Fg so2s Diserele Mathemalies 26s Theows ADF] Unit-) Mathematical legie Thtrocluetion : ee ee i fama of reatening Such ax legal aquements, mathematical terms ov Conclusions in a ecenkife theory Leet on bet of oC . “the main aim of legia is peoviole eles a. by which one Can determine whether particular arremant or edt is valicf Ang Collection ef’ soles er “4 theory neeck a laopaye Gen be glatec!. in which there voles or theory \ ee Et is necessary +o develop a femel Language Calle! object Laogeage. In Emad bogegge. 7 yas is well- defnect th fet ey Scientific aliseiplineAevelops ts orn objec! long age whol a ace Certain woell-cefrecl toons an,f well _ epecifh of these seams the oly LPerence belween logic ‘ chises lines is thal ner in ches Fsciptines the ~ | Conternes! wot the vse of object beeps whereas jn baie we are interestlasf 9 anal sy, | “ti i the object language a we ace vg t, Stalement8 € nolation: the Object langage Containg ao set of at dleclaralive Genfencez C simplest fen) fet analyzed Connect be forthee broken clown & analy into Simplest Sentences. Hencel. These are known as Pimazy ae may those declarative Sentences will be aolmitea! in object boquage that have eréand only one trot, Valve . The 2 peteitle tuth valves a re TRIE 2 fase anol Hheke ase Ghanctell by a “FY eespectwely Occasionally : hey are also dlenolec! by Ihe a ee respectively Repositions : Al declasalive sentences which can be signed one 8 only one of the 2 pesible troth values are Calle! @ Son Stolements oF Prepesitions. vises in the East } Troe Sen sets in the West. Sun never rises.) 6 1 = oe eee, RepesitionaD legie : The Prea of loge tet deals pith reposition, a Small Propositional legia :PRE Connectives + Statements that ave considerec!’ initial Lye an object language ave cate! aloric | pray Statements. Me alee Gry be bere: Loni tatere L Statements Mhrcug Connective, anol the vetuitant is melecwlae/ Compound Slabemen Teoth Table: Delermine the woe vase of the slatemant toe te exch postilole Combination ef the tre vals af the Compancl slatement A table showsing all suc teeth valves is called’ Ire hob date of, te theo, ' Negation : 4 The negation of a Statement as grey Yesraccl by introclucing the voera! nal. dk a Proper place in he statement.Pee” We “p? denotes a statement . then lenoles a Stale : a. the negation 4 ae og fe # ie writen A Tp or “ap” P Teoh able for Nagar 2 Conjonetion : Canjanction Bf ee ee “pa q whic is veal at “p and 4” The statement p & 4 has Co lee ie Whenever loth pe have troth valve “T" Se fee ee aeDigjurohen Diajyncton of - 2 sha rm a kL Ce Ae aye denoted by the slatement PY4 wich is veal! as p pe 4 the lohement “nya,” vahen beth har bul valve “F only has "F" otherwise ib is te, 4. TP then Ceonditional* > statemen's. whieh is of Ps 4 ae any then dhe statement “p a, q 2 read as : if Pp then + "| is calle! Condliticna)’ Statement | Implicotion statemet# The shetemen “p —y "bas a dik valveWhen «=, has the truth value anal Pp has 4 whe oe Hh yalue “T" otherwiee it hot truth Value “7” T ap F F 7 T e T 5. Biconedlitionaf : ap P& 4 are any 2 Statements, then the Statement p< 4 whic és Ts “pb and only fq” 38 Galea! bicorcbhena! Stolement. ‘The Statement pod has both “p"& “4 have “pt “T" Whenever doth value iclentical troth Values otherwis& it isResults + | ” | AZ Ih athe statement 'p —-4 > P is called the hypothesis or priecclant 2 4 is che) | t the . Gspalusion on CrSeya” | * the statement “p—a gq” mmaghe rm ax i) 4 P p i) gis necessary fee p i) Pts suffleien? fer 4. pony if 4. V) a whenever Pp. Veen ee 4. A he | slolemait pee 3" ray abe ue exprescec! on: : Dp is necesiany g Sfficient on 4. 1) Pp then 9 | Cooveesely19 033 | Converse, Contea-Pasttive & Imerse | | | the prpesiion 9—p 8 Called the Comerte d p—4. the propestion 14—> tp 8 called the Cota pesiive of P— 4 the proposition pa tq is called he inverse of P—4 " phal are the Contra - positive, Converse & inverse of the implication 7 . ; We Were bean oes rol pin pererer ik ic oy coe 4 — ‘1p We know thal 4 whenever p means ¢ p then 7 he ae slatemer| Lecomes ie ik is raining then the heme team cles net Win.Bo4 I = ; inverse f Lis pol raining he home 42 tons ap — 74, Converse “the heme team ches rot then kis cei, 1 4 t Contra -positive * wirs, Hen it is not raining j i the home team Well- formed formula: A wel-formed Pomel Con the feawing ler + the statement variable (p.4) slorclig be poo’ 4 abe is a well formec! formula + xp pisa roel. frome! tae then Tp is * Wwell-Pemecl foemola. . a (p @ q)are wel-Lemec! thee then v4). lprq), p49) ancl (paoq) af boel-dormenl) Le tiFs dlotement formula - A statement formwla is an exprericn chnelec! by a shing Consisting ef Veriablez, parontheric 2 Connecting Symbols te Trchcale which, of the fobewing [ee ore well- Lrmecl ie D 1p aq) ~ well forme! 1) 4 Cpvq) — wet formed W) (P49) Aq — soot well oemmecl C2 Gnmectives are adjacent’) — Wet well formec! ( No paranthexis) YD Cp— 16 p v4) = well formed WP 4 Tawtolegy tor) Tenticaly Toe (or) vriversally valial A Compounc! prepesition thot is alecasys tre ivrespective ef treks valves of the prepesitions that occur in iby is calles! a Tavtelogy Conteaclietion Cor) Tentically Fabre A compounal preposition that is alasags falee of twbth valves of the prepesitions ivrespectvethet occur in i ie calles! a Cantsasladion ESRI ake aes { 1 Cont yer A preposition dhat is nether oa taviolegs ces Q Contraction is calles! 0 Conbignny ng fervlae ar L Trelieate whicl of he Plowing jor if tavtolegies or Conteaclichens Y (pag Pp) i) oa Cp v4.) iw) tq ap)aq) iv) (cp 1p)— 1p) OO aaa a le ri Fear F eee 7 Fon oF ct: amOmOTR aAay Cp Cpvgd) P 4y ee P— Cpv4) ale Te T 18 ale £ ae ae F a al T F F € T Aes: Tavtelogy HW) CCtqapraa) ta taqap (Gare)a4) ig — Fe F F ae & ae al f 0 F F F fF T F G Ins + Contradiction \F al ‘ RSubstitution instance ! D Lrmola X Is called 2 Substitution Thelane. : another fomla ¥ ip @ be oblaineal Pang : Stbstotng fororolas for Some variables of ae a Conoliien that the Same fomila is Sobstitote oy the same variable cack. lime Ht occurs. ex: lee Y: p—(4 nae Substiteting VV PEP ea we ae xC0 — v)— Ca ar) X is gaid +o Le Substtete instance of y it Equivalent : he Propesitons Pp anal 4 are ail fae fogicall viva 7 poly eqpivalnt Pf (pea) is a fateh and a is cbnoll ef by (P= 4) a‘ (p=4).ry Duel Formulas : Q Formlas xX, x” ge said te be duals of gol. over if one Can be cblaines! teom the ober b4 replacing CA by yD Cv y ADT e and F ly T. Statement Algebra : the cet ef all statements under the operations A, v ancl 1 represents an algebra aalles! the Statement Algebra. Tavlolegiea! Impleatien : A gtalement -X ie soll to be thvtolezeally imptes! a Sletement Y if anal ony if x—2 ¥ is 2 tavblogy and) is clenoted by x =z ¥, Exclusive OR? bet p 4.4 be ang 2 prepesitions isiteswe ax ‘Cord 20k co ey dlenotel by PV 4 Cor) P @4:* the proposition thatis TRUE when exoctly one. of Pee tater ree bet net beth ancl is false otherwize Tt is ako Gillec! Exclusive Disyenctien fei Pv «| +} oy fle F } Tr F ia | € T T eae mel J NAND : the wore! WAND ic a Cambinalion of not ¢ AND stands for (wot — Negation , Armd — RAND is clenoted Conjenction). The Connective bg the Symbel to | Pie ay = fomlet PE Oty) =—_> 1 (pag) \| nok? the — word! i NOR is a Combination of NoT g hi oR Where (rot — Negation, or — Disjenetion). the Connective NoR is lenotect cob bey the gnbel for any 2 formolas p & 4, (pla) ar tlpry) Result = We Coneeien V1 0 ae et ef each. other . Th orolee 4 obtain he dual of the Leemole shovle! intechange rd we that natecles * liad t # addition to making the other interchange mentioned.| Reblems + — ; | © L Shees that: f Spe ee eee i) Cp a (1g ad Gandy Cpardecr y apy cP AY)) ancl Ctpadg) AAA AAAAA 2. show thal are lopealty equivalent Answers + 1. 1) B® peve 's:[pP— 04) JP 0] is @ Tavtolegy il P4% 4acr pg) 14 Tave pray) s | 1 rTTt T T F T T Wott F iz F F F F et Fils & a T T T TR F T T T Tv T | Ea ifr T T F t tT Saeeatie T FoF t F Ft rT rt T i a FRE cg T T Tv a Tt is a Tavtology p— (q4—r) =? p lag ve) is TRE Hence proveol4) To prove! g.|- / . ii) iF; Ftp acta avd | veqav dv (peed « oy 2 Tawtology 4 1a 4 : lA qa Apap Cay ae’) Pe tre : + 4 ae 2) oo *DMAAmAAS DO nia nanaa. AANRASa maAamarnans ee se eee 2. To prove s: [tepy(apag)) J —7 (1p 474) Po ea ey ciea Ts eA - F + : : . a a og 2 i de F £ aT a : F ly at Te Equivalent formvlas + J let pg a ¥ be oy 2 statements then all las maybe \ poritten + Persible form pvp =7P ? pap=7P Cindempetert lavos) 2. Cpvq) vt ae Dare? plac) prlaye? (Porociative | lav $) Cpaqoreo saat o pv4 =" TYP | Commutative laos) png <=> Ar av) &x (pva ACpyr) PAG eee Cee ee (Distibvtive loan) pa lavr) =? (pag dv Cpar) pat =7P penton lass) pve dP PYT&?T | (Demination lates? pAr err (1p)

tp v.14, (De Morgan § laws) S PvCpaq) erp CAbserption laws) PA Cpv4) > pTnphotion rms: oe i AY —pP ! i | 2 pa) = 4g 2. —4 — | : PAlCp—+ 4) aq : F —pva | lo. 14 A (pq) tp Gy | ". Ap ACpy Ee Se tian | | 4 4 12. (po | Pp Vago 6 sain 7 os ate (p74) =p | por | 3. (pvq)alp —1)AG—1) => 1 Reblems |. Withevt using Truth Table See dps) [+e vc4pv4,)J a Ciev+) Hs —_ 4(tpaq))¥ (4p vdapv4)) ty ie a (1p v4, ation law (P74) v (Capytp) 44) Rovble Neg inoler las & (pagdv (1p "9 *9 inolempotent law prsocatve law <> ((pag)v 10) ¥% oy ap)) v4 *t v4 by negation lave Distributive law ah CC pvp (av > (Tr AcqvP) —————=—————(qv4p) v4 by Tdenlity lous - (4p v 4) vq, by Commective aus Se tp v4 vq) by pansociotive lave => 4p vq by Tndlempoter? law 4 > RHS ie poveel ; 2. withoot using Teth Table show that (pa tagard) vlardv (00? 3. 4 (pv Capaq)) and (tp Aq) are legicalis equivalent. 4. (pag) (pv4) is a Tavtology Answers: a. LHS : wr (tp altgar)) va” on prsocio# * > ((apadq) Av) Vv (aar)v (par) bg 1a ve & ((4paty) av) vi av PD) omy by piste Jawa C40pva) aed v (lpva)ar) by Demergar’s lave & Commototive law. a [repvq) v Cpv4) Jar by Distribotive lacs. a oT Aw by Negation lavo a7 i by lelentitg lavo e& RHS Hence Provecl 3. Lys: =<” pv (tp a4a)) — 4D cpvapd a Cpv433 by cistibetive law a Cracpvady by negation ie “7 41 [pvaJ by Identity lave —? Apa 4 by Demorgan avs =? pus Hence Proveal, <7 (pa4q) —- Pp since [ PA4q => po 7 pvy since [ p =? eva d <7 RHs Hence Proved.> Cpaq)- »Cpva) > 1Cpaq) V Cpv4) Since P49, > ap vq) Cp v 14) v Cpv4) By De- Mogan’ \aw Cap v dav pov By Arsociotve law Ctpvp vqdvgq by retedie lays CT v1a)y 4 8y negation lave =? 44-4) (+ v4) By Domination law = T By Demiration law Hence Ravedt14.3.2823 Normal forms : By Constructing a, Comparing Truth hh, ue - determine idhelher 2 Statement formulae: A € w Qse equivalent bod: this mehec! ic veg bhatt 45 Solve even on @ Corrpvter becuse He po of entrieg — inceeasez vey ropiclly as n incaceet A better mmethec) 3s 40 transfoem the statement fomvloe As B + some Sep fem As andl B's such, that a simple cemparision af As 6 Bs chows weber As? 8.a The Stanolorol forms Bie CA! imal Geen, a. Consrical Levit let A CDs Pe. Pa - pp? be a statement Mera Where B, Pa < Ppa ase the primitive Vasiabler, TE A as the uth valve “7 for alleash one Combination ef tuth valves assigned] © ppp then A ig iol bbe Saliefabl. The process of determining me boite ro. ef eps Whether a given Slotement drome is a tactology o Cankackctian or alleart Sabsfable is brawn ax Decision Peblem bt decision problem of a focenela mbich involves more re of Vasiables | esp is fUite alifficll event wile the help of, @ Competes Welvard ja nael of ober prececluces known a4 Reduction to Normal Foner Flementorg Recloet C4 ~ ancl) ‘ A prodlect ef) the voriables arc! their negaher * 2 formate is cael an elementary pedlecl.the Slanclacl foems are aallece! permal formn or Canonical hoemi let A CP, Popa . Pr? be ai statement formula. Pa are the primitive where Pre Paw vee eavkillder: TPA bes the roth value “T for atleost ore Combination of devtb Valves assigrecd Bociphice. ps then A is aio) b be Sateflable. The process of ce tecrmining tin a foite ro. of steps Whether a given Statement dformela is a tavblyg chien oc atleast Satisflable is know a2 Mil Problers but ef Condvacl Decision decision problem of 2 Peern Sal nich Involves more re of Vasrables esp is fite obffeutt event wile the help of QA Competes se are Ta nace! of other procactves known <% Redbetion Jo Normal foes N Elemento g Recloet : CA ancl) A proclect off the voviables anc? herr negations in 2 fermola is calleol an. elementary proclect .BW ie pa q be ang 2 adome vanables Then P, PAg, PAIq, PArp. aApaa a atp are elementary products Elemenloy Som Cv -0e) A som of the Variables and | their nagotion. io oicferavios %& taalles!. an Elementary Sum aoa Pp. ipvqa, pvt, pytp- av 7P ase elementay sum factor ! Ang pot parl of ar clementory proclect oe dlementomy sum which is itself a elementary prodlict or sum is 4 Rector of the procloct er som. we gee ne Bele of 8 GED Results + ‘ A An Elementary procleet is identically false iP 2 aontains atleast one pair of factors in which. ene is ragation of te ober. Go paip — FA An elementary sem is identically Tue if it Contains aljeast one pair of factors in which, one is negative of the cher Gop v tp —T Disjunctive Nosrral form [one l: AD ferwla vwhicl is equvelect to a gven Bee oth fe of) elemenlarf predict is calleol a Disjunctive Nosmal form of the gver formula. Receclore 45 obtain DNF: | ae equivalent erecta. Can be ablaines! by replacing —» and <> with A,vand 7 2. Apply 1 4 the Bomvla or +00 past of the Pomila @ nok to the variables. < 3. using De Moggers law, apply 4 40 vasiables a Repeaten! appheation of Detribotive las will ‘ike dhe required DAF.Resulls a aver formula is fabs ia DNF » iclenticall he P ag. ae meal " ically ies +A ger foemola may oe have unique Def, we meg ge diPReerd DNF if we apply Distsibutive law in diffrent Woe’ 1. obtain DNF of P aflap—a > Solvton : <7 Pa (p—4) aa eA Cap vq? ee (Patp) v Cpav? Ls Elementary Product Som of Elemenlor Preoluct Cony vockve Noimel! Brey [ewe]: wwalent toa an A Roomolo. which is procluet of formola and vohicL Consists N ts alec! a Gonjonctive Aiowmal elementary som Boom Btw geen Female Resolb: Re erclen ital ave if coy elementary sum A ener in aneé is identically mee.le Obtain CNF af ta (p49): oc Serr <= pa (pv 4) ae Elemento { Produced of Zlemeno+y gum ) Miaterms * le pe q be 2 gtatement variables . whic. consists of Constevet all possiele farmolo Conjonetion of po its negation oe Conjunction of ae its negation. None of the Penola should! Contain teh o voviable @ ite negation’ the Commutoti® Delete 2 Pernvle Pw ts of ang ore of he remain) formelae Sich — Conjenctios ef pat aalled . Matern of pet the Motes of pe 4 we A PAG, BAD, PAG, PAY) TAAP L ApatyResslls! Pp&rq or Ap is inclocte!. but nat boty a” — Patp one 401g, are not allowed. # No D Mioterms ave Eqpivalent. * Eo ante bee ele Ge Gaclly one Combination ef the trth valves of the vosichk p& 4. ~~ = gener, fe quer ‘hn’ one. of variables , dhese poill be 27 Minterms. x Minterms or 68 Variables p,q,y are (pagar), Cpagqary), Cpargard, Cpadqatr), Ctpagar). (4paq ate), (apadq ar). Cap 214 A Ar), Normal form (PDF): valent to a aver Rinciple Disjunctive A formole which is equi sum 4 Linda ewe constr of 852 of Minlerms is called Pinciple Disjunctive Normal of Prodlvet of Canonical Farm form or Sum Construction ef PONE sihest Truth Table 1. Tp replace corclitionals & Biconalitionals by equivalent ferrule inclecling Nive 42. Te use DeMagan® ano) Distibotive lav. 3. Te chop oy demertary proce! whicls is a Crtea diction. 4. To oblain Miotesms 9 the Dajonctions 1. inbrooluciog missing Lectors 9 S. To Delete ilentical Minternte, keeping only c that appear in the disjore tions. Mazderms : for a grer_ ne. of Variables, Mazes consists of disjenctions in Del) excl variable or its Neston bet pot bom ears only ance. T oP ¢ b Resolts : The. The Maxterms are Tuals of interme * Different Moselesrt have dhe .Tevth value F fou LfRcent Combinations of Job valves of Variables . % the Maxtesms of - Pana 4, are (pvq), Ctpvag), (pv 14), Cap v 14,)lore fos frolig Masters using Tuth Bhle- pv, | v4 [evra | Pet4 Rreced Pid aesalate T a le F ee F T T | ae as i = a ff al F ale T Te (pea (qe>p): |. obtain PowF € PDNF of Solution: Lets. (pr) > (4<7 p> P14 «| 4p | pr qaoP Ss Maclerm | Motes Selle led [eat ae ale oe pa Paver t]r fet T T diet [fae ant fee |e ae F F [tay] Tle lFle c fi fa el eat T ee ea Efe er = elec) T T ee [ee late Fo lpvav tlic ei ale F a FLF IE PONE * au vay“ (priqyt4 Cpvtqya (4p v4¥ ac) a (4p Cpvqy?)ee Yy Pepe: Cpagar)d v Cpaqaardvl 1p 44 Av) To Brel Pene. S< Cty va Cac» p) ia Treap) v¥ Ja (q—apda (pa) [2 pov py parger>(paq)a (49) =r Pyr) x Cravp da CApva) — [Double negation bu 7 (pvrvPDaA (tav pve) A CtpvqvF) Co. pvFe py ae Pepe) v Canta) Jal (qu pry Crary) a [apvq)v Carav)] Ce. dpap > FJ <7 E Gvavr) a Cpvtqyy)4 Cpvaqvr) 4 (pv tqvtr) A C aprqy tr) 4 apvave) J [2 Dishibutve law] = Cpvavy)Te fad PDN: The possible Maxchewms are: Cpvave), ¢ prqv te) _Cpy davr), Cpv 14 vir), ‘Ctpv que) Cp yy tr), py 14v), (1p v 14,v tr),1S <= Cpvqv te) aC Ap vtqv 0) A(Apy 44y%) Cetaking 17 S =? (1p014 Ar) v Cpag adr) v (paar) which is PDNF.Unit 2 Taference theo andl Redicate Calewlos: Tol te ference ‘: The cin Prction of logie is de proviole voles of the theory abtecins J d infeence or principles ef! i inference theorg | ith Soc wiles is knew 0% : cs Eis Goncerec! itl the infesting of a Cenclesien fh, reasoning. Certain premises. ald Arguemend / Valid Conclusion: Tf a Conclusion is deve! frera a set off premig by asing he acceptecl vies of yeatoning then suc, a prces ef derivation is Galled Decletion or a Formal cy and the ageerment or Conclusion is lle — valiel arguement /valicl Conchosion The methecl ef determining vohether the Conclosten nop fs bow te pr poner cay the relevant tnth doble is callec) desl table technique. : Definition : let eo Ss oe Eo woe Say the : { J bescaly Blois eee Py a vate!_ adusion C Consequence) enjvence of the Premice p f ard 7 oo 7 Pp 4 tootelegy Ge) p meq, Result? m7 i. of om Fron oo Se premises {un ,... Heo Polo . . p Genevvsion C folewns legicaly if MAW A ty Pe Truth Tale Tedbriques: Given set ef premises oe Goenclusion i is posible fo deleemine whether the Genclosion legicaly flew from the gran premises by Gnchucting Toy eee fee tel Bop. Pr be all the atomic Variables eee in the premises Co Ihe canclusion C, Tf all porible Combinations of Teoth Values asrigned! fo Par Pa ees Pn ps) iP the truth valves ao oo Be) an a table, then it is Sty Such a table whether H,AH2A-~ Hm => © is TRUE. 2% we look foe he rows in voi all fay. He ay Le for ecy aah 10 i C abo has the value 2c T then HiaHzA-~ HeAY holols . Pe the YOWS in Whied 3. Allernatively we may look Vv d we y | ao if in every ed eo Lo ele ee Hie Ge ten Hag , H,, => ¢ Problem : Determine whether the Genclosie? C fallowss the logical premises | ie d(paq) 2 C2 ap i) He p—4 i) Hs tp 4: p=>4 C+ 1 (pag) Solution H Ha : Poe ee lee or he © F 7 ©) : [2 f @ @ : t F © ae HAH, @Cre fF = z : fe) 1 ( 5) ae £ c a 1 mann 54 . 2 F F@ @ “HY AH, ec they ove logically Equivalent. Without usa Truth Table: the Toth table technique becomes difficll shen the no. ef alormic variable present io al the femdac representing the premiset & the Conclusion is large Te Overcome this disadlvarlage. we need be investigate other powitcle methocls without Sia the tuth table of clerivation by whic. Now, we eee hepeaes Die i vahel Poke pee portevlos Peurmta. is. val Consequence of a eo ae Ries he Thfecence theo: i ee op. iad in the A premise image inteoclceo! al any pe 1 derivation, 2. Role -T: “hen ioe be le de A formola S magoe te the ieoly implied by ong one 4, > Jas in the derivation prececling formol u Bi ern TP we can derive 5" flor Rand the sat of Premises then we (an desive Rs i i Sel ef Premiset alone Result I Rule - cP is ake calle! Deduction theorem Whenever the Gee premise ic wed in the derivation, then the méthec! of ete cal indivect methecl of derivation. Direct Methecd : 2 Pee ee ee premise p—og , p ond gor Selotion : Pi pq: P. 4 Civ Step a Derivation Rle | = Ble P Gi) Rle T, 4) éW ae Role P Rule 7, Gi) & Civ) ] iy)ea 2 Show that i “0 Svv is Javtolagically implica! by @ v4) A (pr ala 8) Solvken * Pp? Cpyy?: (pr), 64 5)! c Derivation Role P Rle T,O Role P Role T.@ 2© wile T, O Role P ple T,© e® Rule T,@ a cmos hat 14. Po moves 1P Po pees ay, é ap > Role P Role P Rule T,0&@)a P—4 4. Show that +, (pv4) isa valid Concleaicn co he Premises pv4, Qe Pee ot Solution : Derivation | Rule poe ee? : i Role 3 4p | ple T.O€@ 4 pv4a Rule P a 19 4 | ule T @® 2 4 Rle T, © &@ 7. 4-r Rule P 8 2 gle T, O8@ 4 +A Cpv4) ple t,@ &© from th 5. Show that p— S cr be —— i vie 2 premises Ipvq, qvv.* —S 7G aS P= tpvg, qvr.x as. P X Step Derivation | Role } | | I. Pp | 7 tev4 | | 3 | |4% Role T, © &@ - 4 Rule P 6 4—*" Role T,© 7 ¥ wie t, © «© 8 Sener Rule P 4. . mle T, © *@ (:deowenis Rule _c-P Tadiccct Method of proof / Consistency of premises: A set of formulae ee ie ead ae be consistent if thee Conjunction has the truth valoe T’ for some assignment of the truth valves lo be alomie Vaviololes appearing in hy,ha-- hao Th other wog. © set of foerates. husha ebm is inconsistent if Jpeie Conjunction implies 4 Contsadliction. Cie) hi Abs A--+- ee ae ones: isang formola - Note thot AW is a een 2 ee cece”, and syfBcient foe implcotion thot hyahg Acc Sher be @ Contrclcton.ff Proce stone | qeuctves Me cegeler of the at Qanelsion 08 4 new premise 2. from dhe naw premise together oe geen premises derive a Contracl: af, en Asser! the Doe Gee Consider 1c qs a new premise 3 inference from dhe premises c | Roblem : i foo et Cpra? follows eee Ap a i} using indirect metheed of post 4 ii Pe tpaty C. Ge ag ) Ge) a[acpaqod 4 Paq is a new premise. Derive p and Ap. : Role Role P (new ?) Roe ae © Role P4 Pp Role T, © PA 4p Contsadiction Hence, the adblitiona! premise (p*4) & the gven premise lead to Contwooliction. so, 10paq) is derivable from pa 14 - 2 Using indivect ipethod! of proof, ones P— 1s fom P—@ vr), 4 — 1p, S21", p. Pe P— Cave), 4 —= 1p, S—=1r, p Cc: pods Consider 1(p—ds) co a new premise. J PAS is a premise Derivation Role P Cwew P) Role P, p—& Rule P. Ap v (qvr) vle T, @ 4—71PRule 7, a. Role .© Contradiction I Step Derivatt jon fe SS ee a eta ee | oe New premise 2. P vole) |i 2 ° qv) wle P A ave vule T, 6@ c sa sole P 6 Asv 4x wle t,@ 7 Ss wie tT, © 8 Ae wl 7,©.@ q 4 nile TO® lo vole p 41 ) | 4p yle T, 4,0 \2 padp Contradiction ©.pence’ 3, Pave My inchrec} method) that 14, p—4, pve = *. Proof * p: 14, P49: PY cir sider , i Ay as a new premise step Derivation Role New premise * Rule P 7 Role tT, @ 7 Rule P. 7 Role P. 6. Rule T, @o®© fn \ 7 Rule T, 0@ a Rule T, of a. Contsoclicton7 4 07, { there ave mening hen travelling or Aff, ly 2) ) af they awve on time mer travelling Wh ng diffu 3) They arrives 2) therfore there was no rreeting Is Conshitotek a welJ Pon dime show 4hat dhe stofermer Arquemen « Selotion + there ave meeting leh p-show thot the fallowi 6. Wind premiset are incensistent p ° Ctndirect ) ). OM 1S ievegular ee the school. 2) Tf Rar ile f faite is the school then he is vneducated, 2) I et b Rom studieal by himself, then he is not oneducatecd. 4) Ram is ineqular to the school & studies bg himself. Selulion bet P- Rom is irregular to school 4 — Ram faile in school ys Ram is unedveated S —> Ram studies by himself. Derivation Rule P Rule P Rule T @-© Rule P8 yo 1s Rule T, 4) ¥ & pits Rule 1, DG) Tt 4p V As Rule T, © 8 a (pas? Role T,@ 4. | ¢p 4s) Role P F contiacliction és nH is ieConsisten? + Predicate Galevlus : o —— variables Such of = Z are often statement involviog x>4e, *F yt and 7 frond in mathematical ossection? andl io compel e neither Tue programs these statements 2" ror fale When the valves of, the Vasiables are not specified - the statement x74 st » the vasiabk * has 2 park, the part is the subject of the elatement x The ard part: the predicate is “Sa” We can denote the statement 7+ by R @&) > Here P denotes the predicate >4 ard x is the VariableY The Statement} Pex) ig rr 4h whe yoloe of € propositional function P at once a value bas Leen asigned 40 the yoriable x, the statement Plz) becomes preposition, and has a when all the variables in a prepositional function ase waigned valves, the vesolting ghaterments becomes a preposition with a certain Truth Valve However, there is ancther important way fom a prepositional Lnetion » 2 types of quantification pill be disevetec! romely oo and) “Existential guankfeation the Area of logic that deals uth preclicates S quantifiers is a7 predicate Colevlos Pace of Variables + — $ A predicate yefess bo pronery he the subject of the stotemen? car have -i A . entence Sod Corboing preelicat e is a fo foe the veriables. he Variable is the set of all valves thot vray specific yalues of Substitute J domain off predic, nombex, le substitvled place of verioble . Tn the statement: “Ran is a Painter’ y pat vis a painter” is calles) a2 Predicate Tt is denoted! by “PP ard — Ram is denote by ‘©’. The above statement is denot. PCH). In “ the statement: Ram is Shortes then Tp “is shorter than” is denotecl by ‘s’ and theis names Ram & Dev ic denoted 1 ro and “Q' , then the statement is denoted by SOnd). Dev”. Hen, . “s S js ea 2- Place Redicate. Likewise we bave np) Plece Reedicateae. Probert * 1. Let P Crd 4 demote the stolencr) x 7 | : . wha: ave dhe dy uth valves PC a of Pls) and PC2), Serene” BG. 2 aoe iG) oe 4, EAL 6 ¢ a ) denote the statement x-yt? ioral are the, bel wolves of the prepositions eo lek @ C12) 4d @ C.0)- Solvtion : GG eo) 7 Ie =7 FALSE Q (2,0) > 27042 => TRUE Result n _ variables a Statement involving ee ee bog Oo eo Xn \ Xn). x A statement P Cx. Maem of the fox [oD ey dhe preposition! ynetion P is the valve ato on- fuplé-Contain deelavalive Sentences invel thal inetionte quan lity Such 98 ol ‘ ey} one these words help clelermnp,, x answer de the question bom ao Sine, Beh womb indicate quantity, they ore oy quontifiers 3 he quontifer PAL ie alle - quantifier anol is denoted by Wy ‘a Yepresents cach of aye following Phrase, Since they all have enentally the tame 9 Vex, D For Alt xe 2) For Every x 3) for Gach x. The Qvank few “some” Gvantifer and ig denoted! is an Existential nae *epresents eact, ef fatossing phrard exists an ce such Hot ion Such thet 4 > There ig atleast one x | 5) Some % fis sud SQ}- jel - ferred fermola o Receate Calevlus « Th is obtained vsing the flowing le: # Atomic formula is a el ed formula, if P is a well- formed foemnvla, Ap is a well femecl formula 1--pv4,, pag, Ps Pas aerate val - formed formula. * rf P is a well - formed) Pomola and x is ang variable , then ¥%.PCx) and Jopla) are well-formed femvlasin 4. ff 7 4 Coven hi Pxdv GCI) 4RC>) Here, y perkia! GeertiZ, - ne Sepe of the Exi® sed . 4 y f 37 and he Keune, formula [ptnyv ated 5 A eenencg of r - J xe 4 4 f Pe boun ence % in (P(x) v Olx)) is 4 L t ere free Keteree he Variable % in RCx? Universe of Discourse * p nese alg seal seer The variables hi ae + at , hich are members Soo mn these objec whicr = t gd perticslar Too set. €och a restricted Set is celled 5 Universe of Discourse (or) Domain ef individeals (er) Universe. Universo! — Qsantifier: The universal quantification of Pla) isthe Prepesition “Pix) is Tue ¥ values of x Universe ef Diecourte * ‘the in the Notation ¥% : Pexd Gvantifleation of Pex), Here Universal Quankifee : Denstes Universe) “¥" is called! #gaistential Quantifer, cai eal he Ee 2 “istential uantifleation ef pra) is S there exists an element x in the universe of FPG is Tue” Discourse Notation : Ix: Pex) denotes the Existential Quantification of Cn). Here “F' is Called! the Existential Quantiffer. Examples: I. foe every there exist a ¥ such that rey ?2 loo, 4 x),F Gy). xr y* 2100 2. Give the Syerbollic. Bocen of the stalement: pete book with a green Cores tea pen beok * let P(x) denote x is eey Look with qe” Cover ond” Az) dlerete x is o mathematics beck. [Go Pex] —> Ol») : , 3. Expres the shodeyert, some men We #? in symbellic Pacem.Solvtion: M(x) i x is @ man Glxd + x is good. [ax Mex) J —— Glz) There is an x Such that % is 2 poo, - ~ the ~ Feu) [ rex) 4 Gr2] Theory off Inference ‘for Predicate Celetes: The methed of Derivation inwelving predicate 7 < fermoks uses the Roles of inference given L 0 the statement Colevlus and alre Certain achlitiona!l wles which are require! t den , With the fermvlax invoking quarktes. 1 Roles in Quantifiers: a | le Rule us Cuniversal sperifeation)# ‘fiom We) P(x) one Can Conclude POH Te ee Af the fem Gx) Pla? is atsomed to be TRe€, then the universe! \ i | i i Quantifier Can be droppes| fe obtain Plé) doe any arbitrary object a.p, Role 2S C Existential pecifiealion) From oF * tA C%) , one Can conclude Aly> ¢ thal y is nol free im any giver premise proviele step of the and alo nel free in ary previous derivation, 3, Rule EG ( Existential Generali zation): Tf PCa) is Tre for some element ‘a’ in then xt Plx) is Teves - Lied Frora Conclude F™ + PC) dhe veiverse, Pla) one con General; zation) + 4, Rule UG C universal conclude ¥x: Plo) _ not free in ang ef He providec! thot f * resulted deans Pog ee) aaa at drat x is provide: fee premises and step vohicl. i loce of peer en 78 free in PCD. XS yoriables inbreowes Pix) appeor ex: Let Plo) denotes * is clvisile by ue {set of all s,Tio} then he then becavse Stittemen'’ Fx! PCx, 5) is ToePiles) ana plin 6) are. On the other hand, 7 flee) fale pine) fF folie herause PCt5) ane mt thal vr [ROH ODS NO) sy, j Show myn Lptey a eed S Solution: suuen Beps Devivolon Pile > | vey ele? 9 OO mee (i + O07) fade us ® play O | nd [acer — READY) Role P ® alay—R(a) | Role us © | rer—- Rt) | Rule 7, heme © (vx) [P29 — RO) | Role ve ® Prove that Fz [ety a ater] (te: Pe) x A (4%: OG)) Derivation (42) [peas Ot Rule ES Rule T.@® Pa) A Ola) PCa)@ @ Ca) Role T.© © Gx) P Cx) Rule €6,.@ © (4%) Ot) Role EG, @ @ Gx) Pe) a(Ex)ote| Rie T ©.0 3. Use ind; x, mh rect methoc) , Prove that @ x) [Pcx) Vv Q(x) T > Wx) Pm v Gx) ale) Teking §=1€ Gs 2 femice: Ct (ve) Pex)? v Cdx? Alx) ae: Ge) 1Plx) A (ex) 10%) — Premise Steps Derivation Rule Se : (x) Ppexd v atzrJ | Rule P 2 PCa) v ala) Rule US 3. (4x) 1PRDA CD Rule P 1Qlx) 4 (4x) 1 P(x) Role T,@ s (¥x) 18(=) Role 1, @ 6. APCa Rule Es t 18 (a) Ree PF | 1PCa a 1002) Rule T, O.0 4. 1(etadv Qte)) | Rule tT, @V [Perv atay] i brrvatayta en lo cae M4. goas Fixmolss involving move than | aantifer Consider dre coses in whic the quoribens ccer in Combination’ se xf POwy) tea 2 place prechoale Panda, then the folowing porsi biliier oxic + HD(Yy) Play) * (Fx) (ay) PCny? * (vy) (Fx) Poy) * (xd (Ty) Pog? Th is understood thot (¥xd(¥y) Play) stand for Gadfly) Pew] and (Fx)vy) PCxg) Send for (He)[oyy POP] formulae : ' Wx) Cag) P Gey) > Oy) OP) P Og) 2 (vn) (Hy) Plxy) > (Sylow ] (Wy) Cre) Pup —> (40 [ov play] 4. Cay) Cre) Plrg) > (Om) (ay) Ptxg) Six) Og) Pay = (1y) (G0) p(xg). g. CD CFY) PO) => Gy) CHa Peay) \ 4. (+g) (Fx) P (oe) => (#x) (49) Play) a. (Fx) (Fy) Play) > Cay) x) Play) Tn the case of us & ES. the specifle variable should be chosen jn such a way thot it is different from the bounce! variable used ebewhere. Consider the formula (4x) (Fy) Ply? Using US, We Can write ang of the formvlae Cx) Plxy) but we should) not write Cay) Py becavse the variabk Y Is used) as a boone! Vetolde. fe) Gy) Play) is not free for y Si ilarly when using EG, one shovlol be Corefol. for example, ve Gre) Pug? we Con generalize (By) Gr) Plxg) er (4z)x) ee ee Gx) (vx) PO) similar Care is reared! in the use of UGS ES X Wsite the Potowing gfatement in the symbolic io ‘ oe who likes fon wil eiY coll of thete place”let os Consider + P Cx) > x likes fon Q lz) —+ x is a plece- Ray — x will copy Y This statement repsesertec! ly Pp x thes £, and fe cach Py is @ place. hen x erjeg* So it is represented! at (vx) Cry) [Pew a a4) — ray Th is ake represented! by yx) [Pex — (rg) acy? — rap JI 2 show that 1 Pla,b) 4ollews logically fee Cv) (Hy) P Gg) — Cay? ancl 1 (o/b) Solution : Steps (vxdevy) P Cog) Role P : — wlxy) - (44) Plag) way Role us cs Plab) — w lab) Rele us a 1 lab) Role P S 1P a,b) gle 1.09yr 2023 nil - = vrit - © Fintle Aolornola vocabulow / symbols : A finite .non-empty set ‘Toop elements is Collec! a Alphabe! / vocabulary. the clemenk of a Vocabulary are Calleof Symbols LL Word : A shing of rite \engih of elemenks of V is calleel a word! or Sentence lengh: the no. of symbols in o worl ie called the. length of a worl. Eenply eld The string an emply string . erly worcl oy Noll Sleing & is denoted by Lambda / Epsilon CA) / C2) containing mo Symbols is called) Lan wage * XN og the set of all orcs including the emply word! over a vocabvlary ‘vis cknoles! by : Arg subset of v" is called 2 language eG Vee oy _*Reet ¢ tGeply Brivsig om de Plavnad on Ber er Heosh brag bel cestain ang Symbol The dfeent f.. reply oft & Hence, ced af oll 1417} fie seb Cont wacdl, the emply hing . SB Consider ang vocabulary V+ fe then a,ab, abeab,abbab are the examples ef Words, over ‘V" Leng'h of me werel abbab is ‘5’ the sel L+ {2,@,ab.abbab, abeob} i a language over “vo with S words Terminal € mon-Teeminak [TJ —= << Some of the elements of a grer Necabelany Genret be replace cl by other symbols there oe Called Teerrinals Or the other hand, Seme elemente of) tre Ve are tan be se er mbolt cals ef Ci b, placeal by oth sy b ney are alled Non- Terminal,Cn ae Th is the element of) the vocabulary f which we always begio to Construct worck, Rodveton: [PI ee The roles thet specify when we can ceplace a sting from V7 isith ancher Steg ave called) poduckert of the grmmar tie dente a procloetion by We — Ww, which meant We can be replaced! by Ww, Within a shing — A Pheace Sheucture Grammar : Ge) [erammar] gamma @ is defred as @+Cv.7.5.P) whee V— finitle seb of vocabulary T —> subset of V Consisting of Terminal elemeots S — start symbol from Vv Pp — Set of’ Productons . Results : * the elements of P ace called proclection Since they be uel procluce Sentences. * af k—- psa prooloetion ina gare a. then -we. can replace X by P bt we cant teplace B by “4 Geammars will be chuiflet ia tern of woe of dhe proaloetions Devivation in Grammar Gi! Ph oo ee ee fe) [concersvahions of Lo Qedeic (2, edhe aleings oer V, if Z—Z, ts a. prealuction of G , then we Soy that to, is aheeclly dedvolle fro Wy and is denoted by We —— 1p i On oe sling? ovee VY, Such that Ww. = Wi + WO, Wg Wg Tele. Wp, = Wo , then Wry is dail to be Dee fe ee ele denoted by * Wi, => Wy . Derive the Shing “pa.p4PaP” from dhe yore” GeCy se P) iiee y (p,4. pa, 3} T+ {p-4) { 7 J Pf S—-+ Pap, P-- G0. O— pq, PA 4}aa we > Per _— Gaap py 8Gp hy apg) [hy Peay a | —— paparaP by a— Pq) s => pqpaPyP the sting ‘ooo een the grammar g. Deve G- Cv. 7, S.P) where Vio. eth t efor} s p-£s— os, sr} scluHon : S— os) — oosi\ Ley sos == coos bey s—ost) —— oooall | [ by s—al ” S = pool eee ie ae : The set of’ all wore: of. the terminals of olerivable feorn storhag the rammar G& drat are Stale jg alle! the language gineroted by oo language f Gt ® denolet by LC)| an * 7 ett/s > wh where LCG) © f i Views AL lh Lek G@ be a grammar woth ¢ 8, ab} Ans Te fab}, Pris ab, sa Aan aca, Bob}, s.. whet is bea) Solution : cj) s— AB —a8B [hy a8) —abh by BET s >> abb Cs spa —s apa [by A> oI — abab Tey Bob) Ss 4 abab 80, 1a) = fabb, abab } find the language generated! by the Gram G-(v.tsP) nol ve ¢s,0,1} .Tefoth Pe€s-5Ns, so}, s. Solution » a) S—}| s Selo Coby So] * Se 111 c1 (ii? sao Ns (i? . 7 wns Ley snus oe We Coy s-oj . Ze nwo 5 Cad eo. ne, Nilo, Nilo, } phrase slruclue Grammer thal generates Find dhe jhe set ocd wee tee ee golotion * GG s.P) ve 48,01, a5 t= fos} p-={s— os! J necatod by the geommer AB, AaAb, 4 find he langvag 9 Dah ee {s— G (vt. 8.P) peo Oy pe Solution + XN ci) s— AB oo ae Ley aver) cp aabbea [hy BR bee] io ee Ae baa aay —-» abba * S 2 abbaGi) g 9 «iid S— ap — aAbB C by A> avaby ao Cy A3, BaJ ee AS Gv) 3, ap —> aAbB Coy A— aaAb) — aaAbbB Cog A aAby —> aabb Cby A—>2r,B—=)r) 8 > aabb So 1a): fr, ab, aobb, abba, ... Y }Th he { mma G0 | pend ¥ a(x | ARO) eve, the senpe of the tnietential Gvantifi, Is the formula [pcx ¥ ate) } and the Occurence of x in (pew) v@Cmd), 84 bound o¢cerence Peel seabed free ccesrence, Universe of Discourse * —— = The vaviables which ave quentified stand f, only those object which ave. members of fe particular se}, Such 4 restricteel Set is called Universe of, Discourse: (or) Domain ef individvals (or) Universe Universal Quanfifier: =. the universal quantification of P(x) is the Preposition P(x) is Tue + Valves of x io the x Universe of Discourse " the Notation ¥% : Pex) Denvtes univers? Geontifeaton of PCH), Here “is calle! # Universal Quankifer.Py 4q castental Quantiper* the Existential quantification ef ee wqhere exists an element x in the wriverse of Discourse F plz) ‘is Tue” polation: dx: PCx) deneles “the Exictential quentification of Pla). Here “F ie called she Existential ore. s Examples: | Far every x there exist ay such thal ary ?elee, ¥ Cx), F Gr» x4y*Zl00 Give the symbolic form of the shatement: “Every book with a green Coves isa beole * Selotion: —= mathematics let Plz) denote x is ogy beok with qreer Cover and @ (x) clenste x is a mathemalics cle : [@~ Pc] —> (2) wets the statement "Some men are good” fisclie foem.Solution: M(x): % is a man, Giz): x is good [ae mee] —? 60? There js an % Such that % is @ man Ex i Heap [mena atx) S Theory of Inference or Predicate Colevles : he method of, Derivation involving precheate, teamolas uses the Roles of inference given g Glevlvs and alse certain the statement which are required to deal adblitional wles with the formolox invoking quantifes. Roles in Qoantifiert: oe L. Rile us Cuniversal specifeation) + Siem (yx) P(x) one Can Conclude PCs). c Tf a statement of the fem Gx) Ple? is atemed te be TRUE , then the universal Quantifier Can be dropoec| to obtain Pla) toe ang arbitrary object aq.p pole ES (Existential specification): From Fx tA Ce) , one Can concede ay? povided that y is nol flee in aang gen premise and also not free in any previous step of the desivation. } 3. Role EG ( Existential Generali zation): TR PCa) is Tre for some clement ‘a’ in the universe, then Foxe: Plx) is Trve Ge) From Pla) one can Conclude Fx + PCx). (4 Role UG C universal Generalization): From Pla). ore can conclude vx: PCx) providecl that x is not free in ang of he qren premises and proviclec! thot ip x is step hic. resvitec/ feors variables introdocec! by lose of plx) ten ne Pix) idgpead froctin’ PC? - ex: = MBL Plo) denotes * © olivisible by a Ors f set of all st lou} then the is True because $0 Poet Px?Pts,e>) and Plw.s) oe Troe On ihe plher hand, V2! Pies? '8 Falso Falee becuse PCT.5) and PCN.E) Ore [ecx2- . atx?) A lace ss Show thal Vx Drcxy 2 ROS => Vx Selution: elulion Steps Derivation Role [Eeceeereeetestenienieseeeeerereen| (wep leee7 3 0 COS) Rule P _ Role us Play —— @Ca) (x) [acx?— > R(x) J] Role P Role os @(a) —> RC) Pla) —— RG) Rule T, fom O@ COMGMOMOMS) Ox) [Poxr — ROO | Roe LG 2 Rove thet Fa: [ plays aco) >(F* PG) A (4+ Qcx)) Steps | Derivation Role oO (4x) [pcx @cxj]} Rule P ® Pla) A Qla) Role ES © PCa) Role T,@®Qa) Gx) Pe Cx) G lx) Role T.© Rule EG.@ Rule EG, @) @ \ Gk) Pte) a (4x) ots) 1 ©@© 3 ese ind vect method , prove that Gx) [Pcx> V Q(®) J = (42) pee) v Gx) at Teking Tc as a Premise: Ct (wed Pex? v Cx)? Ale) de: (4x) 1Plx) A (ex) 10%) — Premise. Derivation Rle (x) Fern) v aco} | rte e a PCa) v ala) Role US 3 | Caer 1PH AG | eute P 1aCx) *. (4x) 1P Ce) Role T,@ - (¥x) 1Q(z) Role @ 6. 4 pCe) Rule Es om 18 (a) Rule US Be 41PCa A 1004 Rule T, OD 4. 4Cpcav @te)) Rule t,®@Conteaclicti 1 Cecarv acard on. \re vataysa lo. ML.4.2023 | Formulas involving more than | quantifier: concider je cases in whicls the quankfer ecees in Combinations - sg TP PCny) te 27 Pace precteate Bermle, tren the Foliowing pes bilities exist: * @& =) (4g? Plxy) x (Fx) Cay) Plxy? * (vy) (Fx) Play) % (420 (Fg) PY? Th is understood thot C¥adGy) Play) stond or Cdk Play] and (Fx)lvy) Peng) stends for (Fx) [oy PPI formulae = i x) C¥g) P Cay? — Cag? Cire) P Cog? 2 Cv) C49) Pony) = (4pler2 poxg>J Cy) Cred Pay? — (a0 [orp Pa 4. (Fy) (vx) plxy) => (vx) (Fy) Pex) (4x) Gry) Plug) — Oy? GX PCxaq)s. (x) CF) Ply) 5 (4,5 $ x d pm (Ig) C425 Peng) 4. (4g) (Bx) Plug) (32) (4y) 8 (4) (Fy) Play) > Cy) 2) Ploy) To the case of’ us & 51 the xpecif shoe be chosen in such o imy thot Hic if d from the bow! variable used olewhere Consider the formula Cun) (Fy) Play). vsing q d formulae Ctx) Play) bob we shoud) nol vsvite ie used) as 2 bound because the variable 4 = US, We Can write ang of the y Variable. Cie) Gy) Play) is ne free for g de Bly Similar! when using EG, one shovlel Le Garipel: for exemple, ee Ux) Plg) Me yo (4z)@) Can generalize (Gy) Plag Plx,z) bet not Gx) (4%) Pom J in the Use of vg ¢ ES Sirilar Care ig veqvite in che syotclic |. weite the Patowing clatement fon - i, L bet ° repyone yor likes fon wail ene ff woe place”lel vs consider P Cx) ——> x likes for Qt —— x is 2 place R (xy) —» x will erg 4 This statement represertoct by if x thes f, anal fow each J if y is 2 place , then x enjoys Jf So if is vepresentec! as. (vx) Cry) [Po ay a ee J TH is ako vepresentec! by (yx) [ Pex) — rg) ty) 2 Rx JI 2 show thot 1 Pla,b) follows lagically Zc (vm) C¥g) P (xg) — w Cay? and doles) Solvtion : Steps Coedtvg) Png) ple P — wlxy) - e: (vy) Plag)— way Rule us = P(a.b)— wla,b) | Rele Us 1 w (a,b) Rule P pole 1.09 IP (a,b)yr Unit ee = S Finite Avtometa ee) vocabulary / symbols: A finite ren- empty sel 'T of eeealll Colle 2 Alphabe! / Vocabula : "Y The clemenk of a vocabvlary are Calleal Word = A ching of Prite length ef cements fv is calle! a wore! ox Sentence Symbols or Letlere Length the no. off symbole in a towel ic ealed the lenath ef a oral Emply String the string Containing 0 yokes is callecd on-emply string, empty wore! ox oll sling is es by lambda / Epsilon CA) / Ce) langrage : OG ee of all poorels ineluding the empty word! over a vocabulary Vis cknoles! b Veer ape fing subsel of V* is called a language oiee NAResult: cesult ‘s defined ax the sting tha che, * Em shio ry d This ak fferent foown not Centai? ang empty set dhe set Containin yt Hence, set of all aofa} is 7 exactly the emptg Sd ‘ syree!- vocabulary v « fa.b.ct | # Consider oy jhen a, ab, abeo of words, over vi Leng of he woral the cet Le 14,4, 2b, abbob, abesk f is « L abba are the examples abbab is 5° language Bee ees ee words . Terminal £ Non-Texminak : (tJ —— ‘Some of the element of a aver Necabvleg Connot be replacec! by other gymbels these ace Called Tecminals. \ On the olher hand, Some elements of te Ve © cablary Can be veplaceal 4 olbes gyenbol They ase alles Neon TerminalsResult * Emply a) is defined! as the sting tha} ce net Contain any syreel Ce ee fee em pty set tt Hence, set of all noda} is the set contain, d exactly the empl sting - Consider any vorrbvlag v= fab.c} then a,ab, abeab, abbab are the examples of words, over V. lengh of the worl abbab is 5. etsy 1 - fA, a, ab. abbal. ote ts language over ‘V) with S words, Tesminal ¢ Non-Texminak: [1] Bonsiles mune =—— some eff the elements of a guer vocabilay Cannot be veplacec) by other symbols these o Called Teeminals. : On the other hand, Some element of * Vo cabolarg Can be replaceal a other gyrrbols They are allea! Non Terminal.yr cect genet’ [oJ ae | Tt is the element of the recabolag fi which we always begin 1: ote eteoes ty Reduction: [PI —— The reles thet specify when we can eeplace a string feom V% with ancher Slving axe called) production® ef the grammar. We denote a predlvetion by We — ee be veplaceal by within a shieg Phase Stevcturé Cearnmas + Cox) [Gsammar] hease _Stevel Vt" A grammar G is defned as G7 CV. TS P) lar whee vi foie set of roenieGhp T cubset of V Consisting Terminal elemer’ ¢ —- Start symbol from Vv. Be cet af) Productions Results s * the elemens off P are called! prodbetion since they are usec! + procluce sentences ap wp * 4 production nag pot we cant GQ, ramma* ess wef * ty 7 eplace by oe.a I. oe 4% Grammars will be classiflec! ia deems of i ee of the procluctions. Derivation in Grammer G! te oe. fe 6 Oe gremmer. Let io G. Z 5) [ concentration of i } and w,- (L,z..7) the strings over V, f 4. 74, -is. a production of G , then we Soy that Ww, is alivectly derivable from Ws, and is denotec! by We —~ wy, ap We. W,.... Wy ore eee over Ve onl that wy = Wi Ww, => WW, , Wr => Wa sete oe oe ee io te gaicl to be clerwable- feom Wo anal is clenoted by + Wi, => Wy. Derive the Shing "Pa. PqPaP_ fom the qn" < GeV. SAP) ice v= fp.4. past T = {e.4h s Sie ee Q— 4) pa 4eZ " pie” x sc Pap _— Qaap [ey p—- aaj > pq 0ap Chy A~psJ —— pqypqg ep Chy apr] _» paparap CF by ara s => papaPryP the sting ‘ooo’ fom the grammenae 2. Desive G=: (Cv. s-PD where vy. fot. St t+ -for} Ss p-f£s—os1,s—3} Solvtion : Ss — os) — 00s) Cby s— ost} moe Boome bey sos) [ by s—al — o0o0oall | ~ S = oool\l | Langu 0 30e of 2 Grammar : oh oe the terminals of dlerwable from starting gener by denote! by 164) oe The set of) all wor gemmar G that ore S is eallel the boyy is ‘e language of GQ #where L(@) of wel ¥/5 wh ve (8. AB, ab} \ vill lek G@ be a age Pd na, Aomak, Te faved, Pets aes" dis what is b CG)? A—ab, B co Solvtion : C7 ce: AS) = eh) — abB [by A —-abb [by pobd sb abb ii) Ss — AA —»aBaB [hy a eB) —abab [by Bob) s + abab so, 1a) + {abb, abab} the Gramoor 2. Find the languoge generates! by G: (wt. s.P) and Ve Mic Ot) eee p-{ sols, s—o},s. Solution : paloaen G) s—-lls — io [ey sooJ * s= lo0 tii) _ qi) F ns NUS Chey sonsy > Wllo ot Coy S>oJ s— Ino 1 6G) =o No. No, iio i 3. find the phrase structe Grammar thal 2 Gireretes the set L017} such that n=0,1,5 Solvtion : G:@.7,s,P) ve fs.o.1, a} T = fo,1} P=s— ost j 4. fad the langvage generated! by the grommer G@ v,t.8,P) with Ps fs— AB, Amar, B= LBa, AA, BOA Solution : — ) s— as - — 2AbB [by A—aab) —-aabbBa [by B= bee] —arabbaa [arr Bay — abba > S = abba| (ii) ¢ —, ap — aAbB C by A> aab]l — ab Cby A), B>rJ 3 ly ab Ww) ¢ —. ag —> aAbR Cb, A— ahb) — eaabbB [by A Abt — aabb Chy a 8 2 gabb Se 1Ca): fr, ab, aobb, abba, .--