8.2. Controlled Blasting
5.8.2.1. Presplitting:
Presplitting (PS) is used to pre-crack, or pre-split a row of holes along the final excavation
line before the primary blast, at a greatly reduced powder factor or charge weight (0.3 to
1.7kg per square metres of pre-split wall) and borehole-spacing (8 to 12 times borehole
diameter). Presplit-holes should be fired before any production-boreholes at not less than
200ms.
Usually high VOD explosives (eg. dynamite families) are used. For instance, if Atlas Kleen-
Kut-C type explosive is used in a bore-hole with the diameter DPS = 76mm, the explosive
loading rate will be 0.66kg explosive per m2 of wall surface to be split, the presplit-borehole
spacing SPS=0.6 to 0.9m, and the average loading density LDPS = 0.5kg/m. As a general rule
of thumb, one may start with LDPS = 8DPSSPS for the first trial.
Example 5.8.3
Question: Estimate charge loading density (LDps) and spacing (Sps) for a first trial
presplitting in an average massive rock using (a) Dps = 1.5in, (b) Dps = 4in, Dps = 8in diameter
drill-holes.
Solution: We choose Sps = 10Dps and use Equation LD  8DpsSps.

(a) Sps = 10x1.5=15in = 0.38m;
LD = 8 (0.038x0.38) = 0.12kg/m.
(b) Sps = 10x4.0=40in = 1.02m;
LD = 8 (0.102x1.02) = 0.83kg/m.
(c) Sps = 10x8.0=80in = 2.03m;

LD = 8 (0.203x2.03) = 3.3kg/m.
5.8.2.2. Trim Blasting

Trim Blasting: or smooth-wall, or cushion blasting consists of a line of lightly loaded holes
drilled along the final line of excavation to be fired after the main production holes. The
borehole diameter is generally the same as those for the primary shot. It is used to control
slopes in large open pit mines, to control overbreak in undrground metal and non-metal
mining. Cartridge explosives having less than 50% of the cross-sectional area of the bore-
hole are used, in this case the burden is reduced by 25 to 50% and the hole-spacing should be
only 0.75 of the new reduced burden.
5.8.2.3. Buffer Blasting

Buffer blasting is used together with presplitting using the same hole diameter and depth as
the main product shot. Spacing and burden should be one half to three fourths of the spacing
and burden used in the main product. A buffer should be bottom loaded to conform to the
depth of burial charge, this requires a buffer depth (dB) design so that
dB (ft) = (3.5 to 4.5)WB1/3(lb)  T+3De, (5.8.3)
where WB is buffer-explosive weight in pounds, T is stemming length (ft) and De is explosive

diameter (ft).
Example 5.8.4
Question: A 12in diameter buffer hole is bottom loaded with 10ft of Apex 220 explosive.
Bench height (H) is 50ft and Apex 220 has a density of  = 1.25 (or 61.29lb/ft). Determine
explosive weight, design and actual buffer depths.
Answer:
Buffer explosive weight=WB =10ft x 61.29 lb/ft= 612.9 lb.
Stemming length = T = H – 10 = 50 – 10 = 40 ft.
Explosive diameter = De = [4 x 61.29lb/ft/(1.25x62.4lb/ft3)]/½ =1ft.
Buffer depth = dB = 4WB1/3 = 4(612.9)1/3 = 34 ft.
Actual buffer depth = T+3De = 40ft + 3 x 1ft= 43 ft.
Check design: dB = 34 ft < 43 ft  OK and cratering is minimal or absent. To avoid surface-
breakage-hindering, it is advisable to get these two values to be equal. This is achieved by
increasing the bottom load to 14.5ft, ie.T = 35.5ft, WB = 888.7 lb, dB = 38.5ft = T+3De =
35.5ft+3ft = 38.5ft.
5.9. Underground Blast Design

Blasting rounds are used in the development of tunnels, shafts, raises, stopes, caving, and
other underground rock excavations. Powder factors range from 0.9 to 6kg/m3. The lower
values are used in large open rooms in soft weak rock while the higher values are used in
confined raises and shafts for hard competent rock. Underground explosives should be
selected for ease of handling and loading. Explosives with a fume class of 1 (0.16ft3 of
poisonous gas/0.44lbexplosive) are required and permissibles (permissible explosives.)
must be used in gassy mines. Wet and dry blasting agents as well as dynamites are used in a
variety of blasting situations.
Priming methods used in underground holes are a matter of choice. Large-diameter holes are
primed at the base of the hole. Blasting caps are inserted with the exploding tip facing the line
of charge.
5.9.1. Underground Tunneling

The main difference between tunnel blasting and bench blasting is that tunnel blasting is done
towards one free surface while bench blasting is done towards two or more free surfaces.
The rock is thus more constricted in the case of tunneling and a second free face has to be
created towards which the rock can break and be thrown away from the surface. The second
free face can be created by drilling a large empty hole in the centre of several (say 4) blast-
holes.
A blasthole near an empty hole or opening:
Consider blasting of a blast-hole located at a centre-to-centre (c-c) distance, B1, from a large
empty drill hole of diameter , as shown in Figure 5.10.1. To fracture/fragment/throw the
rock between the two a charge density of LD(kg/m) is required which satisfies the empirical
(metric) equation (5.10.1), in which  = 2 tan −1 ( /(2 B1 ) ) is the wedge angle:
LD
B1 =  / 2 + sin1.5 ( / 2) (5.10.1)
0.55
   a1
B1 B2
Figure 5.10.1. Tunnel cast blasting from a blasthole to an empty hole of diameter , or side
a1.
See Appendix 5.3 (or 5.C) for more design details on underground and tunnel blasting.
5.10. Fly-Rock, Air-Blast and Vibration

The main environmental effects of blasting are ground vibrations, rock over-crack and
over-break, air over-pressure, toxic fumes and fly-rocks. These hazards may reduce

by just reducing the amount of explosives used in the blast holes, however, this may
be in conflict with the required fragmentation, as it normally requires more usage of
explosives or energy effort.
5.10.1. Causes of Flyrock

Excessive explosives, excessive charge per time delay, incorrect time delay, variable
rock strength, non-homogeneous rock structure and inappropriate, too small burdens,
incorrect drills and inadequate stemming can cause rock particles to fly outside the
controlled blast area and blast site boundaries. Sometimes clouds of dust and smoke
or fumes accompany larger flyrocks. Flyrock is one of the most dangerous blasting
hazards and should be avoided by proper measures; such as optimum charge energy
distribution, accurate and optimum powder factor, adequate stemming, minimised
vibration and air blast and proper anti-flyrock mesh or shield materials. If we ignore
air damping resistance and wind effects, the magnitude of the velocity of a fly rock at
the initial time (v0) is the same as the time when it returns to the same vertical
elevation it was projected (vf). In this case the jump (H), the range (R) and the time
(T) that a fly rock travels in the air can be calculated from the following equations.
See Figure 5.11.1.
Figure 5.11.1 Parameters and relations used in fly rock calculations
 and v0 are the initial (launch) angle and velocity and vf is the return final velocity. In
reality the return velocity is usually less than vf in (5.11.1) due to air-frictional effects. More
rigorous analysis is rendered when wind and air effects have to be considered.
5.10.2. Causes of Vibration

Excessive explosives, excessive charge per time delay, incorrect time delay,
incorrect drills, incorrect distribution of blasting energy with respect to the rock
structural geology can cause excessive vibration. The consequence is due to excessive
rock particle velocity and/or acceleration excessive stress waves ( =  c v) will
generate throughout the rocks causing damage to the neighbouring rocks and
structures. To control blast vibration, blasts are monitored for the peak particle
velocity.

5.10.3. Causes of Air Blast

Inadequate stemming, Inappropriate stemming material, Incorrect charge
distribution, Too small burdens, Incorrect drills, No consideration of rock
geology, Excessive explosives, Excessive charge per time delay and incorrect time
delay can cause escape of the explosive energy from breaking rock to free air;
generating a damaging air-blast noise. Like vibration, air blast should be monitored
to ensure airblast-noise-intensity is controlled.
5.11. Self-assessment questions

1. What are the main parameters of drilling?
2. What is the relation between applied force and depth of cut?
3. Which cutting parameters increase when a cutter or a drilling bit becomes blunt?
4. What are the main attributes and parameters in a drill and blast operation?
5. What do ABS, AWS, RBS, LD, PF mean in drilling and blasting?
6. What is the scope of damage from a 1mm/sec PPV?
7. What is the relation between the parameters of a wave stress generated by blasting?
8. How can one control and minimise vibration, over-breakage, air-blast, flyrock and fumes?
9. Explain decking, presplitting, trim and buffer blasting techniques and how and when each
method is recommended?
10. Why tunnelling and underground blasting normally requires more specific charge?
11. What is the optimum time delay for a blast in a blocky rock mass requiring a loose
muckpile, minimise ground vibration and limit back break. Calculate time delay between
rows, if burden = 8m. What should be the time delay between the holes in a row if the
borehole spacing is 10m?
12. Given: H = 10m, PF=0.5 kg/m3, ANFO ( =0.85) for a surface bench blast in a dry
medium strength rock mass, design the blast using both (i) Dyno Nobel, or ORICA, and (ii)
ISEE methods.
13. Suppose 50 kg of explosive were used in a blasting experiment on a bench where bench
height (H) = 15m, burden (B) = 5m, Spacing (S) = 7.5m. Calculate the powder factor in
kg/m3.
5.11.1. Some Past Multiple-Choice-Exam Questions

1. A well-designed blast has the following characteristics:
A. Detonation energy confined in the rock strata.
B. Orderly progression of rock movement
C. Muffled sound.
D. Shattering power absorbed in adjacent rock strata.
E. All of the answers.

2. Significant blast site safety concerns can be caused by a :

A. Heat in a borehole resulting from friction between the drill bit and rock.
B. Insufficient stemming of the borehole.
C. Excessive flyrock.
D. Air blast resulting from insufficient stemming.
3. Lightning is a major safety concern for blasters:
A. Because it can travel several miles underground along pipes and cables.
B. So blasting personnel should stop hole loading operations and remain at the blast
site until the storm passes.
C. As a result, the blast area should be evacuated when a storm approaches unless
non-electric systems are being used.
D. Because it can generate increased moisture levels in the air.
4. Flyrock has the potential for causing injury to individuals at or near the blast site.
Primary causes of flyrock are:
A. An excessive amount of explosives.
B. Inadequate amount of stemming.
C. Excessive water in the borehole.
D. Both A and B.
5. While effective blast design is necessary for productive and safe field blasting
operations, many non-blast design factors can have a significant impact on field blasts.
The following non-blast design factors should always be considered:
A. Identifiable reference markers outside the immediate design pattern.
B. Properly designed access and drill roads.
C. Carefully planned power cable locations.
D. Both A and B.
6. When angle drilling, what is the primary concern of the blaster if proper drill placement
rules are not observed?
A. Spending additional time redrilling boreholes.
B. Creating blasts that have lower-than-anticipated production rates.
C. Intersecting previously drilled and loaded boreholes.
D. Creating boreholes that are extremely difficult to load.
E. None of the answers.
7. Velocity of detonation (VOD) is the speed at which a detonation wave front moves
through a column of explosives. VOD may vary with field conditions such as :
A. Confinement in the borehole and coupling ratio.
B. Charge diameter and primer size.
C. Particle density and particle size.
D. Both A and B
8. When considering explosive selection, blast site geology and rock strength must be
considered. Included in this consideration should be:
A. An accurate categorization of underlying rocks at the blast site - hard/tough or
medium/soft.
B. An understanding of <sleep time> or the amount of time explosives remain in the
borehole before detonation.
C. Knowledge of the ventilation requirements if involved in underground blasting.
D. The determination of ground water present in the rock mass.


9. The sensitivity of explosives can be described as:
A. The ability of explosives to expel stemming material from the collar of the
borehole.
B. The feature that allows explosives to detonate in extremely wet boreholes.
C. Susceptibility of an explosive to initiation.
D. The rate of explosives according to the effectiveness they have with certain types
of geological materials.
10. Detonating cords are particularly well-suited for :
A. Non-electric blasting systems when hazardous stray current is present.
B. Multiple priming or decking in deep, large diameter boreholes
C. Firing multiple charges of explosives without significant delay between charges.
D. Both A and B.
11. To achieve optimum blast design for a particular blast site, there are two primary factors
that must be accomplished. Which set of factors listed below is most important?
A. The blasting team must be selected carefully and informed of all local regulations.
B. The availability of drilling equipment and explosives must be determined.
C. The performance of each blast must be evaluated in consistent and quantifiable
terms.
D. Blast design calculations must be re-checked and the blaster must make sure all
necessary equipment is available to drill the pattern.
E. Both A and B.
12. Proper energy distribution of a blast is achieved by:
A. Matching the charge diameter to the bench height.
B. Selecting the proper burden and hole spacing dimensions.
C. Having uniform face conditions.
D. Accurate drilling.
13. Which of the following additional factors have a definite impact on the intensity of
ground vibrations?
A. Confinement of explosive charges.
B. Physical properties of rock.
C. Coupling of explosive charges to rock.
D. Amount of time it takes an individual charge to detonate.
14. The best way to be sure if the rise of bulk explosives in the borehole is consistent with
quantities being loaded is to:
A. Weigh the explosives before loading.
B. Use a measuring tape to detect hole cuttoffs or explosive movement into crevices.
C. Use an observer to verify quantities.
D. Make sure hole drilling is done accurately.
15. Dangers to blasting personnel when using electric detonators can take many forms:
A. High-voltage power transmission lines may create an energy loss in the blasting
circuit.
B. Blasting caps may rupture if excessive current is applied for an extended period of
time.
C. Cap wires and lead lines can act as antennae to convert radio frequency energy
into electric current.

D. Both A and B.
E. Both B and C
16. Significant concerns arise when misfires occur. Primary concerns are:
A. Dangers to the blasting crew if they come in contact with unexploded charges.
B. Having to drill many additional boreholes to complete the planned blast.
C. The need to bring even more explosive material onto the blast site to re-shoot the
original shot.
D. Both A and B.
E. Both B and C
17. Which of the following conditions will promote the best blast performance?
A. Strike which is perpendicular to the free face.
B. Strike which is parallel to the free face.
C. Strike which is 45 degrees to the free face.
D. Both A and B.
18. If drill bench preparation does not accommodate the design pattern layout, what type of
result might be expected?
A. An accurate pattern cannot be drilled as designed.
B. Ground vibrations will be minimised.
C. Flyrock may be more easily contained.
D. Both A and C
19. Prior to the actual hole loading process, hole loaders should always:
A. Get immediate access to a powder truck, regardless of the availability of pre-
inspection data, to maximise time and reduce cost.
B. Use a tape measure to ensure the accuracy of hole loading procedures.
C. Reference all pre-shift inspection reports on all vehicles used in the hole loading
process if available, if not, at least try to get verbal confirmations.
D. Step off the distances referenced on design pattern reports to confirm their
accuracy.
20. Stemming is a critical part of all hole-loading procedures. Indicate which of the
statements below is not true as they relating to stemming.
A. Proper stemming helps confine the explosive energy in the borehole at detonation,
but has minimal impact on control of flyrock/blow out.
B. Cover explosive charges in the borehole to prevent blow out or venting.
C. When stemming a borehole, do not damage tube, wire or detonating cord going
downhole.
D. Both A and C.
21. Which of the following statements about explosive products is not true?
A. There are two types of ammonium nitrate prills: high density and low density.
B. With ANFO, negative oxygen balance means there is a surplus of fuel oil causing
carbon monoxide.
C. Water gel explosives consist of oxidising salts, fuels (or oil), and sensitisers
dissolved or dispersed in a continuous liquid phase.
D. None of the answers.
22. A variety of vibration waves are generated by explosions at the blast site. Indicate which
statement below is not true about these waves.

A. Elastic waves are not normally considered to cause damage to rock formations as
they travel away from the blast site.
B. Body waves, such as compression waves and shear waves, travel through the body
or volume of a material and along the surface of the ground.
C. Surface waves travel along the surface of the ground but die out before they reach
structures outside the zone of intended work.
D. The fastest type of body wave is the P-Wave or compression wave.
E. The most common type of surface wave is the R-Wave or Rayleigh wave.
23. Which of the following statements is not true?
A. A powder factor of 1lb/yd3 is equivalent to 0.5933 kg/m3.
B. The metric equivalent equation to the (US) loading density equation:
LD(lb/ft) = 0.3405 D2(in2) is LD(kg/m) = 875.42 D2(m2).
C. A unit weight of 62.43 lb/ft3 is equivalent to 1gr/cc.
D. The metric equivalent equation to the (US) bore-hole bench-height relation:
D(in) = 0.1 H(ft) is D(mm) = 8.33 H(m).
E. All of the answers (are not true).
A. Brittle rocks can be identified from the post-peak behaviour of the stress-strain (or
load-displacement) diagram for a cylindrical rock sample subject to a compressive
load.
B. Very stiff machines (stiffer than the rock specimen) are required when measuring
post-peak behaviour of rocks in uniaxial compressive strength tests.
C. The strength and the post-peak behaviour of rock changes when the rock sample is
confined. Rocks normally become stronger and more ductile due to confinement.
D. The reason why rock is much weaker when it is loaded in tension than when it is
loaded in compression is based on the development and the propagation of more
tensile cracks in the rock during the loading.
E. A crack will tend to propagate parallel to the maximum tensile principal stress; the
higher the stress, the bigger the stress intensity factor at the crack tip.
A. Chapman-Jouguet (CJ) plane is the front boundary reaction zone or the plane at the
wave front that divides the two affected and unaffected zones in an explosive
detonation.
B. An explosive of unit relative density and VOD = 8000m/s may produce a detonation
pressure of about 16GPa.
C. Unlike roller disc cutters, the mechanism of rock fracturing with drag picks is
predominantly compressive indentation.
D. Because of the stress shield effect on smaller size cracks only few large cracks
propagate to a free-surface as an explosive detonates in a blast-hole.
E. In a long bar, a compressive wave reflects as a tensile wave when hitting a free end,
however, it reflects back as a compressive wave when hitting a fixed end.
26. Which of the following explanations about drilling is not true?
A. According to their working characteristics rock drills may be classified into: (i) (ii)
hammer type, (iii) rotary-abrasive type, (iv) diamond-core type, (v) percussive type,
(vi) rotary-percussive or percussive-rotary type, (vii) waterjet drill or waterjet-assisted
drill type.
B. The basic variables involved in diamond drilling may be subdivided into two groups –
independent and dependent. The independent variables are: thrust, rotary speed, and

drilling fluid flow rate. The dependent variables are: penetration rate, drilling torque,
and drilling fluid pressure.
C. Excessive bounce and bit abrasion may occur in a percussive drill whenever the
applied thrust is too low. This is because of the possible lack of contact between the
bit and the rock when the pressure pulse in the steel reaches the bit.
D. Higher torque is required to index the percussion drill when the applied thrust is too
high because of the increased resistance to rotation and the limited rebound time for
rotation.
E. An optimum thrust cannot be selected in percussion drilling, because the proper
balance between operating air pressure and the applied thrust cannot be achieved.
27. Which of the following statements is not true? A roadheader can economically excavate :
A. granite (>25 % quartz) with a UCS >200 MPa, or abrasive rocks with a UCS
>300MPa.
B. chalk with a UCS <65 MPa.
C. low silica sandstone with a UCS <75 MPa.
D. limestone with a UCS of around 160 MPa.
E. both A and D above.
A. Airblast effects occur when a significant part of the explosive energy escapes into the
atmosphere.
B. Generation of air pulses from: direct rock displacement and rock flying, ground
vibrations, gas release from rock-fractures and stemming are the causes of an air-blast
over-pressure.
C. Air over-pressures of 141 dB result in the breakage of some large glass windows,
however, at 171 dB small windows may break.
D. To minimise air blast, the stemming hight must be a minimum of 16 times the blast-
hole diameter, or at least equal to the burden.
29. Which of the following statements is not accurate?
A. Lightning is a major safety concern for blasters except when non-electric initiating
systems are used.
B. Non-electric shocktube is a signal transfer device made from plastic tube coated with
a thin layer of reactive material on the inside.
C. ANFO is unique because its explosive properties and primer requirements are very
dependent on the conditions of use.
D. When priming packaged ANFO products, even the best possible primers will not
overcome poor loading practices that can result in separation of packaged units and
overexposure to water.
E. Multiple-point priming should be considered to ensure that the explosive detonates
the entire length of the borehole, to minimise hole cut-offs and to initiate the powder
column at a faster linear rate.
30. Which statement is false? Detonating cord:
A. Contains detonator-sensitive Tri-Nitro-Toluene (TNT).
B. Can be used to transmit a detonation wave from one detonating cord to another.
C. Typical core loads range from 3.5 to 10 grams per meter.
D. Contains Penta-Erythritol-Tetra-Nitrate (PETN).
E. Priming ability is based on number of grains of explosives per linear foot.
31. The blaster-in charge is a key figure in all blasting operations. After pattern wiring has
been accomplished, prior to the firing action the blaster-in-charge should:
A. Meet with the hole loaders to make sure all wiring has been completed, then detonate
the shot.

B. Walk the shot to check all hook ups, make sure all personnel have adequate
protection and then fire the shot.
C. Dispatch all loaders back into the shot pattern to check all hook ups, wait for an all
clear and then detonate the shot.
D. Place all hole loaders on the nearest highwall crest to observe, at detonation, the holes
they wired to ensure complete firing of all charges.
32. Selection of an initiation system for a blasting operation can be influenced by which of
the following conditions?
A. Type of explosives used and blast site geology.
B. Weather conditions and distance to the nearest dwellings outside the design pattern.
C. Preblast inspections done on homes near the blast site and the size of the design
pattern.
D. Blast site geology and weather conditions.
33. 96 electric detonators, having a 2.3 /det. resistance, are connected with 50m of
connecting wires of 0.03 /m resistance and 200m of firing and bus wires with a total
calculated resistance of 2 for both bus and firing wires. The optimum number of
parallel circuits are:
A. 12.
B. 8.
C. 6.
D. 4.
34. 48 electric detonators of 2.4 /det are connected in 6 identical parallel circuits. 50 m
connecting wires show a total resistance of 0.165  and 100 m of both firing and bus
wires show a total resistance of 0.3  (ohm). The calculated Current per detonator is
A. 8 amps when using a 220 Volt AC-power source.
B. 10 amps when using a 220 Volt AC-power source.
C. 1.9 amps when using a 220 Volt AC-power source.
D. 45.8 amps when using a 110 Volt AC-power source
35. Which of the following statements is true about the geology of a blast site?
A. It is a minor impact on the force generated by the modern explosives used by blasting
companies of today.
B. It represents unchangeable, site-specific influences on blast performance.
C. It is easy for a blaster to assess which reduces the importance of spending excessive
time planning a blast design, therefore allowing more time to be spent on drilling and
explosives selection.
D. Regardless of the rock type, the direction of displacement always moves toward the
free face.
36. Which statement(s) about angle drilling is true?
A. It is used to fracture toes which cannot be fractured by vertical drilling.
B. It has a tendency to create unstable highwalls that are a danger to blast site personnel.
C. They can be drilled more accurately in comparison to vertical drilling.
D. Both A and B.
E. Both B and C.
37. ANFO is a mixture of ammonium nitrate and fuel oil. Which of the following statements
is true about ANFO:

A. ANFO is designated as a Fume Class 3 making it more dangerous than other

explosives.
B. Ideal mixtures of ammonium nitrate and fuel oil cannot be maintained over extended
periods of storage time.
C. ANFO cannot be used safely underground because of fuel oil fumes.
D. Care should be taken never to over-oil ANFO prills.
38. Which of the following statements about the oxygen-balance of ANFO is true?
A. Deficient oxygen occurs when the mixture of ANFO is 95%AN and 5%FO.
B. Deficient oxygen occurs when the mixture of ANFO is 96%AN and 4%FO.
C. Excess oxygen occurs when the mixture of ANFO is 94%AN and 6%FO.
D. ANFO with excess oxygen produces dark fumes while deficient-oxygen ANFO
produces orange-nitrous oxide fumes.
E. An ANFO mixture of 91% AN and 9% FO will result in 4.9% energy loss.
39. Which of the following statements about strength parameters and theoretical energy of an
ANFO, having a relative density =  = 0.85 and an absolute weight strength = AWS =
850 kcal/kg, used in a 10 in diameter borehole of 100 ft charge length is true?
A. ABS=722.5 kcal/lit, RWS=100%, RBS=100%, E=4.7 Gcal.
B. ABS=722.5 kcal/lit, RWS=100%, RBS=100%, E=4.7 MJ.
C. ABS=722.5 kcal/lit, RWS=100%, RBS=100%, E=4.7GJ.
D. ABS=1000 cal/cc, RWS=1, RBS=1, E=468.6 MJ.
40. Which of the following statements is true about the decay of air waves?
A. Air waves lose their intensity more uniformly than do ground vibrations.
B. Topographic features have little influence on sound pressure levels.
C. Ground vibrations lose four times their intensity each time the distance from the blast
site is doubled.
D. Shadow zones are, for example, shielded areas located on the far back side of a hill
away from the source of a blast.
E. Air waves lose three times their intensity each time the distance from the blast source
is doubled.
41. Which of the following statements is true?
A. A static indentation force less than the dynamic thrust force of a percussive drill
acting on the same drill rod can cut rock at the same penetration rate.
B. Maximum calculated specific energy for diamond-core drills is 200MJ/m3.
C. In percussive drills rate of penetration decreases with an increase in thrust load but it
increases with an increase in air pressure.
D. All of the answers
42. Which of the following statements about large size fragmentation by drilling and blasting
is true?
A. A homogenous (massive rock) produce less large rock fragments compared to a
fissured rock.
B. The spacing/burden ratio (S/B) should be less than 1.
C. The specific charge or powder factor has to be high for large size fragmentation.
D. There should be a minimum of 6ms time delays between holes in a row.
43. You are a competent blaster in charge of blasting 5 rows (burden = spacing = 6m) of
water-filled blast-holes in a blocky structure. Which of the following statements is true
about your decision?
A. You select inter-hole and row time delays of around 18ms and 54ms, respectively.

B. You spread out your muck-pile by choosing a row time-delays of around 198ms.
C. You improve your fragmentation by choosing 144ms row-time delays.
D. You minimise ground vibration by choosing 180ms row-time delays and 60ms down-
hole time delays.
44. The optimum (at minimum specific energy) spacing to depth ratio for rock cutting drag
tools (picks) is
A. 7.5 to 15.0
B. 1.5 to 2.5
C. 0.1 to 0.5
D. 5.0 to 8.0
45. Estimate the installed cutting power requirement of a TBM operating in a fine grained
granite given the following data: Typical specific energy = 24 kwh/m3; Required
production rate = 200 m3 per 24 h; Machine availability = 50%; Machine utilisation =
100% during availability.
A. 200 kw
B. 2000 kw
C. 40 kw
D. 400 kw
E. 800 kw
46. Dynamites, referred to as NG explosives, contain the following raw materials:
A. Nitroglycerin and sodium nitrate.
B. Ammonium nitrate and nitrocotton.
C. A phlegmatizer and fuel oil.
D. Both A and B.
47. The ideal-oxygen-balanced chemical reaction for ANFO is
A. C2H56O36N24 → 12N2 + 28H2O + 2CO2 + 2O2
B. 3N2H4O3 + CH2 → 6NO + 7H2O + CO
C. 3N2H4O3 + CH2 → 3N2 + 7H2O + CO2
D. C2H56O36N24 → 24NO + 28H2O + 2CO2 - 10O2
E. None of the answers
48. Possible sources of hazardous extraneous electricity are:
A. Stray ground currents and static electricity.
B. Galvanic currents generated by dissimilar metals.
C. Lightning discharges and radio frequency (RF) energy.
D. Both A and C.
49. Due to the influence of site geology and other site-specific factors, the performance of
each blast should be quantified in terms of the:
A. Amount and origin of oversize.
B. Ground and airblast levels.
C. Floor and highwall conditions.
D. Muckpile displacement and ease of excavation.
50. Actual damage to structures near blast sites from the use of explosives is rare. Damage
claims, however, can sometimes occur. To reduce unsubstantiated damage claims,
blasters should:
A. Keep accurate blasting operation records.
B. Monitor ground vibrations and airblasts, whenever possible.

C. Establish good public relations programs with the community near the blast site.
D. Both A and C
51. If a P-Wave, with a wave velocity of C = 3125 m/s and a peak particle velocity of Vp =
20 mm/s, propagates in a rock with a relative density of Rho = 3.2, the stress (Sigma =
Rho.C.Vp) in the rock is:
A. Sigma = 205.
B. Sigma = 200 GPa.
C. Sigma = 100 MPa.
D. Sigma = 200 MPa.
E. Sigma = 200 kPa.
52. Material wave impedance (Mu) is proportional to material density times wave velocity. If
a P-Wave, with a wave velocity of 3400m/s and a peak particle velocity of 12mm/s,
propagates (or reflects) in a rock with a relative density of 2.5. Rock wave impedance
(Mu) is:
A. Mu = 85.
B. Mu = 8.5 MPa.s/m
C. Mu = 850 kg.s/m2
D. Mu = 102 MPa.s/m
E. Mu = 102 GPa.s/m
53. Material elasticity modulus (E) is proportional to material density times wave velocity
squared. Peak wave stress (Sigma) in a material is proportional to material density times
peak particle velocity times material wave velocity. If a P-Wave with a wave velocity of
3400m/s and a peak particle velocity of 12mm/s, propagates (or reflects) in a rock with a
relative density of 2.5. Rock modulus of elasticity (E) and peak stress (Sigma) are:
A. E = 28.9 GPa and Sigma = 102 kPa.
B. E = 28.9 MPa and Sigma = 102 MPa.
C. E = 30.0 GPa and Sigma = 100 kPa.
D. E = 89.2 GPa and Sigma = 200 kPa.
E. E = 89.2 MPa and Sigma = 200 MPa.
54. Peak wave stress in a material is proportional to material density times peak particle
velocity times material wave velocity. If a P-Wave with a wave velocity of 3400m/s and a
peak particle velocity of 12mm/s, propagates (or reflects) in a rock with a relative density
of 2.5, it will probably cause:
A. No damage to the rock.
B. Damage to the rock if either rock Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS) or Brazilian
Tensile Strength (BTS) is less than 0.1kPa
C. Damage to the rock if either rock UCS or BTS is less than 0.1MPa.
D. Damage to the rock if either rock UCS or BTS is less than 0.1 GPa.
E. None of the above answers.
55. If a P-Wave with a wave velocity of 3400m/s and a peak particle velocity of 12mm/s,
propagates (or reflects) in a rock with a relative density of 2.5, it will probably cause:
A. No damage to the rock.

B. Damage to the rock if either rock UCS or BTS is less than 0.1kPa
C. Damage to the rock if either rock UCS or BTS is less than 0.1MPa.
D. Damage to the rock if either rock UCS or BTS is less than 0.1 GPa.
56. An initial blasting pattern is normally designed based on available information on: site
geometry, geology, explosive type, drilling and hauling equipment, fragmentation,
environmental impacts, cost, etc. and sometimes upon some assumptions on rock geology
and rock properties. If during the drilling stage however, the geology differs from what
was assumed initially, the blaster:
A. Should stick to the initial plan and blast the initial pattern regardless of the geological
changes.
B. Should change the initial blast design whenever there is good geological data-logging
information on drilled holes.
C. Should try a different type of explosive.
D. Should blast the whole site using the same fixed initial pattern design.
E. Should always monitor the drilling operation and change the initial blast design
according to the requirements of the updated geological information obtained from
drilling and drill logging.
57. Consider a 10m height bench-blasting pattern in a dry massive granite. There are no other
options except drilling vertical holes of 100mm diameter and using light bulk ANFO with
a density of 0.85. Let H, D, B, S, T and U represent bench-height, borehole-diameter,
burden, spacing, stemming length and sub-drilling length, respectively. Unless otherwise
modifications become necessary during drilling, an initial pattern-trial will probably be:
A. B = 3m, S = 3.5m, T=2.5m, U=1.5m.
B. B = 1m, S = 2m, T=1m, U=0.5m
C. B = 4m, S = 4.5m, T=3m, U=1.5m.
D. B = 2m, S = 2.5m, T=2m, U=1m
E. B = 4.5m, S = 5m, T=3m, U=2m.
58. Using the light density ANFO, the maximum burden in a bench blasting was calculated
from the eqution: Bmax = (0.95)(1.36) LD½ , in which LD = 6.5 kg/m is the loading
charge density, which corresponds to vertical blast-holes of diameter D = 102 mm. The
height of the bench, H =18 m, and the width of the round was 40 m. Which of the
following design parameters was correctly selected for a preliminary blast?
A. The maximum burden B = 4.29 m.
B. Sub-drilling length = J = 0.52 m.
C. Powder factor = PF = 0.79 kg/m3.
D. Spacing = S = 2.29 m.
E. Stemming = T = 2.29m.
59. Which of the following rock breakage methods gives normally the minimum calculated
specific energy?
A. Drilling.
B. Blasting.
C. Drilling and Blasting.
D. Drag-bit cutting.
E. Roller and oscillating disc cutting.
60. Estimate the charge loading density (LD) and spacing (S) for a first trial presplitting by an
Atlas Kleen-Kut-C type explosive in an average massive rock using 50mm diameter drill
holes.
A. LD = 2 kg/m, S = 5m.
B. LD = 0.5 kg/m, S = 2m.
C. LD = 5 lb/ft, S = 2ft

D. LD = 0.2 kg/m, S = 0.5m

E. LD = 0.2 lb/ft , S = 0.5ft
61. A blasting operation in a highly jointed rock suggests a time-delay ranging from 6 to
12ms per meter of burden between two consecutive rows. If we now require a loose
muck-pile, the range is 9 to 18ms time delay per meter of burden. Furthermore, if we
wish to limit back break, the range becomes 12 to 33ms per burden length. Therefore, the
optimum time delay that should be selected for a 5m burden length to cover all the above
requirements is
A. 12ms.
B. 6ms.
C. 60ms.
D. 9ms.
E. 45ms.
62. An Atlas-Copco percussion drill (RH571-5LS), with the following piston characteristics:
piston weight = 1491.2gr; piston diameter = 55mm; piston stroke = 50mm, was used to
drill a 32mm drill-hole in a granite rock under a thrust load of 50kgf and a blow rate of 33
Hertz. The total penetration in 15 seconds was 25mm. Find the average piston-blow
velocity (Vp) and the specific energy (Es).
A. Vp  16.5 m/s and Es  50 MJ/m3.
B. Vp  16.5 m/s and Es  5 MJ/m3.
C. Vp  1.65 m/s and Es  50 MJ/m3.
D. Vp  1.65 m/s and Es  0.5 MJ/m3.
E. Vp  0.165 m/s and Es  0.5 MJ/m3.
63. The project is the excavation of a 1500m long road tunnel having 88m2 cross-sectional
area (12m width, 2.6m wall height, R=6m semi-circular crown radius). Smooth blasting
with a blasthole diameter of 38mm is chosen. The drilling equipment is an electrio-
hydraulic jumbo with 4.3m steel length and feed travel of 3.9m. If the expected advance
is more than 90% of the blasthole length (3.9m), the relief large hole
A. Is either a single hole of 127mm diameter or two holes of 89mm diameter.
B. Is a single large hole of 97mm diameter or two 69mm diameter holes.
C. Is a single large hole of 57mm diameter or two 40mm diameter holes.
D. Is a single large-hole of 297mm diameter.
64. The water-resistant Emulite 150 (=1.21; RWS=113) in 25mm x 200mm cartridges are
used for the square cuts in the project with the excavation of a 1500m long road tunnel
having 88m2 cross-sectional area (12m width, 2.6m wall height, R=6m semi-circular
crown radius). Smooth blasting with a blasthole diameter of 38mm is used and the
drilling equipment is an electrio-hydraulic jumbo with 4.3m steel length and feed travel of
3.9m. With a single central large hole of 127mm diameter, the expected advance is more
than 90% of the blasthole length (3.9m). For the first (tilted) square cut, estimate the
distance from the centre of the large hole to the centre of the closest (38mm) blasthole
(B1); blasthole spacing or square-side length (S1); and the borehole charge W1.
A. B1 = 140 mm, S1 = 250 mm, W1 = 2.0 kg.
B. B1 = 130 mm, S1 = 200 mm, W1 = 2.0 kg.
C. B1 = 80 mm, S1 = 150 mm, W1 = 1.5 kg.
D. B1 = 300 mm, S1 = 200 mm, W1 = 20.0 kg.
E. B1 = 190 mm, S1 = 270 mm, W1 = 2.0 kg.
65. The water-resistant Emulite 150 (=1.21; RWS=113) in 25mm x 200mm cartridges are
used for the square cuts in the project with the excavation of a 1500m long road tunnel
having 88m2 cross-sectional area (12m width, 2.6m wall height, R=6m semi-circular

crown radius). Smooth blasting with a blasthole diameter of 38mm is used and the
drilling equipment is an electrio-hydraulic jumbo with 4.3m steel length and feed travel of
3.9m. With a single central large hole of 127mm diameter, the expected advance is more
than 90% of the blasthole length (3.9m). For the first (tilted) square cut, estimate the
distance from the centre of the large hole to the centre of the closest (38mm) blasthole
(B1); blasthole spacing or square-side length (S1); and the borehole charge W1. Using B1
= 190 mm, S1 = 270 mm, W1 = 2.0 kg in the first blast-holes. The burden (B2) and the side
length, or blasthole spacing (S2), in the second (upright) square cut are:
A. B2 = 250 mm, S2 = 560 mm.
B. B2 = 270 mm, S2 = 560 mm.
C. B2 = 140 mm, S2 = 270 mm.
D. B2 = 560 mm, S2 = 270 mm.
E. B2 = 560 mm, S2 = 250 mm.
66. A 5000 m long water tunnel is going to be blasted. Its cross-section is 55m2 and the
circumference of the roof and walls is 20m. In conventional blasting there is an extra
300mm thickness of unavoidable rock over-break (which needs to be refilled with
concrete) when compared to smooth blasting (controlled) blasting techniques. Assume the
extra cost for contour blasting is $40/m2 and the cost of concrete is $300/m3. Which of the
following decisions is most economical.
A. Apply smooth-blasting techniques to half of the tunnel length and conventional
blasting techniques to the rest of the tunnel length.
B. Apply smooth-blasting techniques to 1/3 of the tunnel length and conventional
C. Apply smooth-blasting techniques to 2/3 of the tunnel length and conventional
D. Apply smooth blasting techniques to the whole tunnel length.
E. Apply conventional blasting techniques to the whole tunnel length.
67. A positive compressive blasting shock wave propagates from a granite (Egranite = 50GPa,
granite = 2.65) to a sandstone (Esandstone = 10GPa, sandstone = 2.2.) at a peak particle velocity
of 200mm/s and at a normal incidence angle. The relative impedance and the reflected
velocity are respectively:
A. 2.30 and 284 mm/s
B. 2.30 and 84 mm/s
C. 2.45 and 284 mm/s
D. 2.45 and 84 mm/s
E. 0.41 and 116 mm/s
68. A positive compressive blasting shock wave propagates from a granite (Egranite = 50GPa,
granite = 2.65) to a sandstone (Esandstone = 10GPa, sandstone = 2.2.) at a peak particle
velocity of 200mm/s and at a normal incidence angle. The wave stress in granite, the
reflected wave stress in granite and the wave stress in sandstone (all in MPa) are
respectively as follows:
A. 2.3, −.0, 1.3
B. 2.3, −2.3, 1.3
C. 2.3, −1.3, 1.0
D. 1.0, −2.3, 1.3
E. 2.3, 0, 2.3
69. A positive compressive blasting shock wave propagates from a sandstone (Esandstone =
10GPa, sandstone = 2.2.) to a granite (Egranite = 50GPa, granite = 2.65) at a peak particle
velocity of 200mm/s and at a normal incidence angle. The opposite end of the granite
rock is a free surface. The reflected wave stress (in MPa) from the free surface is:

A. –0.4
B. 2.3
C. –2.3
D. –1.3
E. 0
70. A positive compressive blasting shock wave propagates from a sandstone (Esandstone =
10GPa, sandstone = 2.2.) to a granite (Egranite = 50GPa, granite = 2.65) at a peak particle
velocity of 200mm/s and at a normal incidence angle. The opposite end of the granite
rock is a free surface. The reflected wave velocity and stress at the sandstone-granite
interface are respectively:
A. −84 mm/s, 1.3 MPa
B. –84 mm/s, 0.4 MPa
C. –116 mm/s, −0.4 MPa
D. 284 mm/s, −0.4 MPa
E. 84mm/s, 0.9 MPa
71. Which one is the most efficient VOD (m/s) design for an explosive with a density of 1.6
gr/cc and applied to a massive hard rock with a density = 2.75 g/cc and elasticity modulus
of Young = 75.5 GPa?
A. 6000
B. 7000
C. 8000
D. 9000
E. 10000

APPENDIX 1 of Module 5 ––– Units and Conversions

Gravity = g = 9.80665 m/s2
1ft = 12 in = 1/3 yard = 0.3048 m
1 mile = 1609.344 m
1 yard = 3ft = 0.9144 m
1N = 1kg .1m/s2
1 Pa = 1N/m2
kgf = 9.80665 N = 2.204623 lbf
1cal = 4.184 J = 4.184 N.m
1hp = 550ft.lbf/s = 745.69987 W  746 J/s
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
1. Convert explosive volume powder factor PF from lb/yd3 to kg/m3. Powder
factor is the quantity of explosives used divided by the volume (bulk) yield of
material blasted.
W[lb]
PF[lb / yd 3 ] =
B.S .H [ yd 3 ]
where W is the weight of explosive (lb), B (yd=3ft) is the burden (rock thickness or
the horizontal distance from the free face), S (yd=3ft) is the blast-holes’ spacing and
H (yd=3ft) is the wall height. Powder factors range 0.25 to 2.5 lb/yd3 for surface
blasting.
lb kg yd 3 ft 3
x x x = 0.5933kg / m 3
yd 3 2.2046lb 27 ft 3 (0.3048m)3
2. Convert the empirical equation of explosive loading density (lb/ft)
LD = 0.3405  D2
to metric (SI) unit system (kg/m), where LD is the mass of explosives one can load per
unit length of borehole in pound per foot of borehole length (lb/ft ),  is the relative
explosive density and D is the explosive column diameter in inch. Find the new
equation for both cases of D measured either in meter (m) or in mili-metre (mm).
Solution: Obviously the coefficient 0.3405 in (LD = 0.3405  D2) is not dimensionless.
Hence we should find the new coefficient. When D is measured in m:

lb kg ft in 2
0.3405 x x x
2
ft.in 2.2046lb 0.3048m (0.0254m) 2
= 785.4253 kg/m.
Thus LD (kg/m) = 785.4253  D2 (m2). Second, when D is measured in mm:
lb kg ft in 2
0.3405 x x x = 7.8542E-4.
ft.in 2 2.2046lb 0.3048m (25.4mm) 2
Thus LD (kg/m) = 7.8542E-4  D2 (mm2).

APPENDIX 2 of Module 5 ––– Burden Design and Analysis

The two important design parameters in any bench blasting are the height and burden of the
bench. So, the question is what is the maximum burden and minimum height?
5.B.1 Maximum Burden (Bmax) and Minimum Height (Hmin)

Langefores proposed the following equation for the calculation of the maximum allowable
burden of a single blast hole.
Dc RWS
Bmax = H min = 2Bmax (5.B.1)
36 ck ( S / B)
Where the relative weight strength, RWS = 1 for ANFO, Dc is the charge diameter (= D for
ANFO), c = cr + 0.05 where cr is a rock constant between 0.2 and 0.6 with an average value
of 0.4. k depends on the drilling angle; k = 1 for vertical holes, and can be calculated by
Equation (5.C.2) for any angle   45. Notice cot() = 1/tan().
3
k =
3 + cot( ) (5.B.2)
Example 5.B.1.
Question: Design by calculations the maximum burden, minimum height and spacing of
vertical drill holes in a bench blast using ANFO, where the diameter of the blast holes is 10”
(=250mm).
Answer: Using Equation (5.B.1), the maximum burden, Bmax = 9.20m, and Hmin =18.40m. In
practice one can select B = 9m and H = 20m. For spacing one can use S ≈ 1.25 * B = 1.25 *
9m ≈ 11m.
5.B.2 Powder factor (PF) or specific charge (q)

Langefores’s single hole experiments revealed the following relationship between the burden
and specific charge:
a2
PF = q = + a3 + a4 B (5.B.3)
B
where a2 = 0.07, a3 = c, a4= 0.004. For instance q = 0.497 for a 10m bench blasting in a
granitic rock having c = 0.45.
5.B.3 Loading density (LD) or Loading charge concentration (lb)

For simple blasting operations of one single row of several column-charged blast holes,
where the detonation time delay between two consecutive holes is in the range of 6 to 15

ms/m of the burden, the loading density depends on the spacing-to-burden ratio (S/B), the
experimentally measured column-to-concentrated-charge ratio of 1.11 and the drill
inclination factor k. In other words Equation (5.B.3) becomes:
S
LD = lb = k (0.8)(1.11)  a2 B + a3 B 2 + a4 B 3 ( ) (5.B.4)
 B
We already know that this should be identical to the loading density calculated from the
explosive density (c), relative strength (RWS with respect to ANFO) and the packing
volume per unit length.
LD = lb = ( RWS ) c (Dc2 / 4) (5.B.5)
5.B.4 Burden (B) Calculations

In a blasting design, parameters of blasting (B, H, S, D, PF, Lb, Delay) can be determined
either analytically from analysis and calculations, or empirically from experience and
practice. Once burden is determined, the rest follows routinely. Burden can be either chosen
initially, or by direct calculations.
To calculate burden (B), we can substitute the known value of LD from (5.B.5) into (5.B.4) to
obtain a simple cubic polynomial equation in terms of the unknown parameter B. Having
done this the resulting equation can be written in a function form f(B) = 0, after bringing all
the equation terms to one side in the form f(B)=B3+dB2+eB+h=0. The burden B is one of the
real acceptable roots of this equation. We can find these roots either by using available
solutions, or by a numerical approach, like the Newton Raphson iterative method. We use the
latter because of its simplicity and practicality. Derivative of this equation is simply:
g(B)=3B2+2d2+e. Once we know these two polynomial functions, f(B) and g(B), we can
calculate the desired real root numerically from the following relation. In this iteration, we
first start with an assumed value of B (called Bprevious step) and calculate the ratio of these two
functions (f/g) and then subtract it from the Bprevious step to obtain a new B value called Bcurrent
step. If the Bprevious step was the correct root value, we would obtain the same result, i.e. Bcurrent
step = Bprevious step = Breal root. Otherwise, we need to continue until these two become equal or
very close within an acceptable error tolerance. Therefore, the procedure is to apply iterative
Equation (5.5.6) in a few steps until the error difference between the current and previous
values of B can be ignored.
f (B )
B current step
=B
previou step
− previous step
until Bcurrent step = Bprevious step (5.B.6)
g (B
previous step
)
Example 5.B.2
Question: Calculate maximum value of burden from (5.B.1) for light-ANFO-loaded vertical
drill holes of 250mm diameter. Assume the rock dependent parameter, c = 0.45, and a
spacing ratio of S/B =1.25. Compare the resulting burden value with the value calculated by
the equations (5.B.4) to (5.B.6) for the same 250mm diameter vertical light-ANFO-loaded
drill holes in a c = 0.45 rock at S/B = 1.25.
Solution: From (5.B.1) we have: Bmax = 9.20 m. Substituting LD = 41.72 kg/m from (5.B.5)
in (5.B.4) and taking the derivative: g(B)= f’(B) = 1 + 128.57B + 1.71B2 of the function: f(B)

= B + 64.29 B2 + 0.57 B3 – 5370 = 0, using (5.B.6) we obtain B = 8.8 m. As can be seen,

both relations give a round value of B = 9.0m.
Exercise 5.B.3: Show that Equation (5.B.1) can be simplified to Bmax = A . LD½, where LD
(loading density) is the kg charge per meter of the explosive and A = 1.47, 1.45 and 1.36 for
Dynamex M, Emulite 150 and ANFO, respectively.
APPENDIX 3 of Module 5 ––– Tunneling

A blasthole near an empty hole or opening:
Consider blasting of a blast-hole located at a centre-to-centre (c-c) distance, B1, from a large
empty drill hole of diameter , as shown in Figure 5.9.1 (Left). To fracture/fragment/throw
the rock between the two a charge density of LD(kg/m) is required which satisfies the empirical
(metric) equation (5.9.1), in which  = 2 tan −1 ( /(2 B1 ) ) is the wedge angle:
LD
B1 =  / 2 + sin1.5 ( / 2) (5.C.1)
0.55
   a1
B1 B2
Figure 5.C.1. Tunnel cast blasting from a blasthole to an empty hole of diameter , or side a1.
If instead of a circular hole the hole was a rectangle, or square of side-length a1, then the new
burden, B2, may be calculated from the equation (5.C.2), where  = 2 tan
−1
(a1 /(2 B2 ) )
is again the wedge angle for the square void (Figure 5.C.1 – Right Figure)
LD
B2 = sin1.5 ( / 2) (5.C.2)
0.35
Exercise 5.C.1
Question: Calculate the required burden from (i) an empty circular hole (=0.4m) and (ii)
from a square cut (a1=0.4m) when the concentration of the charge is (a) LD=0.3 kg/m, (b)
LD=0.7kg/m and (c) LD=1.5kg/m. (d) Find the charge concentration (LD) when the burden
is 0.6m.
Solution:
We need to calculate the three values of the variable B1 from Equation (5.C.1) in case (i), and
the three values of B2 from (5.C.2) in case (ii). However, (5.C.1) is an implicit function of B1,
and similarly, (5.C.2) is an implicit function of B2. Therefore, either an empirical method of
trial and error (Try a B-value and check till it satisfies the equation), or alternatively, an
analytical iterative method (eg. Newton-Raphson method) is required. For an iterative

Newton-Raphson solution we rearrange the equation into the form f(x) = 0, and find its
derivative function g(x) = f’(x) where x is the burden, and then find the root x from the
following derivative-dependent equation:
x = x − f '(x ) f (x ) = x − f / g
i +1 i i
−1
i i i i
(5.C.3)
where the subscript index i denotes iteration number. The derivative function g(x) for both
(5.C.1) and (5.C.2) can be written in the following general form:
g ( x) = f ' ( x) = 1 + 6 Ax /(4 x +  ) 1.5 2 2 1.75

(5.C.4)
where x = B1, A = LD/0.55 and  =  for the case of circular void, ie. case (i), and x = B2, A =
LD/0.35 and  = a1 for the case of square void, ie. case (ii). Therefore, the corresponding
iterative solutions are:
Case (i):
(a) 0.4m, (b) 0.5m, (c) 0.65m (d) 1.24kg/m.
Case (ii):
(a) 0.3m, (b) 0.5m, (c) 0.65m (d) 1.2kg/m.
Relief Cut: The second free face is produced by a cut in the tunnel face and can be either a
parallel hole cut, a V-cut, a fan-cut or other ways of opening up the tunnel face. After the
cut is made, the stoping towards the cut will begin. The stoping can be compared with bench
blasting, but it requires a higher specific charge (powder factor). It is worth reminding that
overcharge of a tunnel-blast does not have the same disastrous effects in an open-air blast,
where high precision in calculation is a must. In the case of V-cuts and fan-cuts, the cut
holes will occupy the major part of the width of the tunnel. The blasting order is as follows:
0-cut, 1-floor, 2-wall, 3-roof, 4-wall stopes, 5-roof stope. See Figure 5.C.2 for the details of
the relief cut (Right Figure) of the tunnel blasting (Left Figure).
10 •9 12
3 3 B4
B1
• 2• • 6
4
5
• B3 •0  a1• a2 •8
8
a4
•
3 1
4 CUT 4 •2
B •5
2 2 7
1 1 a3
•
12 •9 10 •
Figure 5.C.2 A relief cut (Right Figure) is required for tunnel blasting (Left Figure).
Every contour holes, ie. roof holes, wall holes and floor holes, have to be angled out of the
contour to retain the designed area. This extra contour over-break, or so called look-out,

should only be large enough to allow space for the drilling equipment to operate conveniently
for the next round drilling. The look-out value should never exceed:
Lookout  0.1m + 0.03H
Where H is again the drill-hole depth or length (the look-out is around 0.2m).
Powder factor (PF), or specific charge, is an important factor in underground blasting and it
is 3 to 10 times higher than powder factor for bench blasting. It normally reaches
exponentially-high values (between 2 to 6 kg/m3) for tunnel areas less than 20m2, however it
varies linearly in the range of 1 to 2 kg/m3, with a very mild reducing slope, for tunnel areas
greater than 20m2. Similar trends apply to the values of specific drilling or drilling factor
(DF) - meters of drilling per cubic meter of rock. Normally a DF = 2 to 9m/m 3 is required for
tunnel areas less than 20m2 and a DF = 1 to 2m/m3 for tunnel areas greater than 20m2.
Obviously, the greatest values of DF and PF are in the (square) cut area (DF  8 m/m3 and
PF  6kg/m3). PF reduces with the distance from the cut to a minimum value of 0.9kg/m 3 (in
large tunnels).
Large hole cut: The most commonly used cut in tunneling today is circular cut or large hole
cut (right figure in 5.C.2 indicated by the diameter ) drilled parallel to the tunnel axis. This
is a development of the traditional parallel burn cut, where only one hole in the middle was
heavily charged and the other four neighbouring holes were left uncharged. Small diameter
drill holes (D=38mm and D=51mm) are normally selected for (horizontally drilled) tunnel
blast-holes. The corresponding diameter of the empty large hole () is a function of the hole
depth (H), % of advance per round. For instance, to attain an advance of more than 90% of a
blasthole depth, H=3.9m, a large hole diameter of =127mm, or alternatively, 2 x 89mm
large holes should be selected. In general, when several (n) empty holes (i) have to be
drilled, an equivalent (fictitious)  should satisfy the area-balance equation,  = in½, based
on an equivalent area calculation.
Once  is determined, the first-square burden (B1), ie. the centre to centre (c-c) distance
between the blast-hole and the large hole is calculated as
B1 = 1.5  (5.C.5)
Referring to the cut in Figure 5.C.2, the length of the first (s=1) square, a1, is simply
a1 = 2 B1  1.41B1 (5.C.6)
The length and burden of the other three squares (s=2,3,4) in Figure 5.C.2 may be calculated
from the following relations:
Bs = as-1
as = 1.5(2) as-1 for s =2 to 4 (5.C.7)
The cut charge concentration is a function of the designed square burden (Bs) and the square
side-length (as). For instance a charge concentration (LD) of 0.4 (practically 0.55kg/m) of
Emulite 150 is required in the four blast-holes of the first square cut when D=38mm,
=127mm, B1=190mm, a1=270mm. Except the first three cut-square blast-holes, with a
column load distribution (LDc), both bottom and column charge concentrations are applied
to the rest of the blast-holes. Most blasting experts and explosive organisations use computer
programs for their blast designs.

Advance: The advance or the excavation length of the underground tunnel is restricted by the
diameter of the empty hole. Drifting becomes exponentially more expensive as the advance
becomes less than 95% of the drilled hole depth (H). The hole depth (H) is a nonlinear
(quadratic) function of the empty hole diameter () given by:
H = 0.15 + 0.0341 − 0.000039.4 2 (5.C.8)

where H is in meter and  is in mm and 50mm   250mm.
Charge Concentration: In the first quadrangle the charge concentration (LD in kg/m) is
maximum and depends on the burden (B1=1.5)mm, rock parameter cr, blasthole diameter
(D)mm and RWS (with respect to ANFO).
 (B1 /  )1.5 (B1 −  / 2)(cr / 0.4)  − 6

LD1 = 55D 10
 (5.C.9)
 RWS 
 B2 cr  −9
LD2 = 32.3D 10
 1(
 RWS sin tan −1 (a / 2 B ) 1.5 
2  ) (5.C.10)
Exercise 5.C.2: Langefors and Kihlström suggest the following equation for calculation of
the concentrated charge W0 for breaking a burden B of a rock.
W0 = a2 B 2 + a3 B 3 + a4 B 4
where a2 = 0.07 kg/m2, a3 = 0.4 kg/m3, and a4 = 0.004 kg/m4. (a) Give a physical explanation
for each term. (b) Calculate the charge weights required to break loose a burden of 0.1, 1, and
10m. (c) Calculate the charge length for an explosive having a density of 1.25 g/cc in a 10
inch diameter blast hole with a burden of 10m.
Solution:
(a) The term a2B2 reflects strength effects such as strain and fracture. The term a3B3 reflects
bulk effects such as density, bulk deformation and specific kinetic energy. The term a4B4
reflects gravity effects such as gravitational and frictional works in lifting and dragging of
rock.
(b) B(m) a2B2 a3B3 a4B4 W0(kg)
0.1 7E-4 4E-4 4E-7 0.0011

1.0 7E-2 4E-2 4E-3 0.474

10.0 7 400 40 447
(c) D = 10 in, expl.vol(lit)/m = D2/4  50 lit/m = 102/2. Therefore, LD = 50 * 1.25 = 62.5
kg/m, or the charge length = 447 kg/ 62.5 kg/m = 7.15m.
Exercise 5.C.3: It has been proposed that a 150mm diameter testing blast-hole can be
charged with ANFO and primed with gelignite (dynamite) of 25mm diameter and 200mm
length to initiate ANFO. A plain No 8 cap (detonator), consisting of an aluminum tube
containing a sensitive charge (Lead Azide as primer) and a powerful explosive (PETN as
base) is properly installed inside the gelignite. This cap will initiate detonation of the
gelignite (primer) buried in the ANFO at bottom of the blast hole. Assuming that the steady
state VODANFO-ss  0.7 VODGelignite-ss, provide reasons whether:
(a) Initiation of ANFO does not occur.
(b) Initiation of ANFO is under-drived.
(c) Initiation of ANFO is over-drived.
(d) Initiation of ANFO is at its optimum steady state VOD.
Best practice for priming is to use CAST-Boosters/Primers with very high VOD (> 1.5
VODANFO) and detonation pressures (> 8GPa) with diameters close to the borehole diameter
(Dprimer>0.8Dborehole) and sufficient length (>2Dprimer). VOD of ANFO reaches its maximum
steady state only when the borehole diameter is equal to or greater than 300mm. The steady
state VOD of ANFO is not achieved instantaneously. It is the length of the primer that
provides the time for the VOD of the primer to grow to its final steady-state VOD. to start
from zero to the steady state VOD of the primer. If this is greater than the steady state VOD
of ANFO sufficient time primer’s length which does not designed for priming is to inbedded
followed by the detonation of ANFO.
Nonel Detonators (GT/T): If one uses Nonel (GT/T) detonators, the numbers and delay
times are as follows:
Nonel interval number (#) Delay time Delay time between interval numbers
(ms)
(ms)
0 25 -
1 – 12 100 – 1200 100
14,16 1400, 1600 200
18, 20 1800, 2000 200
25, 30, 35 2500, 3000 500
40, 45, 50 4000, 4500, 5000 500
55, 60 5500, 6000 500
Using Nonel (GT/T) detonators, the timing sequence for the four square cuts are shown in the
right figure above.

APPENDIX 4 of Module 5 ––– Electrical Detonation and Circuits
5.D.1 Parallel and Series Circuits:

Total Electrical Blasting Resistance (R):
R = R D + RC + RB + R F
RD: Detonators resistance (series-equivalent)

RC: Connecting-wires resistance (series-equ.)
RB: Buswires resistance (series-equivalent)
RF: Firing lines resistance (series-equivalent)
Ohm’s law (volts = amps x ohms):
Vvoltage(volt) = Icurrent(amp) R resistance (ohm)
This implies I2/I1 = R1/R2 for the same voltage.
Single series circuit:

N N
R =  Rs ,
V =  Vs ,
I = Is
s =1 s =1
Parallel circuits:
N
−1
=  R p−1 , V = Vp ,
N
R I = Ip
p =1 p =1
Parallel-series circuits:
−1
Np Np
 Ns 
R −1 =  R p−1 =    Rs 
p =1 p =1  s =1 

Ns
V = V p = Vs
Np
, I = Ip
s =1 p =1
Power source provides the electrical energy (voltage and current required) to initiate the
detonators and fire the blast.
5.D.2 Blasting Galvanometer

An electrical instrument for measuring resistance and checking circuit continuity.
X R1=10 X R1=3
I1
G G
I2 R3=2
R2=3 I1 I2 L3=60cm
I L2=40cm
I
Wheatstone bridge
Exercise 5.D.1:
The Wheatstone bridge is used to measure an unknown resistance X, when the resistance of
the three other resistors R1, R2 and R3 are known. Find the resistance X in the two types of
Wheatstone bridge shown in the above figure at the balance position. At balance, the current
through the galvanometer G is zero.  means Ohm.
Solution: Using the relation I2/I1 = X/R2 = R1/R3 gives X = R2(R1/R3)= 3(10/2) =
15 for the left circuit.
Similarly, with the relation I2/I1 = X/R2 = R1/R3 we have X = R1(R2/R3) = R1(L2/L3) = 3
(40cm/60cm) = 2 for the right circuit.
5.D.3. Optimum Number of Circuits

Exercise 5.D.2:
Draw and calculate circuits resistance, and appropriate voltage and current for (a) a single
series circuit containing 20 detonators, (b) 20 parallel circuits each containing one detonator
and (c) 5 parallel circuits each containing 4 detonators connected in series. Atlas powder
detonators with the copper-legwire length of 24ft having a resistance of 2.3 ohms/detonator
are used and both 220 and 440 volts AC-power sources are available. The blasting circuit
consists of 100 ft of 20-AWG copper connecting wire; 200 ft of 14-AWG copper wire
(buswire for parallel circuits or extended fire line for single series); 300 ft of 14-AWG
permanent copper firing line.

Solution:
Given: RD/Det = 2.3Det, NDet = 20, LC = 100ft, LB = 200ft, LF = 300ft, RC/kft = 10.15kft,
RB/kft = 2.53kft.
Detonators Buswire
Connecting Line
wires
Fire Line
(b) Parallel
Buswire
Power Line
Source
(a) Single-Series (c) Parallel-Series
(a) Ns = 20; RD = 2.3 x 20 = 46; RC = 10.15 x 100ft/ 1000ft = 1.015 RF = 2.53 x

(200ft + 300ft)/1000ft = 1.265. R = RD + RC + RF =46+1.015+1.265 = 48.28. I = ID=
220volt/ 48.28 =4.57amps > 2.0amps & <10amps – OK.
(b) Notice that the reverse parallel hookup will provide a more even distribution of current,
and requires that the firing lines be connected at opposite ends of the buswire. Refering to the
figure (b) we have Np = 20; RD = 2.3/20 = 0.115; RC/Det = 10.15 x 100ft/1000ft/20 =
0.05075Det, or RC = 0.05075 /20 =0.0025. RB = ½(2.53x200ft/1000ft) = 0.253. RF
= 2.53 x300ft/1000ft =0.759 R=RD+RC+RB+RF =1.1295. I =
220volt/1.1295 =194.77amps; ID = I/Np = 194.77/20 = 9.74 amps; a bit high!, although
10amps > ID > 1.0amp.
Optimum number of series (Np)
For a parallel-series circuit the optimum number of series can be found from:
RD / Det 2.3
Np = N = 20 5
RC + RB + RF 1.015 + 0.253 + 0.759
As shown below (part (c) of Exercise 3.3), this arrangement produces the maximum current
of 15.21amps for each detonator.
(c) Np = 5, Ns = 4, RD = 2.3 x 4/5 = 1.84; RC/Np = 10.15 x 100ft/1000ft/5 = 0.203Np,

or RC = 0.203/5 = 0.0406. RB = ½(2.53x200ft /1000ft) = 0.253. RF = 2.53 x 300ft /

1000ft) = 0.759 R = RD+RC+RB+RF =2.8926. I = 220volt/2.8926 =76.06amps; ID =

I/Np = 76.06/5 = 15.21 amps; too high! because 10amps > ID > 2.0amps. Therefore, after
considering the available voltage in the power source, the single series (a) with the 220-AC
power source is recommended.
APPENDIX 5 of Module 5 ––– Range of Powder Factor (kg/m3) in

Rock Blasting
Table 5.3.1 Range of Powder Factors in Rock Blasting
Excavation Method Range of Powder Factor (kg/m3)

Surface metal mining 0.36 to 0.60
Surface coal mining:

• 46m3 dragline 0.30 to 0.42
• 3
23m shovel 0.36 to 0.65
• 13m3 front-end loader 0.36 to 0.95
Coal mining blast:

• Casting 0.53 to 0.89
Quarrying 0.36 to 0.89
Construction:
• Open excavations 0.15 to 0.47
• Trenching 1.19 to 1.78
Underground blast design 0.9 to 6.0
Hole-charge weight per meter length (kg/m) = 785  De2

• ANFO (=0.85 & D=0.1m), LD = 6.7 kg/m
Hole-charge energy per meter length (MJ/m) = 2793  De2
Presplitting0.5kg/m2of presplit-wall, or LDPS = 8DPSSPS

HM1 Tutorial Examples Module-5 Drilling Blasting-MIN2001

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Table of Contents

5.1.1. Refreshing Some Terminologies and Definitions: ..................................................................................... 1

© University of Southern Queensland

5.1.1. Refreshing Some Terminologies and Definitions:

Shock/stress wave front

Detonation is an explosive reaction that moves through an explosive material at a velocity

5.2. Blasting Induced Vibrations and PPV

© University of Southern Queensland

5.3. Stress Wave Reflection and Refraction

© University of Southern Queensland

In this equation  is material density, c is wave velocity whose magnitude depends on

© University of Southern Queensland

© University of Southern Queensland

4. Material wave impedance (“Mu” = ) is proportional to material density times wave

5. Material stiffness or elasticity modulus (E) is proportional to material density times

© University of Southern Queensland

5.4. Explosive Gas Pressure and Powder Factor or Specific

© University of Southern Queensland

Table 5.4.1 Range of Powder Factors in Rock Blasting

Excavation Method Range of Powder Factor (kg/m3)

Surface coal mining:

Coal mining blast:

Quarrying 0.36 to 0.89

Underground blast design 0.9 to 6.0

© University of Southern Queensland

Hole-charge weight per meter length (kg/m) = 785  De2

Presplitting*0.5kg/m2of presplit-wall, or LDPS = 8DPSSPS

5.5. Explosions with Time Delays

© University of Southern Queensland

Table 5.5.1 Nonel Detonators (GT/T)

5.6. Bench Blasting Design

© University of Southern Queensland

Given: H = 10m, PF=0.5 kg/m3, ANFO ( =0.85)

(ii) ISEE Design Method

© University of Southern Queensland

(e) T = (20 to 30)D = 2.8m to 4.2m T = 3.5m

5.7. Surface Delay Blasting

5.8. Controlled Blasting and Vibration

PPV = v = Q R 0.8 −1.6

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Free face Initiation point

 v 1.25 2  16 1.25 (5.8.2)

In other words, allowable charge in kg per ms time delay is 100kg/8ms = 12.5kg/ms.

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5.8.2. Controlled Blasting

Solution: We choose Sps = 10Dps and use Equation LD  8DpsSps.

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5.8.2.2. Trim Blasting

5.8.2.3. Buffer Blasting

dB (ft) = (3.5 to 4.5)WB1/3(lb)  T+3De, (5.8.3)

where WB is buffer-explosive weight in pounds, T is stemming length (ft) and De is explosive

5.9. Underground Blast Design

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5.9.1. Underground Tunneling

5.10. Fly-Rock, Air-Blast and Vibration

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5.10.1. Causes of Flyrock

Figure 5.11.1 Parameters and relations used in fly rock calculations

5.10.2. Causes of Vibration

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5.10.3. Causes of Air Blast

5.11. Self-assessment questions

5.11.1. Some Past Multiple-Choice-Exam Questions