LITERARY DEVICES AND TERMS

Literary devices refer to specific language techniques and structures used by writers to convey their
messages in a clear and interesting manner. When employed correctly, the different literary devices help
readers to appreciate, interpret, and analyze a literary work.

Function of Literary Devices

In general, the literary devices are a collection of universal artistic structures that are typical of all works
of literature frequently employed by the writers to give meanings and a logical framework to their works
through language. When such works are read by readers, they ultimately recognize and appreciate them.
Because of their universality, they also allow the readers to compare a work of one writer to that of the
other to determine its worth. They not only beautify the piece of literature but also give deeper meanings
to it, testing the very understanding of the readers along with providing them enjoyment of reading.
Besides, they help motivating readers’ imagination to visualize the characters and scenes more clearly.

Poetic devices are often lumped together with figurative language techniques (simile, metaphor,
personification, understatement). Each poetic device will be defined, and an example or two will be
provided.

TWO KINDS OF LITERARY DEVICES

Literary Devices have two aspects. They can be treated as either Literary Elements or Literary
Techniques. It will be convenient to define them separately.

Literary Elements have an inherent existence in literary piece and are extensively employed by writers
to develop a literary piece e.g. plot, setting, narrative structure, characters, mood, theme, moral, etc.
Writers simply cannot create their desired work without including Literary Elements in a thoroughly
professional manner.

Literary Techniques, on the contrary, are structures usually a word or phrases in literary texts that writers
employ to achieve not merely artistic ends but also giving readers a greater understanding and
appreciation of their literary works. Examples are: metaphor, simile, alliteration, hyperbole, allegory etc.
In contrast to Literary Elements, Literary Techniques are not unavoidable aspect of literary works.

To have a better understanding of Literary Devices, it is useful to look at their definition and examples:

COMMON LITERARY ELEMENTS

- Plot: It is the logical sequence of events that develops a story. It is what happens in a story, told
in a sequenced, chronological order. Example: “Samantha received a new skateboard for her
birthday. A week later, however, she lost it. She looked everywhere but couldn’t find it. Then one
day...”

- Setting: It refers to the time and place in which a story takes place. The time may simply be
“present day” Example: Over a hundred years ago, Abraham Lincoln was born in a log cabin...
- Character: a person or player (it can also be an animal, an imaginary creature) in a story; a
character can also be used as a word meaning “personal traits,” as in “Write a paragraph about
the character of the Big Bad Wolf.”

- Protagonist: It is the main character of story, novel or a play e.g. Hamlet in the play Hamlet.

- Antagonist: It is the character in conflict with the Protagonist e.g. Claudius in the play Hamlet.

- Narrative method: The manner in which a narrative is presented comprising plot and setting.

- Dialogue: Where characters of a narrative speak to one another. They are spoken lines between
characters, set with quotation marks; each new speaker’s lines appear in a new paragraph; when
one person speaks for an extended time (to himself or the audience) it is called a monologue.
Example: - “Where are you going?” Nicole asked.
-“To the library,” replied Jeremy.

- Motive: it’s a character’s reason for doing what he/she does. Example: “So why did you tear up
Janie’s paper?” demanded the teacher. Margaret said nothing and stared at her shoes. The teacher
would never understand. She could never understand how it felt to be the new kid in school, and
to have one student turn all the others against you. All because you...

- Conflict. It is an issue in a narrative around which the whole story revolves. The conflict is the
problem – or challenge – that the main character faces. Example: The main character may be
challenged by another character (two kids running in a race), by nature (a boy struggling to
survive in the wilderness), or by him/herself (a girl who must get over her fear of speaking in
front of an audience).

- Climax: the most exciting moment of the story, where the main character faces his/her ultimate
challenge. Example: In Cinderella, the clock begins striking twelve, and Cinderella must rush
home before the handsome prince finds out her secret. That is the climax. The following day,
when the prince finds her again and fits the glass slipper on her foot, is the outcome, or solution,
of the story.

- Solution or Outcome: the last event of the story which tells how the story ends; it explains
whether the main character met his/her challenge. Example: “And they all lived happily ever
after,” is a common outcome in fairy tales.

- Point of View - Narrator: A person who tells the story, the perspective from which a story is
seen or told; there are three main forms: First Person: (I and me are used; the narrator is actually
a part of the story) “I woke up first, alarmed that I had slept too late and missed my chance. A
look at my brother’s bed told me he was still asleep, snuggled up under the covers.” Third
Person: (he and she are used; the narrator simply helps tell the story, and lets all character speak
for themselves) “Pete woke up first. A look at his brother’s bed told him that Sam was still asleep,
snuggled up under the covers.” Omniscient: (he and she are used; BUT the narrator not only lets
characters speak, but can also “get inside their heads” to read their thoughts) “Pete woke up first,
feeling somewhat alarmed that he might have overslept and missed his chance. He looked at his
brother’s bed and was glad to see that Sam was still asleep, snuggled up under the covers.”

- Mood: A general atmosphere of a narrative.

- Atmosphere: mood or feeling developed through descriptions of the setting and senses (how
things feel, taste, smell, sound, look.) Example: “Camping in those woods, time went slow. The
thick forest air just sat on you, hot and wet like a wool blanket, while mosquitoes droned in your
ears and stung you on the back where you could never quite reach to smack them.”

- Theme: It is the central idea or concept of a story. The meaning of a story, what it reveals about
human nature; plot is what happens in the story, while theme is what it means. Example: Plot:
young soldier fights his first battle. Theme: war is useless; fighting solves nothing.

- Tone - the author’s attitude toward a subject, revealed by choice of words and details.
Example: “The girl cast a lonely thin shadow on the gray brick wall, as her classmates tumbled
merrily in the brightly flowered fields beyond the school.” (the author feels sorry for the girl who
isn’t playing with the other children)

- Parallel Story: It is a narrative or picture story enclosed within another story, where both stories
are of equal interest. Example: In a story about kids putting on a play, both the onstage scene is
shown, and the backstage happenings.

- Inference: conclusions which can be drawn by the reader based upon limited clues or facts
presented by the author; the reader is encouraged to discover things for him/herself without being
directed by the author. Example: “Mark’s father was surprised the following week when, all of a
sudden, Mark quit begging for a dog. He began spending much more of his time out at the old
barn by the creek, and had even begun to ask for seconds and thirds at suppertime.”

- Stereotype: a stereotype is when a person is portrayed in a fixed way. Example: “The old woman
had gray hair, a cane, and sat in a rocking chair.” A reverse stereotype is when a person is
portrayed exactly opposite to a fixed generalization (the usual way we would consider them.)
Example: “Bobby’s grandmother laced up the red boxing gloves. She danced on her toes as she
approached the bully, and smiled as she said, ‘Okay, you big oaf. I’m gonna give you what you
deserve...’ And with one swing, she knocked the bully to the ground.”

- Trait: a word which describes a character’s personality, or how she/he acts in the story; it must
always be backed up with evidence (support or proof) from the story. Example: “Beatrice is very
patient with her little sister, Ramona. Ramona is sometimes stubborn and doesn’t do what she is
told, but Beatrice never yells or complains. Instead, she finds clever ways to get Ramona to
behave.” The word patient is the trait; the second and third sentences provide the evidence, or
proof, from the story.

- Understatement: when the author presents something as less significant (important) than it really
is. Example: “Mr. Brumble looked at both test papers, back and forth, back and forth, noting that
all the answers were exactly the same. He put the papers down on his desk, crossed his arms and
said, ‘Boys, we have a little problem here.’”

- Circular Story: a story which begins and ends at the same place, usually following a character
through different adventures or events; although the character arrives back where he/she started,
he or she should now have a different perspective or feeling based upon experiences. Example:
“A poor farmer travels to the city where he observes many expensive buildings and belongings,
all owned by the same man. He is jealous of that man until he sees a funeral, and learns that the
 rich man is dead. Although the man was extremely wealthy, he could enjoy none of that in death.
The poor farmer returns home, happy with what little he owns because he is alive to enjoy it.”

- Episode: a small event that is part of a larger story; it can stand alone as almost a “mini-story”
(events which repeat are typically called episodes).
Example:
In the Three Little Pigs, the wolf tries blowing down the pigs’ houses in three separate
episodes; he is successful the first two times but unsuccessful the last (notice that the three
events are alike).

- Event: an action in a story that moves the story forward; usually something happens to the main
character, or the main character takes action against someone or something else.
Example:
In the book Ruby the Copycat, Ruby sees her friend wear a certain dress, so Ruby comes
to school in a similar dress. Her friend tells a story about a wedding, so Ruby tells a very
similar story. Each time Ruby sees her friend do something and copies it, that is an event
in the story. The most important event is called the Climax, and the final event is called
the Outcome, or Solution.

- Evidence: information from the text that supports or proves an inference or fact.
Example:
We know that the Wolf wants to eat Little Red Riding Hood because a) Red Riding Hood’s
mother warned her about wolves in the forest; b) the Wolf tried tricking her once in the
forest; c) he has already eaten her grandmother; d) he drools when he sees her; e) he says
things such as, “All the better to eat you with!”

- Flashback: interruption of the present action to insert an episode that took place earlier; this gives
the reader needed information to understand a current event, or a character’s motivation.
Example:
“I could tell that Jimmy wasn’t going to back down. He stood up to bullies before, like
back in first grade when Roger Neary used to eat everybody’s snack. One day Jimmy
had caught Roger in his snack bag, and...”

- Flash-Forward: a sudden jump forward in time, usually used to eliminate unnecessary events
between the more interesting events of a story.
Example:
“Quietly, Janice slid the book into her backpack. A week later, the teacher asked if anyone
had seen her copy of The Magic Mouse. ‘I’ve looked everywhere,’ she explained, ‘and I
just can’t find it.’”

- Foreshadowing: clues used to alert the reader about events that will occur later; used to build
suspense.
Example:
“I laughed as we snuck out the back door. The plan had worked out perfectly. Nothing
could possibly go wrong now!”

- Poetic Justice : it is an outcome in a story where good is rewarded, and evil is punished. Example:
“The wolf is boiled in the pot at the end of the Three Little Pigs; good Cinderella marries the
 handsome prince; the lazy grasshopper suffers a hungry winter because he did not work hard like
the ant to store up food.”

COMMON LITERARY TECHNIQUES

1. Allegory: It is a literary technique in which an abstract idea is given a form of characters, actions
or events.
For example: “Animal Farm”, written by George Orwell, is an example allegory using the actions
of animals on a farm to represent the overthrow of the last of the Russian Tsar, Nicholas II, and
the Communist Revolution of Russia before WW2. In addition, the actions of the animals on the
farm are used to expose the greed and corruption of the Revolution.

2. Alliteration: It refers to the repetition of the initial consonant sound in words. That is to say, it
is the repeated consonant sound at the beginning of words or within words; used to establish
mood and rhythm in a story. An easier (though less exact) way to say this is that alliteration is
when the first sounds in words repeat. Alliteration often works with assonance and consonance
to make phonetically pleasing arrangements.
Examples: - Jakia jumped in the jar of jelly.
- Despite their mother’s warnings, the children chose to chew with their mouths
open.
- Better butter always makes the batter better.
- She sells seashells at seashore.
- The grass grew green in the graveyard.
- Bed, Bath, and Beyond

Notice the repetition of the “j” sound in the first example? Alliteration is not always so jarringly
obvious. Sometimes it is very subtle, such as in the following example:
- He keeps the kitchen clean.
Though this example is still pretty obvious, it shows that even when one word starts with a “k”
and another word starts with a “c,” it is still considered an instance of alliteration. When we study
alliteration, we are concerned with the sounds of the words, not just the letters.

True alliteration has three words beginning with the same sound (two words beginning with the
same sound would be called alliterative)
Examples: bucking bronco; miserable morning; Dunking Donuts; Peter Parker; Krispy Kream;
Coca-Cola; etc.

3. Allusion - a reference in one story to a well-known character or event from another story, history,
or place. Examples: “The rise of the baseball team from last place to first was a real Cinderella
story”; “At times, teachers need the wisdom of Solomon to make decisions.”

4. Ambiguity - when a single event or expression can mean two different things to two different
people. Example: When it is announced that another baby is on the way, Father remarks, “That
could create some problems.” He means problems with money, but his young son thinks, “You’re
right, dad! I don’t want to share my room and toys with anybody!”

5. Analogy - comparing one thing to another very different thing in order to explain it better.
Examples: A school is like a garden where children are lovingly raised and cared for; the rabbit
 shot from its hole like a rocket; the confetti fell like snow in a blizzard as the parade passed
through the city streets (these three analogies are all written as similes)

6. Aphorism - a brief statement expressing some truth as shown is a story; it can be a moral, or
proverb, or maxim. Examples: Don’t count your chickens before they’re hatched. Everyone is
afraid of something. Don’t make a big fuss if someone isn’t like us.

7. Assonance: Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds. It is often used in combination with
consonance and alliteration.
Examples: - He saw the cost and hauled off.
- Will she read these cheap leaflets.
- The snow in the rose garden groaned.
Notice the repetition of the “awe” sounds in the first example, the “e” sounds in the second
example, or the “o” sounds in the third example? Assonance can be subtle and may go unnoticed
if you’re not scanning for it.

8. Caricature - exaggeration or distortion of a physical trait or behavior, to make a character appear

comic or ridiculous. Example: Her nose was needle sharp, with nostrils as small and black as a
mouse’s eyes.

9. Consonance
Also known as near rhyme, off rhyme, or slant rhyme, consonance is the repetition of consonant
sounds in the middle or at the end of words. Using consonance is a sophisticated poetic technique
that can create subtle yet beautiful lyrics or lines of poetry. Here are some examples of
consonance:
Her finger hungered for a ring.
The satin mittens were ancient.
You could paddle through the spittle in the bottle.
Though the first of the above examples is also an example of personification, we are interested in
the repetition of the “nger” and “ng” sounds. If nobody is around you right now, say out loud,
“hungry and angry.” Notice how similar the words sound? What you are hearing is consonance,
or the repetition of the “ngry” consonant sounds.

10. Enjambment: Enjambment is when the writer uses line breaks meaningfully and abruptly to
either emphasize a point or to create dual meanings. When a poem is read, the reader will
conventionally make a slight pause (shorter than a comma) when transitioning from line to line.
When a writer uses enjambment, he or she uses this space to spread an idea over more than one
line, either creating an alternate interpretation of the lines or drawing attention to the enjambed
words.
Example:
Rolling through the field in the
Dead
of winter.

When the word “dead” is placed on a line in isolation, it invites the reader to focus on that idea.
Surrounded by empty space, the idea may resonate powerfully. Though enjambment could be
used during a speech, the term “enjambment” is generally applied to the study of poetry.
11. Hyperbole: obvious exaggeration which is not meant to be taken literally. It is A deliberate
exaggeration of actions and ideas for the sake of emphasis.
For example:
Your bag weighs a ton!
I have got a million issues to look after!
I’m so hungry I could eat a horse!

12. Imagery: Imagery refers to the mental pictures which are created by descriptions using the
senses, so that the reader can see and feel what the character is experiencing. It is the use
of figurative language to create visual representations of actions, objects, and ideas in the mind
of the reader in such a way that they appeal to the physical senses. It is when the writer or speaker
uses their descriptions to access the senses of the reader or listener. Sometimes this is called using
sensory details. By “senses” or “sensory,” it is meant the five senses: sight, hearing, taste, touch,
and smell.
Examples:
- An old lump of snow melted in the corner.
- The chirping crickets filled the empty night air.
- I was awoken by the pleasing scent of the bacon as it wafted down the hallway.
- Even the dark, shiny leaves which usually clung to the chimney of my grandmother’s house
hung dry and brittle on that hot summer day.
- The room was dark and gloomy. -The words “dark” and “gloomy” are visual images.
- The river was roaring in the mountains. – The word “roaring” appeals to our sense of hearing.

As you read the first example, you might be visualizing snow melting, because the description
accesses your sense of sight. When you read the second example, you may imagine the noises
that crickets produce, as the imagery in the text references this sound. And as you encounter the
third example, you may recall the aroma of bacon based on the imagery in the sentence. Good
writers don’t just tell you things, they show you things by using imagery.

13. Irony: It is a figure of speech in which words are use in such a way that their intended meaning
is completely different to their literal meaning. It may also be a situation that ends up in quite a
different way than what is generally anticipated. In simple words, it is contrast between the
expected outcome and the actual way things turn out, a difference between appearance and reality.
For example:
- So nice of you to break my new PSP!
- In the book Holes, no one in the courtroom believes that Stanley Yelnats is innocent. Once he
gets to Camp Green Lake, he lies about committing the crime, but then no one there believes he
is guilty! He just can’t seem to win.

TYPES OF IRONY:

Verbal Irony: it involves what one does not mean. It occurs when a speaker speaks something
contradictory to what he intends to say. It is an intentional product of the speaker, and is
contradictory to his/her emotions and actions. To define it simply, it occurs when a character uses
a statement with underlying meanings that contrast with its literal meaning. Writers rely on the
audience’s intelligence for discerning the hidden meanings they intend to convey. Writers also
use ironic similes to convey exactly the opposite of what they intend to say, such as “The soup
was as hot as a block of ice.”
 Situational Irony: it is a literary device that occurs when incongruity appears between
expectations of something to happen, and what actually happens instead. Thus, something entirely
different happens from what the audience may be expecting. Or the final outcome is opposite to
what the audience is expecting. Situational irony generally includes sharp contrasts and
contradictions. The purpose of ironic situations is to allow the readers to make a distinction
between appearances and realities, and eventually associate them to the theme of a story. An
example of this are the following:

- A fire station burns down. This is unexpected because one would assume the fire chief would
keep his own building safe.
- A marriage counselor files for divorce. This is ironic because the expectation is that a professional
who coaches couples through rough patches would herself have a strong marriage.
- The police station gets robbed. Again, the expectation is that professional crime fighters would
be able to help themselves; in this case, by securing their own station.

Dramatic Irony: it is when the reader knows things that the characters in a story do not. Example:
We learn that Mary really likes Frankie because she writes about him in her diary all the time.
Frankie, however, is scared to ask Mary to the dance because she is so popular and “cool.” We
wish we could tell Frankie what we, as the readers, know!

14. Personification: means to give a thing, an idea or an animal human qualities.

For example:
The flowers are dancing beside the lake.
Have you seen my new car? She is a real beauty!

15. Metaphor: it is a suggested comparison between two unlike things in order to point out a
similarity. Metaphors, like similes, compare two distinct objects and draws similarity between
them. The difference is that Simile uses “as”, “like” or “than” and Metaphor DOES NOT.
Example: Hot orange coals burned at the edge of the woods as the wolves watched and waited
with hungry eagerness. (the wolves’ eyes are compared to orange coals because of their brightness
and color)
For example:
“My love is like a red red rose” (Simile)
“He is an old fox, very cunning.” (Metaphor)

16. Onomatopoeia: words that imitate, or sound like, the actions they describe Examples: bang,
slurp, ping, slam, hiss, squish

17. Paradox: a statement that reveals a kind of truth although at first it seems to be self-contradictory
and untrue Examples: It was the best mistake he ever made (he learned a lot from this error).
Good fences make good neighbors (fences do separate people, but they help people get along by
making boundaries clear).

18. Parody: a humorous story that makes fun of another well-known story by imitating it; characters,
plot, theme, setting, may all be copied or changed for humorous effect Examples: The True Story
of the Three Little Pigs by John Scieszka has the story of the Three Little Pigs explained from the
wolf’s point of view, and in his version, it was all a big misunderstanding and he was innocent.
19. Personification: a description in which an object (or animal, or idea, or force of nature) takes on
human characteristics or actions Examples: the tornado stooped to snatch the house; the sun hid
its face behind the clouds; the rain tapped against the window with its wet, insistent fingers.

20. Portmanteau Word - a portmanteau is suitcase which opens like a book, and when the two sides
are shut and fastened, it is ready for travel; a portmanteau word is one in which two real words
are combined, but some letters deleted, in order to form a new word Examples: fog + smoke =
smog drip + sizzle = drizzle horrid + tremendous = horrendous The term portmanteau word was
coined (invented) by Lewis Carroll, the author of Alice in Wonderland. Today, many famous
brand names are actually portmanteaus: Examples: Gogurt = go + yogurt. Compound words are
different, since they do NOT eliminate letters when joining the two smaller words. Examples:
dog + house = doghouse life + guard = lifeguard

21. Pun - a humorous use of a word or phrase that has more than one meaning (or two similarly
spelled words that sound alike) Examples: “If you really want to keep warm, try bear skin,” said
the trapper. “But won’t I be really cold in my bare skin?” asked the boy. Why is it easy for an
elephant to travel? He can carry his own trunk. Repetition - the author purposely repeats words
or phrases; the author is trying to create rhythm or suspense, or is trying to really emphasize a
certain idea. Example: It was all gone. Burned to ashes. He had no clothing, no blankets, no bow,
no hatchet, no map. It was all gone.

22. Repetition: Repetition is when the writer or speaker knowingly repeats a word or group of words
for effect. This is a strong rhetorical technique that can also be used to build a theme in a speech
or poem. It is important to note that it is not considered using repetition when a writer or speaker
repeats essential articles, prepositions, pronouns, or conjunctions that are frequently used
unintentionally as the mechanics of language dictate.

Examples:
Nobody, oh nobody can make it out here alone.
Free at last! Free at last! Thank God Almighty, we are free at last!
Love is a red, red rose.

In the first example, only one word in the sentence is repeating: nobody. Nonetheless, this is still
considered repetition. A poet, writer, or speaker may also repeat more than one word to have a
greater impact or to highlight the importance of an idea, such as in the second example. In the
second example a whole group of words repeats: Free at last. Each method of repetition can
effectively embolden a message.

23. Rhyme: Rhyme is when the end or final sound of two or more words are identical. If the end
sounds are not identical, then the speaker or writer is using consonance or assonance instead.
Rhymes can also occur internally or on the inside of words or lines of poetry. A rhyme may also
be monosyllabic (a one syllable rhyme) or polysyllabic (rhyme two or more syllables), such as in
the following examples:

I left my punch card on the lunch yard.

I drove a race car to the space bar.
We saw a butter fly flutter by.
 This is the technique that students most often associate with poetry, but I encourage my students
to try writing free or blank verse, as it takes much poetic skill to freely maneuver within the
confines of a rhyme scheme.

Internal Rhyme - two or more words rhyme in the same line Example: I bring fresh showers to
the thirsting flowers.

24. Rhythm: Rhythm is when the arrangement of words creates an audible pattern or beat when read
out loud. A good way to check to see if a passage of text is using rhythm is to just hum the sounds
that the words make rather than clearly pronouncing them. If you can hear a song or identify a
form in the sounds, then the text is rhythmic.
Examples:
- There once was a guy from Chicago / Who drank away all of his problems.
- I know it is wet and the sun is not sunny / but we can have lots of good fun that is funny.
- Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?
- Instead of just reading these examples, trying humming them. Do you hear how they sort of
bounce? This is a rhythm.

25. Simile: it is a comparison between two unlike things, using like, as as, or than in the comparison.
Example:
- The leaf spun to the ground like a descending helicopter.
- More nervous than a long-tailed cat in a room full of rocking chairs.
- He was as mad as a hornet.

26. Symbol - any person, object, or action that has additional meaning beyond itself.
Example: “As a boy sits in class on the first day of school, he stares out the window at a basketball
sitting on the blacktop in the playground. As he gazes at it, the basketball reminds him of all the
fun times he had over the summer.” The basketball becomes a symbol of summer.
SOURCES:

1. http://literarydevices.net/literary-devices/

2. http://www.ereadingworksheets.com/figurative-language/poetic-devices/

3. https://literarydevices.net/irony/

4. https://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-situational-irony.html