1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 OBJECTIVE

A noninvasive method to detect DM by distinguishing Healthy and DM

samples (using facial block color features) via a sparse representation classifier (SRC).
Traditional medicines use facial diagnosis. In Traditional Chinese Medicine, for
example, the belief is that the cause, symptoms, and the origin of the disease can be
reflected on the face through color changes. However, the diagnostic result given by
the practitioner based on years of experience can be thought of as subjective or
qualitative. To eliminate this bias, computerized facial diagnosis based on quantitative
feature extraction and analysis can be established. The facial blocks, the SRC can
distinguish Healthy and DM classes with an average accuracy of 97.54%.
Facial images are first captured using a especially designed noninvasive device,
and calibrated to ensure consistency in feature extraction and analysis. Four facial
blocks, one on the forehead and nose, and two below the left and right eyes are
extracted automatically and used to represent a face. A facial color gamut is
constructed with six color centroids (representing the most common facial colors in
order to compute a facial color feature vector, characterizing each facial block. By
requiring that the representation coefficients are as sparse as possible, only the
coefficients associated with the samples from the same class as the testing sample will
be large, and hence, the class label of the testing sample can be identified.
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Binarization is first applied to each image, where morphological operations are

used to locate the pupils. From there, the distance between the pupils is used to map
out the blocks. Block A is located on the forehead. Blocks B and D are symmetrical
and found below the left and right eyes, respectively. Finally, Block C is situated on
the nose, B and D’s midpoint. For completeness, a block was not extracted under the
lower lip on the chin due to the fact that this area may be obscured by facial hair.

The distribution of facial block colors in the form of a facial color gamut and
typical color centroids is important in facial block analysis. The facial color gamut
shows the range of facial block colors. The idea of the six color centroids is derived
from the principle of facial diagnosis in TCM, in which main color types are
commonly extracted from a set of color categories, and utilized as an important feature
for disease diagnosis.
Facial block color feature extraction is described in this section. First, color
feature extraction using the facial color gamut is presented, and preceded by six
centroids representing main colors of the facial blocks. The six centroids are then used
to calculate a facial color feature vector for each block. There are two main types of
DM: Type 1 DM and Type 2 DM. People with Type 1 DM fail to produce insulin, and
therefore require injections. Type 2 DM can be categorized by insulin resistance and is
the most common type. Currently, there is no cure for Type 1 DM or Type 2 DM. The
main component of this device is a SONY 3- CCD video camera, which is a high-end
industrial camera able to acquire 25 images. The size of each image is 640 × 480
pixels. Illustrates the schematic diagram of the viewing angle and imaging path. With
the camera placed in the center of the device, two fluorescent lamps are situated on
either sides of the camera. The bottom of depicts the six centroids from the facial color
gamut as a solid color square with its label on top and correspondingly RGB value
below. These six centroids are red, yellow, light yellow, gloss, deep red, and black.
 3

 A fasting plasma glucose (FPG) test is the standard method practiced by many
medical professionals to diagnose DM. The FPG test is performed after the
patient has gone at least 12 h without food, and requires taking a sample of the
patient’s blood (by piercing their finger) in order to analyze its blood glucose
levels.
 A noninvasive method to detect DM by distinguishing Healthy and DM samples
(using facial block color features) via a sparse representation classifier (SRC).
 A comparison was made between the color features of the two classes, and
classification was performed between Healthy and DM using a combination of
facial blocks and SRC.

Clinical presentation in adults is typically less acute, presentation with

ketoacidosis is unusual, and the distinction between immune-mediated and non-
immune-mediated diabetes may become blurred.
Replacement therapy with insulin sustains many millions of people but fails to
restore normal glucose homeostasis. It therefore reduces but does not abolish the risk
of late micro vascular and macro vascular complications of diabetes. There has been
steady improvement in the prognosis of childhood onset diabetes over recent decades,
but results from specialised centres merely emphasise the extent of our failure
elsewhere.
The benefits of optimised therapy have yet to reach the majority of affected
children worldwide, and as a result some 20–30% will still die of or with diabetic
nephropathy, and 50% will develop visual problems or require laser therapy to protect
their vision.

 Diabetes mellitus may present with characteristic symptoms such as thirst,

polyuria, blurring of vision, and weight loss.
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 In its most severe forms, ketoacidosis or a non–ketotic hyperosmolar state may

develop and lead to stupor, coma and, in absence of effective treatment, death.
 Often symptoms are not severe, or may be absent, and consequently
hyperglycaemia sufficient to cause pathological and functional changes may be
present for a long time before the diagnosis is made.
1.2 OVERVIEW

1.2.1 Sparse Representation Classifier (SRC)

Sparse Representation Classifier originally developed for face recognition, has

since been found to be useful for classification of a wide range of signals from speech
and music to biomedical signals5 and bird phrases. This paper reports on the research
done to develop its adaptation to the classification of dolphin whistles represented as
spectrographic images in the time-frequency domain.
The sparseness exploited in the SRC method relies on the training data set being
a near complete representation of its class so that any test data vector can be expressed
as a sparse linear combination of the training data. If the coefficient sparseness can be
satisfied by the training and the test data, then the exact nature of the features is no
longer critical as long as they are adequate in quantity. Claims of both the liberal
choice of features and the robustness to occlusion are appealing to classification of any
underwater recording, and certainly apply to dolphin whistles.
Face recognition with the SRC uses multiple images for every person in the
training pool. The test image is expected to be written as a weighted sum of all the
images so that the coefficients corresponding to the matching person's images are much
larger than all the others. One can then rule that the representation is sparse in the space
of coefficients and use the l1-norm to match the concentration of the coefficients to the
person. Deviations from the ideal case of zero coefficients for the “non-matching”
person's images are treated as noise. The coefficients are typically determined by an
inner product or a zero-lag correlation measurement so that if a facial image is
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sufficiently cropped, that is if the face occupies most of the image space, then a high
correlation is expected within the class.
In contrast, the dolphin whistles are narrowband signals so the identifying parts
of the whistle spectrograms have very small support on the time-frequency plane. They
are embedded in ambient noise and mixed with echolocation clicks. That the whistles
are not dense in the spectrogram prevents the training set of the spectrogram images
from being a near complete representation of its class. Such sparseness also begets a
very low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and signal-to-interference ratio (SIR) overall.
Here we distinguish the underwater ambient noise which is present nearly everywhere
in the time-frequency domain and the localized echo-location clicks which we model
as interference. The fortunate circumstance has to do with the localized version of the
SNR and SIR: The former is very high (20 to 30 dB) in the vicinity of the whistles and
the echo-location interference does not overlap the whistles except at a negligible
number of narrow regions. Cropping the spectrogram to a region that contains only the
defining segment of a whistle is akin to analyzing the signal over a sub-band.
To prepare the whistle spectrogram data for the SRC classifier we chose to
preprocess it using the Local Binary Pattern (LBP) operator. Most preprocessing
procedures for the undertaken task involve contour tracing but the LBP technique does
not rely on whistle contours for obtaining salient information. The LBP operator
encodes both the global and the local characteristics of the calls into a compact
representation and eliminates the need for tedious formulations, parameter derivations,
denoising, and other prior processing. To establish identifying feature vectors, the
operation creates binary pattern templates of contours by exploiting the difference
between connected, line forming pixels, and diffuse textures.
For the undertaken task, it eases the classification by eliminating some
preprocessing algorithms as well as contour tracing. LBP operates on the spectrogram
defined over the time-frequency domain to extract the important features that are
directly fed to the SRC algorithm. Classes of dolphin calls can then be determined by
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the linear basis pursuit algorithm or other procedures that minimize the l1-norm of the
error vector. Introducing refinements to the simple SRC implementation can improve
significantly the classification performance. The results of our experimental studies
demonstrate that the SRC method coupled with LBP features is capable of
distinguishing classes of vocalizations with nearly perfect accuracy.

1.3 FACIAL IMAGE PRE-PROCESSING AND THE DATASET

The human face can be partitioned into several regions where different regions
can reflect the health status of internal organs. From each captured image, four blocks
(A, B, C, and D) of size 64×64 strategically located around the face are extracted
(automatically) to better characterize a facial image. As long as the blocks are located
in the regions analysis can be performed. If a patient is positioned further away from
the capture device, both the camera and block size will require recalibration.
Binarization is first applied to each image, where morphological operations are used to
locate the pupils. From there the distance between the pupils is used to map out the
blocks. Block A is located on the forehead. Blocks B and D are symmetrical and found
below the left and right eye respectively. Finally, Block C is situated on the nose, B
and D’s midpoint. For completeness a block was not extracted under the lower lip on
the chin due to the fact that this area may be obscured by facial hair.
The facial image database is comprised of 200 images (one from each individual)
split into 100 Healthy images and 100 Diseased images collected from the Guangdong
Provincial Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Guangdong, China. The Diseased
images consist of 13 illnesses. List the names of these 13 illnesses along with its
corresponding sample number. Both Healthy and Diseased individuals were diagnosed
beforehand using Western medical procedures to determine their health status.
The system first extracts a texture feature value from each facial block using
Gabor filters. Afterwards, k-NN and LIBSVM are applied with 10-fold cross-
validation to classify 100 Healthy samples and 100 Disease samples based on the
 7

texture feature values. To obtain an optimal result, different Gabor filter and facial
block combinations were tested. The RBF kernel function with Blocks ABC achieved
the highest accuracy of 93 %, a sensitivity of 94 %, and a specificity of 92 %. This
demonstrates that the system performs well, completing each examination in 1.69e-04 s
(without having the individual to fast), and all in a non-invasive manner.
It is common knowledge that healthy people have skin that looks and feels
smooth. Examining this skin up close will reveal tiny peaks around the hair follicles
and pores, while there will be tiny valleys in between these peaks. Throughout the skin
the peaks and valleys are consistent, which provides a uniform appearance.
Conversely, a person suffering from a disease will have non-uniform skin textures.
Hence, the texture value for Healthy is less than Disease refer to and therefore can be
used in health status classification.

1.4 SPARSE REPRESENTATION FOR ACCURATE CLASSIFICATION

OF CORRUPTED AND OCCLUDED FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Facial expression recognition remains a challenging problem especially when the
face is partially corrupted or occluded. We propose using a new classification method,
termed Sparse Representation based Classification (SRC), to accurately recognize
expressions under these conditions. A test vector is representable as a linear
combination of vectors from its own class and so its representation as a linear
combination of all available training vectors is sparse. Efficient methods have been
developed in the area of compressed sensing to recover this sparse representation. SRC
gives state of the art performance on clean and noise corrupted images matching the
recognition rate obtained using Gabor based features. When test images are occluded
by square black blocks, SRC improves significantly on the performance obtained using
Gabor features; SRC increases the recognition rate by 6.6% when the block occlusion
length is 30 and by 11.2% when the block length is 40. Numerous feature extraction
methods have been applied to expression recognition. For example, Eigenfaces,
 8

Fisherfaces, and Laplacianfaces have been used on full face images. Gabor filter banks,
which are used to approximately model the processing in the primary visual cortex,
have been successfully used as a feature extraction method. Moreover, these features
are locally concentrated and have been shown to be robust to block occlusion. Once the
feature vector has been extracted from an image, the vector is passed to a classifier
which then gives the recognized expression.
1.4.1 Feature Extraction and Classification

For performance comparison, two different sets of features were extracted from
the images and used to classify the facial expressions. Firstly, eigenvectors were
obtained using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and projections on these basis
functions were used to form the feature vectors. These basis functions have been
termed Eigenfaces resulting features are denoted as Eigen in the tables below. SRC is
implemented as described training image data (i.e., pixel values) are used to form the
dictionary A. Since the image of size 96 × 72 leads to dictionary vectors of length
6912, we also experimented with using downsampled images as the dictionary vectors.
The current study investigated the influence of a low-level local feature (curvature) and
a high-level emergent feature (facial expression) on rapid search. These features
distinguished the target from the distractors and were presented either alone or
together. Stimuli were triplets of up and down arcs organized to form meaningless
patterns or schematic faces.
In the feature search, the target had the only down arc in the display. In the
conjunction search, the target was a unique combination of up and down arcs. When
triplets depicted faces, the target was also the only smiling face among frowning faces.
The face-level feature facilitated the conjunction search but, surprisingly, slowed the
feature search. These results demonstrated that an object inferiority effect could occur
even when the emergent feature was useful in the search. Rapid search processes
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appear to operate only on high-level representations even when low-level features

would be more efficient.

1.5 ADVANCES IN PATIENT CLASSIFICATION FOR TRADITIONAL

CHINESE MEDICINE
As a complementary and alternative medicine in medical field, traditional
Chinese medicine (TCM) has drawn great attention in the domestic field and overseas.
In practice, TCM provides a quite distinct methodology to patient diagnosis and
treatment compared to western medicine (WM). Syndrome (ZHENG or pattern) is
differentiated by a set of symptoms and signs examined from an individual by four
main diagnostic methods: inspection, auscultation and olfaction, interrogation, and
palpation which reflects the pathological and physiological changes of disease
occurrence and development. Patient classification is to divide patients into several
classes based on different criteria. In this paper, from the machine learning perspective,
a survey on patient classification issue will be summarized on three major aspects of
TCM: sign classification, syndrome differentiation, and disease classification. With the
consideration of different diagnostic data analyzed by different computational methods,
we present the overview for four subfields of TCM diagnosis, respectively.
For each subfield, we design a rectangular reference list with applications in the
horizontal direction and machine learning algorithms in the longitudinal direction.
According to the current development of objective TCM diagnosis for patient
classification, a discussion of the research issues around machine learning techniques
with applications to TCM diagnosis is given to facilitate the further research for TCM
patient classification. We review another important diagnostic method which contains
two subjects: auscultation and olfaction. Auscultation is to examine the voice changes
through physician’s auditory sense, and olfaction is to check the odor changes through
physician’s smell sense. Their theoretical foundation is that TCM believes the speech
sound and body odor produced by patients can reflect the physiological and
 10

psychological conditions of Zang Fu organs. So auscultation and olfaction have caused

great attention during a long period in TCM field.
However, related works on objective auscultation and olfaction are still sparse and
rarely studied. This may be due to the complex acoustic characteristics of sound
including massive noises and similar acoustical signals in the nature, and diverse
chemical compositions of exhaled breath containing thousands of volatile organic
compounds (VOCs). All these factors hinder the development of the research of
objective auscultation and olfaction in TCM. To our best endeavors, a minority of
preliminary researches have been studied on this issue. Even so, we list related works.
Besides, detailed descriptions are presented in objective auscultation and olfaction
perspective, respectively. In addition, although some works did not even learn a
machine learning model for objective auscultation-olfaction diagnosis, we will still
review them briefly because their fundamental works would be a valuable reference for
further researches in the future.
 For medical records analysis, the application for syndrome differentiation is the
main purpose in TCM. Moreover, exploring the associations among symptoms,
syndromes, and diseases has been also studied for discovering the potential
knowledge of medical records. Meanwhile, some recent works also manifest the
genes and proteins in WM perspective that are related to syndromes in TCM.
This would help us with deeper understandings of the TCM theory.
 For the other applications, their works are not directly related to patient
classification problem. But based on the medical records and other clinical data,
they always build some association models among syndromes, herbs, formulas,
medicines, genes, diseases, TCM effects, TCM ingredients, and the like. All
these researches are critical for TCM diagnosis and treatment after patient
classification, so we also should refer to these works for facilitating the unifying
system development of patient classification and treatment.
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 From the machine learning perspective, a variety of learning algorithms are

introduced to process those TCM data. Some works also proposed appropriate
algorithms according to the special characteristics of TCM data. More recently,
several advanced machine learning techniques are applied to solve TCM patient
classification, such as multilabel learning and deep learning.
 According to the reviewed works, most of them do not study the machine
learning for model construction. For instance, objective inspection and
palpation analysis researches put more emphasis on feature representation.
Medical records data analysis cares for how to select the optimal symptom
subset for syndrome differentiation. But for the structure and distribution
characteristics analysis of TCM data, minor works have engaged in these issues.
Whereas the more detailed and deeper the researches on structure learning are,
the more prominent the diagnosis system would be developed.

We survey various works related to patient classification issue in traditional

Chinese medicine from a machine learning perspective. We first elaborate the basic
diagnosis methods and concepts between traditional Chinese medicine and western
medicine. Then we illustrate the hierarchical relationships and corresponding clinical
significance of TCM diagnostics for better understandings for TCM diagnosis.
Afterwards, several common and advanced machine learning techniques are briefly
introduced for understandings of their preliminary knowledge. Then, we discuss that
the patient classification issue could be divided into three main aspects: sign
classification, syndrome differentiation, and disease classification. According to these
subissues, we review related works on five different TCM diagnostic data directly
related to patient classification from machine learning perspective: inspection,
auscultation and olfaction, palpation, interrogation and medical records, and some
miscellaneous applications which are indirectly to patient classification.

Finally, based on the above overviews, some current research highlights and
existing issues are discussed for further improvement of TCM diagnosis. Actually, due
 12

to a large amount of works on patient classification, the current survey in this paper
may been not completed and need to be improved further. Nevertheless, it is enough to
reflect the current advances in patient classification for TCM. For the comprehensive
analysis of current TCM diagnosis for patient classification, we would complement our
reviews and complete the current overview tables in the future work. Finally, based on
the above overviews, some current research highlights and existing issues are discussed
for further improvement of TCM diagnosis. Actually, due to a large amount of works
on patient classification, the current survey in this paper may been not completed and
need to be improved further. Nevertheless, it is enough to reflect the current advances
in patient classification for TCM. For the comprehensive analysis of current TCM
diagnosis for patient classification, we would complement our reviews and complete
the current overview tables in the future work.

1.6 SPECTRAL ANALYSIS OF HEART RATE FLUCTUATIONS.

Early detection and a quantitative evaluation of the degree of diabetic autonomic
neuropathy were performed in 23 diabetic patients and 22 controls by computerized
spectral analysis of beat-to-beat R-R interval variations on a continuous
electrocardiogram. Simultaneous recording of cardiac and respiratory activity, R-wave
detection by a fast peak detection algorithm and spectrum computation by Fast Fourier
transform enabled the study of the power spectrum of heart rate fluctuations. The
power of fluctuations at different frequencies is the result of sympathetic and vagal
input into the sinoatrial node: this input is derived from vasomotor, baroreceptor and
respiratory control loops. A marked reduction in the power of heart rate (HR)
fluctuations, at all frequencies, was found in the diabetic patients as compared to
controls. This indicates a depression of both parasympathetic and sympathetic activity.
The difference was especially pronounced in subjects below age 65. The lowest
activity was found in diabetics with concomitant peripheral neuropathy. The method
described here is simple, objective, quantitative and very sensitive. It may facilitate the
screening of diabetic patients for autonomic neuropathy and enable a convenient
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quantitative follow-up. Diabetic autonomic neuropathy is not readily diagnosed unless

the patient exhibits clear-cut clinical manifestations. Neither the natural history of
autonomic nervous involvement in diabetes nor its bearing on survival have been well
established mainly due to the lack of a quantitative and reproducible diagnostic
method. Most of the tests in current practice are based on impairment of various
cardiovascular reflexes. They involve manual measurements of physiologic parameters
and require the active cooperation of the patient which may render them rather
inaccurate. The present report describes a new, quantitative method of evaluation of the
autonomic nervous system in diabetes, based on a computerized spectral analysis of
beat-to-beat R-R interval variations on a continuous electrocardiogram. This method is
non-invasive, involves no risk or discomfort and does not require active cooperation of
the patient. It may be performed on an outpatient basis.
The autonomic nervous function in the diabetic patients was also examined by the
"one deep breath test' results were compared to the respective PS values. Both tests
were abnormal in 12 patients and yielded normal results. Only one patient with an
abnormal deep breath test had a normal PS value whereas 6 patients with a normal
deep breath test showed abnormally low PS values.
The results presented above regard the recordings made at normal, uncontrolled
respiration. The recordings made with fixed breathing rate yielded similar results,
however slightly less significant, presumably due to the inevitable disturbance to
steady state, induced by the effort and concentration of the subject.
Previous attempts have been made to estimate autonomic malfunction based on
steady-state heart rate information, by counting above-threshold HR changes or
applying spectral analysis. However, the commonly employed tests for autonomic
neuropathy like the cold pressor test, the tilting table or the Valsalva maneuver, are
each limited to a disturbance in a single nervous arc. Each of these tests inflicts a
temporary imbalance on the examined system, and does not reflect its steady-state
function. Furthermore, all these tests require active participation of the patient, hence;
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repeated measurements are made in similar but not identical experimental conditions,
the results are semiquantitative at best, and their use as indicators for follow-up is thus
limited. The method presented in this paper is based on analysis of an
electrocardiographic recording, taken for 5 min while the patient is comfortably at rest:
Like the ECG itself, repeated recordings may therefore be reliably compared to each
other and progression of autonomic neuropathy may be monitored over long periods of
time.

1.7 DIABETIC RETINOPATHY - OCULAR COMPLICATIONS OF

DIABETES MELLITUS
In industrialized nations diabetic retinopathy is the most frequent microvascular
complication of diabetes mellitus and the most common cause of blindness in the
working-age population. In the next 15 years, the number of patients suffering from
diabetes mellitus is expected to increase significantly. By the year 2030, about 440
million people in the age-group 20-79 years are estimated to be suffering from diabetes
mellitus worldwide (prevalence 7.7%), while in 2010 there were 285 million people
with diabetes mellitus (prevalence 6.4%). This accounts for an increase in patients with
diabetes in industrialized nations by 20% and in developing countries by 69% until the
year 2030. Due to the expected rise in diabetic patients, the need for ophthalmic care of
patients (i.e., exams and treatments) will also increase and represents a challenge for
eye-care providers. Development of optimized screening programs, which respect
available resources of the ophthalmic infrastructure, will become even more important.
 15

Main reasons for loss of vision in patients with diabetes mellitus are diabetic
macular edema and proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Incidence or progression of these
potentially blinding complications can be greatly reduced by adequate control of blood
glucose and blood pressure levels. Additionally, regular ophthalmic exams are
mandatory for detecting ocular complications and initiating treatments such as laser
photocoagulation in case of clinical significant diabetic macular edema or early
proliferative diabetic retinopathy. In this way, the risk of blindness can considerably be
reduced. In advanced stages of diabetic retinopathy, pars-plana vitrectomy is
performed to treat vitreous hemorrhage and tractional retinal detachment. In recent
years, the advent of intravitreal medication has improved therapeutic options for
patients with advanced diabetic macular edema.

Diabetic retinopathy is a potentially blinding complication of diabetes mellitus.

In patients with diabetes, regular retinal exams are essential. While laser
photocoagulation is effective, if performed in time, advanced stages of diabetic
retinopathy need to be treated by vitreo-retinal surgery and have limited visual
prognosis. Even though new therapeutic options such as intravitreal medical therapy
and sutureless pars-plana vitrectomy have improved ophthalmic care of patients with
diabetes, interdisciplinary care of these patients is essential. Good metabolic and blood
pressure control is indispensable for reducing the risk of ophthalmic complications.

1.8 NON-INVASIVE NOCTURNAL HYPOGLYCEMIA DETECTION

FOR INSULIN-DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS USING GENETIC
FUZZY LOGIC METHOD
Hypoglycemia, or low blood glucose, is the most common complication
experienced by diabetes mellitus (T1DM) patients. It is dangerous and can result in
unconsciousness, seizures and even death. The most common physiological parameter
to be from hypoglycemic reaction are heart rate (HR) and correct QT interval (QTc) of
the electrocardiogram (ECG) signal. Based on physiological parameters, a genetic
 16

algorithm based fuzzy reasoning model is developed to recognize the presence of

hypoglycemia. To optimize the parameters of the fuzzy model in the membership
functions and fuzzy rules, a genetic algorithm is used. A validation strategy based
adjustable fitness is introduced in order to prevent the phenomenon of overtraining
(overfitting). For this study, 15 children with 569 sampling data points with diabetes
volunteered for an overnight study. The effectiveness of the proposed algorithm is
found to be satisfactory by giving better sensitivity and specificity compared with other
existing methods for hypoglycemia detection. A genetic algorithm based fuzzy logic
system is developed to detect the hypoglycemic episodes for diabetes patients.
The experimental results indicate that the hypoglycemic episodes in T1DM
children can be detected noninvasively and continuously from the real-time
physiological responses (heart rate, corrected QT interval, change of heart rate and
change of corrected QT interval). To optimize the fuzzy rules and membership
functions, the genetic algorithm is employed. To tackle the over-training problem, a
validation strategy that can adjust the fitness function is proposed. Experimental results
from T1DM data are given to illustrate that the proposed FIS tuned by the proposed
fitness function and validation strategy performs better than other fuzzy inference
systems without considering the over-training problem in terms of sensitivity and
specificity. The proposed system is also found to outperform systems employing
multiple regression and various neural networks. In short, the performance of the
proposed system for detecting hypoglycemic episodes for T1DM is satisfactory, with a
mean sensitivity of 83.81% and a mean specificity of 41.43%.
 17

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

J. Wright, A. Yang, A. Ganesh, S. Sastry, and Y. Ma, “Robust face recognition via
sparse representation,” They consider the problem of automatically recognizing human
faces from frontal views with varying expression and illumination, as well as occlusion
and disguise. They cast the recognition problem as one of classifying among multiple
linear regression models and argue that new theory from sparse signal representation
offers the key to addressing this problem. Based on a sparse representation computed
by C1-minimization, we propose a general classification algorithm for (image-based)
object recognition. This new framework provides new insights into two crucial issues
in face recognition: feature extraction and robustness to occlusion. For feature
extraction, we show that if sparsity in the recognition problem is properly harnessed,
the choice of features is no longer critical. What is critical, however, is whether the
number of features is sufficiently large and whether the sparse representation is
correctly computed. Unconventional features such as down sampled images and
random projections perform just as well as conventional features such as eigenfaces
and Laplacian faces, as long as the dimension of the feature space surpasses certain
threshold, predicted by the theory of sparse representation. This framework can handle
errors due to occlusion and corruption uniformly by exploiting the fact that these errors
are often sparse with respect to the standard (pixel) basis. The theory of sparse
representation helps predict how much occlusion the recognition algorithm can handle
and how to choose the training images to maximize robustness to occlusion. They
conduct extensive experiments on publicly available databases to verify the efficacy of
the proposed algorithm and corroborate the above claims. In this paper, we introduce
 18

the theory of sparse representation and its application onto face recognition. They
verify that the feature extraction is no longer critical to recognition once the sparsity of
the problem is properly harnessed. They improve the sparse description by
incorporating group sparseness. They also test the SRC algorithm under noisy and
occluded images. The experiment results show that the SRC outperforms other
techniques under all circumstances.

X. Wang and D. Zhang, proposed the paper “An optimized tongue image color
correction scheme,” The color images produced by digital cameras are usually device-
dependent, i.e., the generated color information (usually presented in RGB color space)
is dependent on the imaging characteristics of specific cameras. This is a serious
problem in computer-aided tongue image analysis because it relies on the accurate
rendering of color information. In this paper, we propose an optimized correction
scheme that corrects the tongue images captured in different device-dependent color
spaces to the target device-independent color space. The correction algorithm in this
scheme is generated by comparing several popular correction algorithms, i.e.,
polynomial-based regression, ridge regression, support vector regression, and neural
network mapping algorithms. We test the performance of the proposed scheme by
computing the CIE L*a*b* color difference (ΔE* ab) between estimated values and the
target reference values. The experimental results on the colorchecker show that the
color difference is less than 5 (ΔE*ab <; 5), while the experimental results on real
tongue images show that the distorted tongue images (captured in various device-
dependent color spaces) become more consistent with each other. In fact, the average
color difference among them is greatly reduced by more than 95%. This paper presents
an optimized color correction scheme for computer-aided tongue image analysis. The
proposed scheme first analyzes the particular color correction requirement for selection
of device-independent target color space lying in tongue image analysis, and then
optimizes the color correction algorithms accordingly. The proposed scheme is very
effective, reducing the color difference between images captured using different
 19

cameras or under different lighting conditions to less than 0.0085, and the distances
between the color centers of tongue images by more than 95% while images tend to
cluster toward an “ideal” or “standard” tongue image. In addition, we have
demonstrated the validity of the proposed method on real tongue images. In future
research, we intend to collect a much larger, real tongue image database including a
number of images of typical healthy and pathological tongues to verify the validity of
our proposed scheme. In particular, we will seek to further address the ground-truth
problem by using physical measurements or feedback from TCM doctors. Utilizing
colorchecker other than the Munsell colorchecker 24 as the reference target for color
correction will also be studied in the future research.

H. Wang, S. Li, and Y. Wang, proposed the paper “Generalized Quotient Image,”
They present a unified framework for modeling intrinsic properties of face images for
recognition. It is based on the quotient image (QI) concept, in particular on the existing
works of QI Spherical Harmonic Image Ratio and Retinex. Under this framework, we
generalize these previous works into two new algorithms: (1) Non-Point Light
Quotient Image (NPL-QI) extends QI to deal with non-point light sources by modeling
non-point light directions using spherical harmonic bases; (2) Self-Quotient Image (S-
QI) extends QI to perform illumination subtraction without the need for alignment and
no shadow assumption. Experimental results show that our algorithms can significantly
improve the performance of face recognition under varying illumination conditions.
The paper is organized we review the most related works about QI and Illumination
modeling. They describe the intrinsic factor of face image and propose our generalized
QI framework. Two new methods, NPL-QI and S-QI, are advanced. A generalized QI
framework based on previous works is presented. This unified framework explains the
essence of previous QI-based Retinex-based image ratio-based algorithms without any
assumption of illumination type and absence of shadow. Under this framework, we
derive two new algorithms, NPL-QI and S-QI. These algorithms extend the original QI
from point lighting source to any type of lightings, without restrictions on shadows.
 20

Compared with the baseline algorithms of original QI and PCA, the two algorithms
demonstrate significant performance improvement. The reliability of facial recognition
techniques is often affected by the variation of illumination, such as shadows and
illumination direction changes. They present a novel framework, called the self-
quotient image, for the elimination of the lighting effect in the image. Although this
method has a similar invariant form to the quotient image by Shashua, it does not need
the alignment and bootstrap images. Our method combines the image processing
technique of edge-preserved filtering with the Retinex applications of by Jobson, Gross
and Brajovie. We have analyzed this algorithm with a 3D imaging model and
formulated the conditions where illumination-invariant and –variant properties can be
realized, respectively. A fast anisotropic filter is also presented. The experiment results
show that our method is effective in removing the effect of illumination for robust face
recognition.

R. Basri and D. Jacobs, proposed the paper “Lambertian Reflection and Linear
Subspaces,” They prove that the set of all reflectance functions (the mapping from
surface normals to intensities) produced by Lambertian objects under distant, isotropic
lighting lies close to a 9D linear subspace. This implies that the images of a convex
Lambertian object obtained under a wide variety of lighting conditions can be
approximated accurately with a low-dimensional linear subspace, explaining prior
empirical results. This explains prior empirical results. It also gives us a new and
effective way of understanding the effects of Lambertian reflectance as that of a low-
pass filter on lighting. This description allows us to produce efficient recognition
algorithms in which we know we are using an accurate approximation to the model’s
images. Or, if we are willing to settle for a less accurate approximation, we can
compute the positive lighting that best matches a model to an image by just solving a
six-degree polynomial in one variable. They evaluate the effectiveness of all these
algorithms using a data base of models and images of real faces. Variations in lighting
can have a significant impact on the appearance of an object.  A method for choosing
 21

an image from a plurality of three-dimensional models which is most similar to an

input image is provided. The method includes the steps of: (a) providing a database of
the plurality of three-dimensional models; (b) providing an input image; (c) positioning
each three-dimensional model relative to the input image; (d) for each three-
dimensional model, determining a rendered image that is most similar to the input
image by: (d)(i) computing a linear subspace that describes an approximation to the set
of all possible rendered images that each three-dimensional model can produce under
all possible lighting conditions where each point in the linear subspace represents a
possible image; and one of (d)(ii) finding the point on the linear subspace that is closest
to the input image or finding a rendered image in a subset of the linear subspace
obtained by projecting the set of images that are generated by positive lights onto the
linear subspace; (e) computing a measure of similarly between the input image and
each rendered image; and (f) selecting the three-dimensional model corresponding to
the rendered image whose measure of similarity is most similar to the input image.
Step (d) is preferably repeated for each of a red, green, and blue color component for
each three-dimensional model. The linear subspace is preferably either four-
dimensional or nine-dimensional.

C. Liu, proposed the paper “Capitalize on Dimensionality Increasing Techniques

for Improving Face Recognition Grand Challenge Performance,” This paper presents a
novel pattern recognition framework by capitalizing on dimensionality increasing
techniques. In particular, the framework integrates Gabor image representation, a novel
multiclass kernel Fisher analysis (KFA) method, and fractional power polynomial
models for improving pattern recognition performance. Gabor image representation,
which increases dimensionality by incorporating Gabor filters with different scales and
orientations, is characterized by spatial frequency, spatial locality, and orientational
selectivity for coping with image variabilities such as illumination variations. The KFA
method first performs nonlinear mapping from the input space to a high-dimensional
feature space, and then implements the multiclass Fisher discriminant analysis in the
 22

feature space. The significance of the nonlinear mapping is that it increases the
discriminating power of the KFA method, which is linear in the feature space but
nonlinear in the input space. The novelty of the KFA method comes from the fact
extends the two-class kernel Fisher methods by addressing multiclass pattern
classification problems improves upon the traditional generalized discriminant
analysis (GDA) method by deriving a unique solution (compared to the GDA solution,
which is not unique). The fractional power polynomial models further improve
performance of the proposed pattern recognition framework. Experiments on face
recognition using both the FERET database and the FRGC (face recognition grand
challenge) databases show the feasibility of the proposed framework. In particular,
experimental results using the FERET database show that the KFA method performs
better than the GDA method and the fractional power polynomial models help both the
KFA method and the GDA method improve their face recognition performance.
Experimental results using the FRGC databases show that the proposed pattern
recognition framework improves face recognition performance upon the BEE baseline
algorithm and the LDA-based baseline algorithm by large margins. Experimental
results show that the proposed framework improves face recognition performance by
large margins compared to the FRGC baseline algorithms. Applying the 2D Gabor
image representation and the labeled elastic graph matching method, Lyons then
proposed an algorithm for two-class categorization of gender, race, and facial
expression. One solution to this drawback is to analyze the reasons for over fitting and
propose new models with improved generalization abilities. In particular, the proposed
method achieves the rank one face recognition rate (face recognition rate of top
response being correct) of 78 percent, compared to the LDA-based baseline algorithm
rank one rate of 48 percent and the BEE baseline rank one rate of 37 percent.

G. Maciocia, proposed the paper “The Foundations of Chinese Medicine.” This is a

new edition of the most successful Chinese medicine textbook ever published in the
English language. The book covers the theory of traditional Chinese medicine and
 23

acupuncture, and discusses in detail the use of the acupuncture points and the
principles of treatment. The material is based on rigorous reference to ancient and
modern Chinese texts, and explains the application of theory in a Western practice
context. The new edition includes additional new material, as well as revised chapters,
as detailed below. In particular, 50 more acupuncture points are discussed, and further
patterns (as well as some combined patterns) have been added. More case studies and
case histories have been included, and pinyin equivalents have been added to key
terms. Additional information is given on pathological processes and factors; principles
of point prescribing; diagnosis, especially pulse diagnosis; the relative weighting of
symptoms; identification of patterns according to the Four Levels and the Three
Burners; channel theory; Warm and Cold disease; and vital substances. The glossary
has been considerably expanded. In addition, the text presentation has been redesigned
to make it even easier and clearer for students to navigate around the chapters. A
second colour has been introduced, and more drawings, diagrams and tables now
supplement the text. Summaries are included at the beginning and end of each chapter,
and icons have been added to support the clarity of the text. A CD-ROM is also
included with the book, and it contains over 750 self-testing questions in a variety of
formats. The students have the option to be marked electronically on their answers.
Also included are 65 full colour surface anatomy images as an additional resource.

 Full coverage of the basic tenets of Chinese Medicine, from its historical roots
to modern scientific research, methods, and findings.
 Informative chapter on diagnosis in Chinese Medicine.
 Practical discussion of Chinese herbs and their usage, including formulas for
various common ailments.

L. Bridges, proposed the paper “Face Reading in Chinese Medicine.”Chinese Facial

Reading Chart - Could your face reveal the secrets to what's going on inside your
body? For thousands of years, Chinese healers have been reading faces to detect and
 24

diagnose all kinds of diseases. Facial skin is sensitive and can reflect internal changes
faster than other parts of the body. Learn how you can use this ancient practice to
uncover clues about your health. This ancient practice to uncover clues about your
health. Medicine and Ayurveda, what shows up on your face is connected directly or
indirectly to the state of your internal organs and systems, making our skin one of the
greatest mirrors to inner imbalances. Chinese Medicine, Ancient Chinese, Chinese
Face Reading, Classic Chinese, Chinese Art, Chinese Faces Reading, Faces Reading
Charts, Faces Weird Chinese face mapping or 'Mien Shiang' literally means reading the
face and traditional Chinese medicine firmly believes in the face telling more stories
than whether you are pretty or not. An exciting new, full-colour edition of Face
Reading in Chinese Medicine featuring over 200 colour photographs and practical
instructions on how to conduct a face reading. Face reading has been part of
Traditional Chinese Medicine for many centuries, and Professor Lillian Bridges is a
popular academic and international lecturer on the subject who gained her fascinating
knowledge through her family line of Master Face Readers in China. Based on an
understanding of the shapes, markings and features of a face, practitioners can learn
about the health and life of a patient relating to the principles of Chinese medicine. In
addition to understanding how the body's internal functions - physical, psychological
and emotional - can be seen on a face, practitioners can also learn how to evaluate.
Shen to understand non-verbal expressions. Technical and detailed information is
presented in an upbeat, insightful and highly readable manner. This was the first book
to focus on the deeper aspects of face reading and diagnosis, this edition includes
ancient Taoist knowledge regarding the Original Face and Facial Jing and Qi markers
which have previously only been taught through the oral tradition.

 Clear discussions demonstrate how this technique can be used as a supplement

to other diagnostic tools in Traditional Chinese Medicine.
 Engaging, insightful, highly readable text is written by a well-known and
experienced lecturer in the field.
 25

 Extensive illustrations give you a clear understanding of theories and

techniques.
 A focus on the deeper aspects of face reading and diagnosis helps readers
become more conscious of their actions, reactions, and the health consequences
of behavior.
B. Liu and T. Wang, proposed the paper “Inspection of Face and Body for
Diagnosis of Diseases.” Inspection of Face and Body for Diagnosis of Diseases, based
on the theory of traditional Chinese medicine, gives a detailed introduction to
discovery of diseases of human body, either existing already or to be developed, by
observing human face, chest, torso and limbs, etc., and reminds patients to see
doctor as soon as possible. The words used in this Work are plain and easy to
understand. The methods for I self-diagnosis are simple and easy to learn. With
various illustrations, it is readable and helpful to teachers and students of medical
schools, practitioners and those who are interested. A body-fluid inspection device,
which sticks a skin so as to obtain a fine amount of body fluids and measures
ingredients of the body fluids, includes a casing having an opening, a sticking device
having a sticking needle that is allowed to protrude from the opening of the casing,
and a suction device which places at least portion of a space inside the casing in a
reduced-pressure state. Also included are a reduced-pressure releasing device for
releasing the space inside the casing from the reduced-pressure state, a chip which is
detachably attached to the opening of the casing and is provided with test paper for
absorbing the body fluids that have been sucked by the body-fluid suction device, a
measuring device for measuring ingredients of the body fluids that have been
absorbed by the test paper, and a display device for displaying results of
measurements made by the measuring device. The display device is placed on one
portion of a surface of the casing. The sticking, the suction and the measuring devices
are installed inside the casing. A group of patients presenting with dermatological
 26

complaints but with no significant objective dermatological pathology on examination

are described. Twenty-eight patients, twelve male and sixteen female, age range 16–
76 years, mean 46 years, were seen. Symptomatology was confined to three main
body areas: the face-eight patients; scalp-nine patients; perineum-eight patients. The
complaints related to the face were burning, intense itching and hirsute. Scalp
symptoms included excessive hair loss and intense irritation. Genital symptoms
included itching, excessive redness, burning and discomfort, which in three instances
prevented the patient sitting. A disturbed body image (dysmorphophobia) was
common and the most frequent psychological illness present was depression. Two
patients were demented and in two a diagnosis of schizophrenia was made. One
patient committed suicide and two patients attempted suicide. Female patients
presenting with facial symptoms have a more ominous prognosis, both with regard to
the risk of suicide and the development of psychosis
G. Wyszecki and W. S. Stiles, proposed the paper “Color Science: Concepts and
Methods, Quantitative Data, and Formulae.” This paperback reprint of a classic book
deals with all phases of light, color, and color vision, providing comprehensive data,
formulas, concepts, and procedures needed in basic and applied research in color
vision, colorimetry, and photometry. Includes new and expanded material on the latest
advances in color science, particularly in color matching, increment-threshold work,
chromatic adaption, and the theoretical modelling of color discrimination and other
color-vision phenomena. Color for the Sciences is the first book on colorimetry to offer
an account that emphasizes conceptual and formal issues rather than applications. Jan
Koenderink's introductory text treats colorimetryliterally, "color measurement"as a
science, freeing the topic from the usual fixation on conventional praxis and how to get
the "right" result. Readers of Color for the Sciences will learn to rethink concepts from
the roots in order to reach a broader, conceptual understanding. After a brief account of
the history of the discipline (beginning with Isaac Newton) and a chapter titled
 27

"Colorimetry for Dummies," the heart of the book covers the main topics in
colorimetry, including the space of beams, achromatic beams, edge colors, optimum
colors, color atlases, and spectra. Other chapters cover more specialized topics,
including implementations; metrics pioneered by Schrdinger and Helmholtz, and
extended color space. Our results highlight the importance of recognition by others for
women in the three science identity trajectories: research scientist; altruistic scientist;
and disrupted scientist. The women with research scientist identities were passionate
about science and recognized themselves and were recognized by science faculty as
science people. The women with altruistic scientist identities regarded science as a
vehicle for altruism and created innovative meanings of ‘‘science,’’ ‘‘recognition by
others,’’ and ‘‘woman of color in science.’’ The women with disrupted scientist
identities sought, but did not often receive, recognition by meaningful scientific others.
Although they were ultimately successful, their trajectories were more difficult
because, in part, their bids for recognition were disrupted by the interaction with
gendered, ethnic, and racial factors.

M. D. Fairchild, proposed the paper “Color Appearance Models.” For over 20

years, color appearance models have evolved to the point of international
standardization. These models are capable of predicting the appearance of spatially-
simple color stimuli under a wide variety viewing conditions and have been applied to
images by treating each pixel as an independent stimulus. It has been more recently
recognized that revolutionary advances in color appearance modeling would require
more rigorous treatment of spatial (and perhaps temporal) appearance phenomena. In
addition, color appearance models are often more complex than warranted by the
available visual data and limitations in the accuracy and precision of practical viewing
conditions. Lastly, issues of color difference measurement are typically treated separate
from color appearance. Thus, the stage has been set for a new generation of color
appearance models. It is expected that the implementation of this model framework
 28

will be refined in the coming years as new data become available. Since the color
appearance parameters and color appearance phenomena are numerous and the task is
complex, there is no single color appearance model that is universally applied; instead,
various models are used. Color science is a multidisciplinary field with broad
applications in industries such as digital imaging, coatings and textiles, food, lighting,
archiving, art, and fashion. Accurate definition and measurement of color appearance is
a challenging task that directly affects color reproduction in such applications. Color
Appearance Models addresses those challenges and offers insight into the preferred
solutions. Extensive research on the human visual system (HVS) and color vision has
been performed in the last century, and this book contains a good overview of the most
important and relevant literature regarding color appearance models. Overall, Color
Appearance Models is a suitable companion to the reference books in the field of
colorimetry, color reproduction, vision science, and digital imaging. It is also a good
starting point for those interested in color constancy, color gamut mapping, and color
management. The book is useful for students, scientists, and engineers in
multidisciplinary fields dealing with color issues. Those working in archiving and
entertainment industries can also benefit from it. Finally, the book can be used as a
tutorial with basic knowledge of mathematics and physics for learning about color
appearance.
 29

CHAPTER 3
SYSTEM ANALYSIS

3.1 EXISTING SYSTEM

A fasting plasma glucose (FPG) test is the standard method practiced by many
medical professionals to diagnose DM. The FPG test is performed after the patient has
gone at least 12 h without food, and requires taking a sample of the patient’s blood (by
piercing their finger) in order to analyze its blood glucose levels. Even though this
method is accurate, it can be considered invasive, and slightly painful (piercing
process).Therefore, there is a need to develop a noninvasive yet accurate detection
method.

3.1.1 Disadvantages of Existing System

 Slightly painful.
 Difficult to candle invasive method
 Although I have not experienced complications, some diabetics experience slow
healing of wounds and impairments of eyesight and circulation.

3.2 PROPOSED SYSTEM

A noninvasive method to detect DM by distinguishing Healthy and DM samples
(using facial block color features) via a sparse representation classifier (SRC). This
paper proposed a noninvasive approach to classify Healthy and DM samples using
facial color features extracted from facial blocks via the SRC.
This paper proposed a non-invasive approach to classify Healthy and DM
samples using facial color features extracted from facial blocks via the SRC. A facial
 30

color gamut was first applied such that each facial block is represented by six colors.
SRC with two sub dictionaries, one characterizing Healthy facial color features and the
other DM facial color features, was applied along with various values for sparse
coding. Given a test sample, its smallest reconstruction error calculated either from
Healthy or DM determines its class membership.
By evaluating a combination of seven different facial block groupings (from
three blocks) and various values, the highest average accuracy of 97.54% was attained
from Block A with equal. This outperforms the traditional classifiers of k-NN and
SVM, and potentially provides a newway to detect DM, one which does not inflict any
harm or induce any pain. As part of our future work, more Healthy and DM samples
will be collected in order to further validate the statistical accuracy of the proposed
method.
 Non invasive method to detect Diabetic Mellitus by distinguishing Healthy and
DM samples (using facial block color features) via a sparse representation
classifier (SRC).
 The origin of the disease can be reflected on the face through color changes.
 The principle of SRC is to represent a test sample as a linear combination of the
training samples, or a dictionary of atoms from the training samples.

3.2.1 Advantages of proposed system

 Accurate detection.
 High Accuracy.
 Yet accurate detection.
 Classification methods based on sparse representation is their ability to deal
with corrupted data within the same framework.
 31

3.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Face Image

Binarization

Morphological Operation

Distance pubils block

A, B, C & D

6 Color Features

R, Y, LY, GL, DR, BK

SRC

Ai= [Si,1,Si,2…,Si,n ] ∑ R m×n

Fig:3.3 Block diagram

 32

3.4 SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION

MODULES

 Facial Image Acquisition Device

 Facial Block Definition
 Morphological operations
 Facial block color feature extraction
 SRC classifier

3.4.1 Facial Image Acquisition Device

The primary issue with automatic facial diagnosis is image capturing and its
representation. Facial images from various health statuses must be captured and
depicted in an accurate way under a standardized setting in order to ensure unbiased
feature extraction and analysis. The main component of this device is a SONY 3-CCD
video camera, which is a high-end industrial camera able to acquire 25 images. The
size of each image is 640 ×480 pixels. Location of Blocks A, B, C, and D on a facial
image of the camera.

The angle between the incident light and emergent light is 45◦, recommended by
Commission International de l’Eclairage (CIE). In order to portray the color images in
a precise way so as to facilitate quantitative analysis, a color correction procedure is
performed before feature extraction and classification. This eliminates any variability
in color images caused by variations of illumination and device dependence, allowing
images taken in a variety of environments to be compared to each other. A polynomial-
based regression method was utilized to train the correction model based on the
corresponding values of a reference training set, obtained using the Munsell Color
 33

Checker in the device. Using this correction model, uncorrected facial images can be
corrected, and rendered to be in standard RGB (sRGB) color space.

3.4.2 Facial Block Definition

Four blocks (A, B, C, and D) of size 64 ×64 strategically located around the face
are extracted (automatically) to better characterize a facial image. As long as the blocks
are located in the regions, analysis can be performed. If a patient is positioned further
away from the capture device, both the camera and block size will require
recalibration.

Binarization: They can be first applied to each image, it used to Conversion of a picture
to only black and white.

Morphological operations: Morphology is a broad set of image processing operations

that process images based on shapes. Morphological operations apply a structuring
element to an input image, creating an output image of the same size. In a
morphological operation, the value of each pixel in the output image is based on a
comparison of the corresponding pixel in the input image with its neighbors.  They can
be convert two operation like dilution and erosion.

 Dilution: It will expand from white colour to fill on block small holes.
 Erosion: It will expand from black color to fill in on white small holes.

From there, the distance between the pupils is used to map out the blocks. Block A is
located on the forehead. Blocks B and D are symmetrical and found below the left and
right eyes, respectively.

3.4.3 Facial block color feature extraction

Facial block color feature extraction using, the facial color gamut is presented,
the facial colour gamut means that refer to the colour ranges and reproduce by the any
 34

device. It preceded by six centroids representing main colors of the facial blocks. The
six centroids are then used to calculate a facial color feature vector for each block. The
distribution of facial block colors in the form of a facial color gamut and typical color
centroids is important in facial block analysis. The six centroids characterize the most
commonly found colors in the facial block (since it is within the black boundary) and
are spread out to ensure that two or more colors do not over-lap. This is more
resourceful than using the entire distribution which would make color feature
extraction computationally in-efficient. These six centroids are red, yellow, light
yellow, gloss, deep red, and black.

3.4.4 SRC classifier

Once the facial color feature vectors are extracted from the facial blocks, they
are classified using the SRC. SRC is first introduced in this section. Afterward, a
discussion given on how the SRC can be applied to separate Healthy and DM samples.
Given a test sample and a set of training samples, the idea of SRC is to represent the
test sample as a linear combination of the training samples, while requiring that the
representation coefficients are as sparse as possible. If the test sample is from classi,
then among its representation coefficients over all the training samples, only those
from the samples in class i will be significant while others will be insignificant, and
hence, the class label of the test sample can be determined.
 35

CHAPTER 4

SIMULATION TOOL AND SYSTEM TETING

4.1 MATLAB

MATLAB, which stands for Matrix Laboratory, is a state-of-the-art

mathematical software package, which is used extensively used for implementing
various algorithms and for computing the metrics. It is an interactive program which
also used for numerical computation and data visualization, which along with its
programming capabilities provides a very useful tool for almost all areas of science and
engineering. Unlike other mathematical packages, such as MATHEMATICA or
MAPLE.MATLAB cannot perform symbolic manipulations without the use of
additional Toolboxes. It remains however, one of the leading software packages for
numerical computation. One of the many advantages of MATLAB is the natural
notation used. This makes the use of the program especially easy and it is what makes
MATLAB a natural choice for numerical computations.

MATLAB is a high-level technical computing language and interactive

environment for algorithm development, data visualization, data analysis, and numeric
computation. Using the MATLAB product, solving technical, computing problems
faster than with traditional programming languages, such as C, C++, and FORTRAN.
MATLAB is used in a wide range of applications, including signal and image
processing, communications, control design, test and measurement, financial modeling
and analysis, and computational biology.
 36

MATLAB (matrix laboratory) is a numerical environment and fourth generation

programming language. Developed by Math works, we matrix manipulations, plotting
of  functions and data, implementation of  algorithms, creation of  user interfaces, and
interfacing with programs written in other languages, including C, C++, Java and
Fortran. Although MATLAB is intended primarily for numerical computing, an
optional toolbox uses the MuPAD symbolic engine, allowing access to symbolic
computing capabilities. An additional package, Simulink, adds graphical multi domain
simulation and model based design for dynamic and embedded system.

As suggested, MATLAB can create and manipulate arrays of 1 (vectors), 2

(matrices), or more dimensions. In the MATLAB vernacular, a vector refers to a one
dimensional (1×N or N×1) matrix, commonly referred to as an array in other
programming languages. A matrix generally refers to a 2-dimensional array, i.e.
an m×n array where m and n are greater than 1. Arrays with more than two dimensions
are referred to as multidimensional arrays. Arrays are a fundamental type and many
standard functions natively support array operations allowing work on arrays without
explicit loops. Therefore the MATLAB language is also an example of array
programming language.

Unlike many other languages, where the semicolon is used to terminate

commands, in MATLAB the semicolon serves to suppress the output of the line that it
concludes. Commands that have return values would be: numbers/vectors/matrices and
various mathematical functions executed with these (addition, multiplication
etc),Strings and string function .Each number/vector/matrix/string/function with a
return value, if it appears in a line not terminated by a semicolon, will have its value
displayed on the screen once the line is interpreted. Some Matlab commands (such as
the graphical "plot" command).

MATLAB supports structure data types. Since all variables in MATLAB are
arrays, a more adequate name is "structure array", where each element of the array has
 37

the same field names. In addition, MATLAB supports dynamic field names (field look-
ups by name, field manipulations etc.

MATLAB supports elements of lambda-calculus by introducing function

handles, or function references, which are implemented either in .m files or
anonymous/nested functions. MATLAB also carries secondary programming which
incorporates the MATLAB standard code into a more user friendly way to represent a
function or system.

Although MATLAB supports classes, the syntax and calling conventions are
significantly different from other languages. MATLAB supports value classes and
reference classes, depending if the class has handle as super-class (for reference
classes) or not (for value classes).MATLAB can call functions and subroutines written
in the C programming language or FORTRAN. A wrapper function is created allowing
MATLAB data types to be passed and returned.

4.2 MATLAB TOOLS

The Command Window is the window on the right hand side of the screen. This
window is used to both enter commands for MATLAB to execute, and to view the
results of these commands. The Command History window, in the lower left side of the
screen, displays the commands that have been recently entered into the Command
Window. In the upper left hand side of the screen there is a window that can contain
three different windows with tabs to select between them.

The first window is the Current Directory, which tells the user which M-files are
currently in use. The second window is the Workspace window, which displays which
variables are currently being used and how big they are. The third window is the
Launch Pad window, which is especially important since it contains easy access to the
available toolboxes, of which, Image Processing is one. If these three windows do not
 38

all appear as tabs below the window space, simply go to View and select the ones you
want to appear.

In order to gain some familiarity with the Command Window. If writing a code
that do not want to reappear in the MATLAB Command Window, there must place a
semi colon after the line of code. If there is no semi colon, then the code will print in
the command window just under where it is typed.

M-file- An M-file is a MATLAB document the user creates to store the code
they write for their specific application. An M-file is useful because it saves the code
that the user has written for their application. It can be manipulated and tested until it
meets the user’s specifications. The advantage of using an M-file is that the user, after
modifying their code, must only tell MATLAB to run the M-file, rather than reenter
each line of code individually.

Creating an M-file to create an M-file, select File\New ->M-file. Saving the next
step is to save the newly created M-file. In the M-file window, select File\Save as
Choose a location that suits the needs, such as a disk, the hard drive or the U drive. It is
not recommended that the work from the disk or from the U drive, so before editing
and testing your M-file it may want to move your file to the hard drive. Opening an
M-file to open up a previously designed M-file, simply open MATLAB in the same
manner as described before. Then, open the M-file by going to File Open and selecting
file. Resaving – After writing code, must save the work before it can run. Save the
code by going to File\Save. Running Code – To run code, simply go to the main
MATLAB window and type the name of the M-file after the >> prompt. Other ways to
run the M-file are to press F5 while the M-file window is open, select Debug\Run, or
press the Run button (see Figure 3.1) in the M-file window toolbar.Images – The first
step in MATLAB image processing is to understand that a digital image is composed
of a two or three dimensional matrix of pixels. Individual pixels contain a number or
numbers representing what grayscale or color value is assigned to it. Loading an Image
 39

many times want to process a specific image, other times that just want to test a filter
on an arbitrary matrix. If choosing to do this in MATLAB, MATLAB needs to load the
image so that process begins. If the image that has is in color, the color is not important
for the current application, then change the image to grayscale. This processing is
much simpler since there is only a third value of the pixel present in the new image.
Color may not be important in an image when trying to locate a specific object that has
good contrast with its surroundings.

Writing an Image – Sometimes an image must be saved so that it can be

transferred to a disk or opened with another program. In this case do the opposite of
loading an image, reading it, and instead write it to a file.

4.3 FEATURES OF MATLAB

 High-level language for technical computing

 Development environment for managing code, files, and data

 Interactive tools for iterative exploration, design, and problem solving

Mathematical functions for linear algebra, statistics, Fourier analysis, filtering,
optimization, and numerical integration.

 Tools for building custom graphical user interfaces

 Functions for integrating MATLAB based algorithms with external applications

and languages, such as C, C++, FORTRAN, Java, COM, and Microsoft Excel.

 Matlab functionality can be greatly expanded by the addition of toolboxes.

These are sets of specific functions that provided more specialized functionality.

4.4 ADVANTAGES
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 MATLAB is easy to learn

 Using MATLAB they do complicated calculations quickly, without having to
write a whole program or spreadsheet.
 Its basic data element is the matrix. A simple integer is considered a matrix of
one row and one column.  Several mathematical operations that work on arrays
or matrices are built-in to the Matlab environment. For example, cross-products,
dot-products, determinants, inverse matrices.
 Vectorized operations. Adding two arrays together needs only one command,
instead of a for or while loop.

4.5 SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS

4.5.1 Hardware requirements

 Hardware : Pentium
 Speed : 1.1 GHz
 RAM : 1GB
 Hard Disk : 20 GB
 Floppy Drive : 1.44 MB
 Key Board : Standard Windows Keyboard

4.5.2 Software requirements

 Operating System : Windows XP

 Coding Language : MATLAB
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4.6 SYSTEM TESTING

Testing is an important phase encountered in any developed product or
framework is the testing phase. It is because, the developed product should be free
from errors and it should be validated for accuracy. The product should work under
normal conditions as long as the user gives proper inputs and therefore it should be
checked for its robustness and should withstand and inform the users about the
erroneous input.

The testing phase involves testing the system using various test data.
Preparation of test data plays a vital role in the system testing. After preparing the test
data, the system is tested using those test data. Errors are found and corrected by using
the following testing steps and corrections are recorded for future reference. Thus a
series of testing is performed on the system before it is ready for implementation.

Testing is applied at different levels in the development lifecycle. Each level of

testing done is different in nature and has different objectives at each level. The focus
of all levels of testing is to find errors, but different types of errors are looked for at
each level. The quality of system is confirmed by the thoroughness of its testing.
Duration and cost of testing and debugging is a significant fraction of the system
development cycle and hence influences overall productivity during the development.
In this phase, the errors in the programs or modules are localized and modifications are
done to eliminate them. The testing makes a logical assumption that all parts of the
system work efficiently and the goal is achieved.

4.6.1 Black-box testing

Black-box testing is an approach to testing where the tests are derived from the
program or component specification. The system is a ‘block box’ whose behavior can
only be determined by studying its inputs and the related outputs. Another name for
this is functional testing because the tester is only concerned with the functionality and
not the implementation of the software.
 42

The following methods are commonly used:

 Equivalence partitioning
 Boundary-value analysis
 Error guessing.

4.6.1.1 Equivalence partitioning

Equivalence partitioning is a systematic process that identifies, on the basis of

whatever information is available, a set of interesting classes of input conditions to be
tested, where each class is representative of a large set of other possible tests.

4.6.1.2 Boundary value analysis

Here, elements are selected such that each edge of the EC is the subject of a test.
Example: If an input specifies a range of valid values, write test cases for the ends of
the range and invalid-input test cases for conditions just beyond the ends. If the input
requires a real number in the range 0.0 and 90.0 degrees, then write test cases for
0.0,90.0. But in this algorithm, Integers are needed for Key length.

4.6.1.3 Error guessing

Error guessing is an ad hoc approach, based on intuition and experience, to

identify tests that are considered likely to expose errors. The basic idea is to make a
list of possible errors or error-prone situations and then develop tests based on the list.

4.6.2 Low level testing

It involves testing individual program components one at a time or in
combination. It requires intimate knowledge of the program’s internal structure. The
objective of this testing and integration testing is that the code implemented the design
properly. In developing a large system testing usually involves several stages. These
 43

test cases are more refined and are generally written with details such as ‘Expected
Result’, ‘Test Data’, etc.
4.6.3 Unit testing
Unit testing focuses on the verification effort of the smallest unit of design
module. Attention is diverted to individual modules, independently to locate errors.
This has enabled the detection of errors in coding and logic. The various modules of
the system are tested in unit testing method. Using the detailed description as a guide,
important control parts are tested to uncover errors within the boundary of the module.
The relative complexity of tests and the error detected as a result is limited by the
constrained scope established for unit testing. This test focuses on each module
individually, ensuring that it functions properly as a unit, and hence the name Unit
Testing.

4.6.4 Module testing

Module tests seek to validate the code produced to create sets of logically
connected subroutines and data which have been grouping together into modules.
Module testing is concerned with testing the smallest piece of software for which a
separate specification exists. After checking for errors the modules can be integrated.

4.6.5 Integration testing

Integration testing is carried out after the modules are integrated. This test
uncovers the errors associated with the interface. This testing is done with sample data.
The need for integration is to find overall system performance. The objective is to take
unit tested modules to build a programmed structure.
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CHAPTER 5
RESULTS

5.1 SIMULATION OUTPUTS

Input Image

Fig: 5.1 Input Image

 45

Binarization

Fig: 5.2 Binarization

Dilation Image

Fig: 5.3 Dilation Image

 46

Erosion Image

Fig: 5.4 Erosion Image

Fig: 5.5 Four blocks

 47

C D

Fig: 5.6 Diabetes human

 48

110
K-NN
100
SVM
90 SRC

80

70
Average Accuracy

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1 2

Fig: 5.7 Accuracy graph

No of Diabetes human = 44

No of Non-Diabetes human = 7

Sparse Representations classifier [SRC] accuracy = 97.5423

 49

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

6.1 CONCLUSION
A facial color gamut was first applied such that each facial block is represented
by six colors. SRC with two sub dictionaries, one characterizing Healthy facial color
features and the other DM facial color features, was applied along with various values
for sparse coding. Given a test sample, its smallest reconstruction error calculated
either from Healthy or DM determines its class membership. By evaluating a
combination of seven different facial block groupings (from three blocks) and various
values, the highest average accuracy of 97.54% was attained from Block A with equal.
This outperforms the traditional classifiers of k-NN and SVM, and potentially provides
a new way to detect DM, one which does not inflict any harm or induce any pain. As
part of our future work, more Healthy and DM samples will be collected in order to
further validate the statistical accuracy of the proposed method.

6.2 FUTURE WORK

Part of our future work will involve increasing the number of facial images in
the dataset, experiment with other classifiers, and combine texture features with facial
block color features. More Healthy and DM samples will be collected in order to
further validate the statistical accuracy of the proposed method. We will increase the
number of samples in the facial image dataset, detecting DM through other classifiers
and combine facial block texture features with color features.
 50

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