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Structural controls, temperature–pressure conditions and fluid evolution of

orogenic gold mineralisation at the Betam mine, south Eastern Desert, Egypt

Article  in  Mineralium Deposita · January 2008

DOI: 10.1007/s00126-007-0156-0

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Miner Deposita (2008) 43:79–95
DOI 10.1007/s00126-007-0156-0
ARTICLE
Structural controls, temperature–pressure conditions
and fluid evolution of orogenic gold mineralisation
at the Betam mine, south Eastern Desert, Egypt
Basem A. Zoheir
Received: 16 February 2006 / Accepted: 4 June 2007 / Published online: 17 July 2007
# Springer-Verlag 2007
Abstract The Betam gold deposit, located in the southern
Eastern Desert of Egypt, is related to a series of milky
quartz veins along a NNW-trending shear zone, cutting
through pelitic metasedimentary rocks and small masses of
pink granite. This shear zone, along with a system of
discrete shear and fault zones, was developed late in the
deformation history of the area. Although slightly sheared
and boudinaged within the shear zone, the auriferous quartz
veins are characterised by irregular walls with a steeply
plunging ridge-in-groove lineation. Shear geometry of
rootless intra-folial folds and asymmetrical strain shadows
around the quartz lenses suggests that vein emplacement
took place under a brittle–ductile shear regime, clearly post-
dating the amphibolite-facies regional metamorphism.
Hydrothermal alteration is pervasive in the wallrock
metapelites and granite including sericitisation, silicifica-
tion, sulphidisation and minor carbonatisation. Ore miner-
alogy includes pyrite, arsenopyrite and subordinate galena,
chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite and gold. Gold occurs in the quartz
veins and adjacent wallrocks as inclusions in pyrite and
arsenopyrite, blebs and globules associated with galena,
fracture fillings in deformed arsenopyrite or as thin, wire-
like rims within or around rhythmic goethite. Presence of
refractory gold in arsenopyrite and pyrite is inferred from
microprobe analyses. Clustered and intra-granular trail-
bound aqueous–carbonic (LCO2 +Laq ±VCO2) inclusions
are common in cores of the less deformed quartz crystals,
whereas carbonic (LCO2 ±VCO2) and aqueous H2O–NaCl
(L+V) inclusions occur along inter-granular and trans-
Editorial handling: R. Moritz
B. A. Zoheir (*)
Department of Geology, Benha Faculty of Science,
13518 Benha, Egypt
e-mail: basem.zoheir@gmail.com
granular trails. Clathrate melting temperatures indicate
low salinities of the fluid (3–8 wt.% NaCl eq.). Homog-
enisation temperatures of the aqueous–carbonic inclusions
range between 297 and 323°C, slightly higher than those
of the intra-granular and inter-granular aqueous inclusions
(263–304°C), which are likely formed during grain
boundary migration. Homogenisation temperatures of the
trans-granular H2O–NaCl inclusions are much lower
(130–221°C), implying different fluids late in the shear
zone formation. Fluid densities calculated from aqueous–
carbonic inclusions along a single trail are between 0.88 and
0.98 g/cm3, and the resulting isochores suggest trapping
pressures of 2–2.6 kbar. Based on the arsenopyrite–pyrite–
pyrrhotite cotectic, arsenopyrite (30.4–30.7 wt.% As) asso-
ciated with gold inclusions indicates a temperature range of
325–344°C. This ore paragenesis constrains fS2 to the range
of 10−10 to 10−8.5 bar. Under such conditions, gold was likely
transported mainly as bisulphide complexes by low salinity
aqueous–carbonic fluids and precipitated because of varia-
tions in pH and fO2 through pressure fluctuation and CO2
effervescence as the ore fluids infiltrated the shear zone,
along with precipitation of carbonate and sericite. Wallrock
sulphidation also likely contributed to destabilising the gold–
bisulphide complexes and precipitating gold in the hydro-
thermal alteration zone adjacent to the mineralised quartz
veins.
Keywords Gold . Betam . Egypt . Shear zone .
Orogenic gold . Fluid inclusions
Introduction
The Arabian-Nubian Shield (ANS) is a large geological
ensemble covering several countries, i.e. Egypt, Eritrea,
DO00156; No of Pages
80
Ethiopia, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan and Yemen (2,200 km
NS×1,200 km EW). These different areas, accreted during the
Neoproterozoic (950–450 Ma), share a similar geological
evolution and several mineral resources (i.e. gold deposits).
The Eastern Desert of Egypt has long been a mining district for
gold, with more than 95 gold occurrences mostly confined to
the Neoproterozoic basement rocks (El Ramly et al. 1970;
Kröner 1984; Pohl 1988; Abdel Tawab 1992). Mining activity
was extensive during the Pharaonic and Roman times and
exploitation of the major gold deposits, e.g. E1 Sid, Barramiya
and Sukari, continued until 1958 (Sabet and Bordonosov 1984
and references therein).
In most of the gold occurrences in the Eastern Desert,
gold occurs in hydrothermal quartz veins cutting through
basement rocks of variable composition (schists, metavol-
canic rocks, serpentinite and granitoids) and age (pre-, syn-
and late-orogenic). Mineralogy of these veins commonly
includes fine disseminations of native gold, As-bearing
pyrite, arsenopyrite and chalcopyrite together with subor-
dinate sphalerite, galena, tetrahedrite and stibnite (Azer
1966). They are interpreted collectively as products of
hydrothermal activity (Garson and Shalaby 1976) induced
either by metamorphism or cooling of Lower Palaeozoic
magmatic rocks (Almond et al. 1984; Pohl 1988) or
subduction-related calc–alkaline magmatic rocks (El Gaby
et al. 1988). Other authors relate gold mineralisation to the
emplacement of granitoid rocks that intrude mafic/ultra-
mafic rocks (Hume 1937; Amin 1955; El Shazly 1957).
Klemm et al. (2001) further added that gold was deposited
at 300–400°C and 1–2 kbar, a conclusion supported by
Harraz (2000, 2002) for the deposits at the El-Sid and Atud
mines, Central Eastern Desert. Almond et al. (1984)
suggested that gold deposition was linked to an episode of
shearing post-dating the emplacement of all batholithic
intrusions and coeval with regional cooling. On the other
hand, Hussein (1990) argued that most of these hydrother-
mal vein deposits were epithermal rather than mesothermal.
In all cases, gold is considered to have been leached either
from metabasaltic or ultramafic rocks through the circula-
tion of metamorphic or mixed metamorphic–magmatic
fluids (e.g. Hassaan and El-Mezayen 1995; Harraz 2000;
Klemm et al. 2001; Botros 2004).
Spatial and temporal relationships between gold mineral-
isation and the tectonic structures in the Nubian Shield have
been recognised by many authors (e.g. Sabet and Bordonosov
1984; Harraz and Ashmawy 1994; Loizenbauer and Neumayr
1996). This relationship was recently confirmed by the work
of Loizenbauer et al. (2002), who concluded a genetic
relationship between gold mineralisation at the Fawakhir mine
area (26°16′N, 33°38′E) and transpressional tectonics of Late
Pan-African age.
The Betam gold deposit is located along Wadi Um Tenedib
within the Wadi Allaqi district, at Lat. 22°16′42″ N and Long.
Miner Deposita (2008) 43:79–95
34°30′31″ E, about 7 Km west of Gebel El Adrag. The
mineralisation occurs in gold-bearing quartz veins and
veinlets along a shear zone cutting through metapelites. The
area has little mineralisation on surface but dumps of the ore
derived from shafts in the mine area grade 6 g/t Au on
average, which indicates economic potential at depth (United
Nations Development Program, UNDP compilation report by
the Egyptian Geological Survey and Mining Authority 1986).
Geologic setting
Regional geology
The basement rocks cropping out in the Betam mine area are
part of a curvilinear ophiolitic belt, associated with the 750–
720 Ma Allaqi-Heiani suture, in the extreme south of Egypt.
It extends for more than 250 km in an east–west direction
and merges into a late NNE-trending shear zone, Hamisana
Zone (Fig. 1). The Allaqi-Heiani suture was formed when
the Gerf terrane (in the north) overrode the Gabgaba terrane
(in the south) before closure of the Mozambique ocean
(Abdelsalam and Stern 1996; El Kazzaz and Taylor 2001;
Kusky and Ramadan 2002; Abdelsalam et al. 2003). The
Gerf terrane encompasses volcanic, volcaniclastic and
sedimentary successions along with ophiolitic and granitic
rocks, generally metamorphosed under greenschist to am-
phibolite facies conditions (Camp 1984; Stern and Hedge
1985). The Gabgaba terrane occupies the western part of the
Red Sea Hill in Sudan and is made up of immature arc-
volcanic assemblages (Stern et al. 1990).
Geology of the Wadi Allaqi district includes three major
tectonic units, namely: dismembered ophiolites, island arc
volcano–sedimentary–plutonic assemblage and syn- and
late-orogenic granitic intrusions (Kröner et al. 1987; Berhe
1990; Taylor et al. 1993; Greiling et al. 1994; Sadek 1994;
Abdelsalam and Stern 1996; Shackleton 1996; El Nisr
1997; Abdeen et al. 2002; Kusky and Ramadan 2002;
Abdelsalam et al. 2003). The central part of the Allaqi-
Heiani suture, where the Betam mine is located, consists of
imbricate thrust-bounded sheets and slices of ophiolitic
serpentinite, amphibolite and metabasalt, embedded in a
highly tectonised matrix of talc carbonate, collectively
forming an elongate belt (Fig. 2). Successions of pelitic to
psammopelitic metasedimentary rocks, basaltic to basaltic
andesite layered metavolcanic, metavolcanoclastic units are
ductily deformed and tectonically underlay the ophiolitic
thrust sheets. These rocks have island arc affinities (Zoheir
2004). The syn-orogenic intrusions are mainly calc–alkaline
granitoids, covering vast areas north of the mine area
(Fig. 2). Late to post-orogenic intrusions mainly of olivine
gabbro and pink-coloured granite occur as sporadic small
bodies intruding most of the pre-existing rock units.
Miner Deposita (2008) 43:79–95 81

Fig. 1 a Distribution of the

Achaean–Paleoproterozoic and
Neoproterozoic rocks in north-
east Africa; b tectonic sketch map
of the Allaqi-Heiani Suture and
the northern part of the Hamisana
Shear Zone (modified after Stern
1994; Abdelsalam et al. 2003 and
references therein)

Geology of the mine area
The Betam mine area is underlain mainly by pelitic
metasedimentary rocks (i.e. garnet − biotite ± muscovite
schist), metagabbro and pink granite (Fig. 3). These rocks
display variable degrees of hydrothermal alteration depend-
ing on the proximity to the mineralised shear zone. The
metasedimentary rocks are brown to yellowish green and
have a fine-grained schistose structure. The primary,
metamorphic mineralogy includes quartz−biotite−garnet−
feldspar±muscovite±hornblende±chlorite±epidote. These
rocks are locally intercalated with alternate quartz-rich and

Fig. 2 Geological map of

the central part of the Allaqi-
Heiani Suture. Inset showing the
location of this part of the
suture in Egypt
82
Fig. 3 Geological map of the
Betam mine area
chlorite+epidote-rich bands. Along the shear zone, both
brittle faulting and ductile shearing post-date the metamor-
phic layering. Biotite flakes are preferably oriented parallel
to the main northwest-oriented foliation, whereas chlorite
commonly occupies late NNW-trending fractures defining a
cleavage foliation. Quartz ribbons with stretched ends are
aligned parallel to the cleavage foliation. Adjacent to the
granite masses and along the shear zone, the altered
metasedimentary wallrocks are iron-stained schists and
thickly seamed with a quartz stockwork.
In the southwestern part of the mine area, the metasedi-
mentary rocks are intruded by slightly foliated medium- to
coarse-grained metagabbro. The latter is granoblastic in
texture and heterogeneous in terms of grain size and
proportions of mafic to felsic minerals. It exhibits variable
degrees of alteration approaching the mineralised shear
zones. In the central part of the mine area, close to the shear
zone, small elongated stocks and offshoots of pink-coloured
granite cut mainly through the metasedimentary rocks. This
granite unit is composed essentially of quartz, biotite, mi-
crocline, oligoclase, ±muscovite, with accessory zircon and
sphene. Within and adjacent to the mineralised shear zone,
granite suffered intensive sericitisation, subordinate albit-
isation and kaolinitisation.
Miner Deposita (2008) 43:79–95
Structural setting
As a part of the central Allaqi-Hieani suture, the mine area
has experienced a multi-stage deformation history charac-
terised by several overprinted folding, transpression and
faulting events (Fig. 2). A summary of the structural
evolution of the central part of the Allaqi-Heiani suture is
given in Table 1.
The metasedimentary rocks form blocks of a disrupted
fold mosaic extending in a NW-oriented direction in the
central part of the mine area (Fig. 3). They exhibit abundant
asymmetric folds and contiguous faults and shear zones at
different scales. These rocks have a well-developed S2
schistosity (N45–59°W/44–63°NE), axial planar to F2
folds. This fabric is defined by preferred alignment of
biotite and muscovite flakes. S2 foliation is overprinted by
NNW-trending crenulations and its related S3 foliation. The
latter varies from an intense mineral foliation overprinting
and transposing S2 to a spaced cleavage foliation mainly in
the hinge zones of F3 folds. Asymmetric dilational bends
produced by superimposition of S3 on S2 planes accommo-
date quartz lenses with elongated ends (Fig. 4). The mine
area is cut by several faults with different directions.
Significant displacement, up to 2 km, is common along
Miner Deposita (2008) 43:79–95 83

Table 1 Summary of the deformation, metamorphic and magmatic event sequence of the central part of the Allaqi-Heiani belt

Stern (1994) Modified after Zoheir (2004)

Deformation Related fabrics Metamorphism Magmatism

Greater Weak brittle WNW–ESE, NNE–SSW and Emplacement of late- to post-

Gondwanaland deformation N–S joint/fracture systems orogenic intrusions of
break-up (Crustal traverse the syn- and late- gabbroic and alkali-
shortening and orogenic intrusions and the feldspar-rich granite with
escape tectonics; pre-existing rocks with no sharp irregular contacts
∼640–550 Ma) obvious offset
D3: E–W NNW–SSE strike slip faults Retrogressed mineralogy and
compressional crosscutting the former fabrics rock fabrics point out to low
regime (late- and dislocate the ophiolitic grade, greenschist facies
stage blocks, commonly with metamorphic event
shortening) dextral sense of displacement overprinted the peak
Discrete NNW–SSE shear metamorphic fabrics
zones, locally associated with
C–S structures, mortar
texture, pressure-shadows,
etc.
S3 (NNW–SSE) crenulation
cleavage and kinks, coaxial
with F3 axial planes
F3 major and minor folds, best
developed in the island arc
metavolcanics/volcanoclastics
and metasediments
D2: SW–NE Abundant km-scale NW–SE Development of the garnet+ Emplacement of syn-orogenic
compressional strike slip faults, commonly staurolite+hornblende± intrusions (mainly
regime with a sinistral sense of shear. sillimanite assemblage granodiorite). Marginal sub-
(roughly Genetically, these faults are indicates peak metamorphism horizontal intrusive contacts
perpendicular affiliate to the Najd fault under amphibolite facies flat-lying structures
on D1 system conditions including schistosity planes
structures) Rotated garnet, stretched biotite and thrust faults
and staurolite porphyroclasts
with sinistral asymmetry in
the pelitic metasediments
Early, penetrative slate foliation
(S2) striking roughly NW–SE,
by far the most common
minor structure in the area
NW–SE asymmetric upright
folds (F2), overturned to the
NE in places
Greater D1: Fold and Left lateral transpression Upper green schist facies
Gondwanaland thrust system superimposed on the thrust metamorphic event indicated
assembly (750– formation planes as inferred from the by chlorite-garnet-albite
650 Ma) (ophiolite A-type porphyroblasts and assemblage in the metapelites
emplacement) detached quartz ribbons
Major thrust faults led to
juxtaposition of rocks from
different crustal levels,
Ophiolite and island arc rocks
Overturned to recumbent folds
(F1) commonly verging to
S or SE
84
Fig. 4 a Equal area projections
of poles to planes of S2 and S3
foliations in the country meta-
pelites with mean great circles;
b schematic sketch illustrating
the relationship between S3 and
S2 in the eastern part of the
mine area. The shaded zone in
the close up view is intensely
sericitised
the NW-trending sinistral strike slip faults (Fig. 3). Dextral
NNW-trending faults displace the NW-trending faults and
are attributed to a third D3 ductile deformation increment.
NE- and NS-trending faults are also abundant in the mine
area and clearly overprint the NW and NNW-oriented
structures.
The gold-bearing quartz veins are confined to a brittle-
ductile shear zone (striking N27–36°W/∼70–80°NE, 160
cm wide at average). This shear zone is characterised by
intense fracturing, asymmetric shearing and stretching
lineation development (Fig. 5). Grain size reduction,
sigmoidal deflection of the pre-shear foliation planes
adjacent to the shear zone along with asymmetric micro-
folds and strain shadows collectively imply ductile defor-
mation, whereas local brecciation and abrupt displacement
of markers in the wallrock at the centre of the shear zone
denote brittle deformation. Most mineralisation occurs in
the central-shear quartz veins, and little is related to discrete
quartz lenses sub-parallel to the shear zone. An oblique
stretching lineation along the shear planes, defined by
chlorite flakes and quartz rods and boudins, pitches
moderately towards the southeast, denoting a significant,
dextral strike slip component. If parallel to the shear planes,
quartz bodies within the NNW-trending shear zone are lens-
shaped. This observation suggests a significant shortening
Fig. 5 Exposure of fault gouge and crushed metasediments along a
D3-related shear zone at the main entrance of the Betam mine
Miner Deposita (2008) 43:79–95
normal to the shear zone. Fault-fill quartz veins are
relatively thicker in the curved segments of the shear zone
compared with the straight segments. This might be
attributed to development of zones of enhanced permeabil-
ity (e.g. Gaboury et al. 2001) or preferential quartz veining
along Riedel shear planes (Fig. 6). A “ridge-in-groove”
type lineation (Lin and Williams 1992) is developed along
the quartz vein walls. This lineation has the classical
appearance of slickensides and striae along the quartz vein
walls. Sericite as minute flakes together with recrystallised
quartz gives the slickensides a shiny appearance at the
outcrop scale. Microscopic investigations showed that
quartz along the slickensides is strongly deformed, recrys-
tallised and fine-grained, typical for deformation under
greenschist facies conditions (e.g. Lin and Corfu 2002).
Analysis of structural fabrics, including a consistent top-
to-SE-oriented stretching lineation, asymmetries and slick-
ensides along the shear planes, suggests composite dextral
strike-slip and reverse dip-slip components (Fig. 7).
Quartz veins
Three main types of quartz veins with different directions
have been observed in the mine area, noted as types I, II
and III, in a chronological sequence. Generally, most of the
quartz veins cut through the metasedimentary rocks and
granite. The gold-bearing quartz veins are commonly
confined to the sheared metasedimentary rocks next to
altered granite masses.
Type I veins are the largest among the different vein sets
in the area and are considered as the principal ore bodies,
where most mining activity was localized. Quartz veins
belonging to this type strike NNW and NW are more or less
parallel to the host shear zone (Fig. 8a). They are mainly
dilated, branched milky quartz veins and lenses with a
maximum width of about 150 cm. A 10- to 30-cm-wide
zone of quartz vein-rich wallrocks bounds the main veins.
In the southern part of the mine area, this type occurs as
boudins and lenses with stretched ends along a crenulated
foliation in intensively altered metasedimentary rocks. A
Miner Deposita (2008) 43:79–95 85

Fig. 6 Geometry of the Au-

mineralised shear zone at Betam
mine. In the inset, the R-type
and P-type veins cut the folia-
tion at small acute angles. The
shear, transposed veins and
quartz boudins result from con-
tinuous shearing and deforma-
tion of R-type veins with a
dextral shear. Great circles of
quartz veins along the shear
zone are shown

steeply-plunging ridge-in-groove lineation is developed
along the walls of these quartz veins. The veins are slightly
boudinaged within the shear zone (Fig. 8b), implying
formation before, at least, the last increment of movement
along the shear zone. These veins are composed essentially
of coarse-grained quartz, variably fractured and recrystal-
lised (Fig. 9). Mixtures of calcite, sulphide minerals and
minor sericite and kaolinite are locally common in zones of
intense fracturing and brecciation. Next to these veins, the
metasedimentary rocks and granite are bleached, forming a

Fig. 7 a Stereographic projec-

tion of poles to planes of mean
foliation of the host rocks, Au–
quartz veins, faults accommo-
dating the Au–quartz veins with
great circles and stretching line-
ation; b sketch block diagram
illustrating the orientation of the
principal stress directions with
regards to the auriferous shear
zone and distribution of quartz
vein types
86
Fig. 8 a Rose diagram of azi-
muths of the different quartz
veins encountered in Betam
mine area. The arrow points to
trend of the auriferous quartz
veins and lenses; b hand speci-
men of intensely sericitised host
rock with a slightly boudinaged
Au–quartz vein
distinct pale halo varying from a few centimetres to metres
in width. There are abundant millimetre- to centimetre-thick
selvages of wallrocks in these veins, especially near the
margins. In the southern part of the mine area, the veins are
smaller and form a stockwork in granite, especially where
the shear zone crosscuts the contact with metasedimentary
rocks at acute angles.
Type II veins are drusy quartz bodies, commonly stained
with iron hydroxides. These veins occur as about 5- to 15-
cm-wide discontinuous lenses and veinlets, crosscutting the
metasedimentary rocks in a NNW–SSE direction. These
veins commonly enclose euhedral crystals of glassy quartz,
with their long axes pointing upwards. At the vicinity of
these veins, the metasedimentary rocks are altered into a
fine-grained quartz–albite–muscovite–biotite rock.
Type III veins are deep brown to smoky quartz sheets,
rich in empty or limonite-filled vugs especially near the
surface. They are commonly 20–30 cm thick but attain a 3-m
thickness in the central part of the mine area. These veins
extend in a N69°W direction, cutting across the aforementioned
quartz vein types causing slight to no lateral displacement.
Hydrothermal alteration
Slight sericitisation characterises zones adjacent to the
barren quartz veins, whereas, an elongated halo of bleach-
ing and abundant disseminated Fe–As sulphides bounds the
type I gold-bearing quartz-veins. The intensity of bleaching
correlates with the thickness of the quartz veins. The
Fig. 9 Microphotographs show-
ing quartz textures of the aurif-
erous quartz veins in Betam
gold mine: a deformation la-
mellae in a large quartz por-
phyroblast (down-right side of
the photo); b undulating quartz
ribbons with sub-grain devel-
oped along boundaries (grain
boundary migration)
Miner Deposita (2008) 43:79–95
alteration mineralogy, replacement textures and destruction
of metamorphic fabrics indicate a post-S2 low-temperature
metasomatic assemblage. The mineralogical composition
and intensity of the alteration are dependent on the host
rock composition and proximity to the mineralised shear
zone. The hydrothermal alteration halo is classified into
three alteration zones, including: (a) proximal pyrite–
sericite zone (quartz+pyrite+sericite±albite), (b) interme-
diate sericite–chlorite zone (quartz+sericite+pyrite±chlo-
rite) and (c) distal chlorite–calcite zone (chlorite+calcite±
epidote±biotite). These zones pass gradually into each
other (Fig. 10).
Granite shows considerable variations in colour, chem-
ical and mineralogical composition close and within the
shear zone. Potassic–feldspar is replaced by sericite, quartz
and iron oxides, imparting a reddish violet colouration to
the rock. Andesine plagioclase crystals are altered into
aggregates of sericite and kaolinite. In other places,
plagioclase crystals are completely albitised. Biotite is
partially to completely altered into chlorite and hematite
with minor rutile. Next to the mineralized quartz veins,
biotite and plagioclase are completely altered into sericite,
chlorite, calcite and epidote, and the original magmatic
texture is completely obliterated. Near the shear zone,
metagabbro shows spotty appearance with chlorite patches
embedded in a yellowish white background. Albite devel-
ops at the expense of plagioclase. Augite and amphibole are
altered into chlorite and subordinate calcite and epidote.
Chlorite is commonly associated with fine-grained quartz,
pyrite and chalcopyrite.
Miner Deposita (2008) 43:79–95 87

Fig. 10 Sketch drawing show-

ing the distribution of alteration
assemblages around the Au–
quartz veined shear zone. Notice
granite is intensively altered into
quartz–sericite–pyrite assem-
blage adjacent or within the
shear zone

Ore mineralogy cases, arsenopyrite crystals have inclusions of electrum (10–

The type I gold-bearing quartz veins are composed of pyrite,
arsenopyrite, subordinate chalcopyrite and galena, and dis-
crete gold grains. In quartz veins, gold and sulphide minerals
are common in domains rich in altered wallrock selvages.
Arsenopyrite and pyrite are ubiquitous in the mineralised
veins and wallrocks, occurring as disseminated individual
subhedral grains (70 μm–2 mm) or aggregates usually
confined to quartz grain boundaries or microfissures. In few
40 μm long) and rare pyrrhotite. Various inter-growth textures
suggest coexistence of pyrrhotite inclusions, euhedral pyrite
and arsenopyrite in the quartz veins (Fig. 11). Chalcopyrite
occurs as dispersed anhedral particles in the quartz veins,
commonly associated with galena±gold grains. Blebs and
globules of free gold occur along grain boundaries and filling
microfissures in deformed arsenopyrite and pyrite crystals.
Free gold occurs also as 10- to 20-μm-thick rims within or
surrounding altered arsenopyrite and/or pyrite crystals.

Fig. 11 Reflected light photo-

micrograph of a mineralised
quartz vein from Betam mine
shows intergrown pyrite (py)
and arsenopyrite (aspy) and
inclusions of pyrrhotite (po),
chalcopyrite (ccpy) and gold
(Au) inclusions
88 Miner Deposita (2008) 43:79–95

Arsenopyrite geothermometry standardized charts (e.g. Shepherd et al. 1985) with an error of
±10 vol.%. The accuracy of the measurements is estimated as
Arsenopyrite, pyrite and gold in quartz veins and wallrocks ±1°C at 374°C at a heating rate of 5°C/min and ±0.2°C below
were analysed using a JEOL JSM-6310 SEM equipped 0°C at a heating rate of 1°C/min. Measurements were
with a Microspec wavelength dispersive spectrometer at the corrected by linear interpolation between temperature devia-
Institute of Mineralogy and Petrology, Graz, Austria. The tions at the calibration temperatures (MacDonald and Spooner
operating conditions were 20 kV accelerating voltage and 1981). Molar volumes, compositions and isochores were
0.5 ηA beam current. Arsenopyrite crystals were initially
checked for Co, Ni, Bi, Sb and Au, but only traces of Co
and Au were detected. Emphasis was placed on arsenopy-
rite crystals in mutual contact with pyrite and/or pyrrhotite
and containing gold inclusions. Generally, the variation
within a single grain is less than the variation among
different grains from the same sample. The difference in As
contents in a single grain does not exceed 1 wt.%. Traces of
Au were detected in zones with relatively higher at.% of As
and inversely correlated with Fe concentrations in arseno-
pyrite (Fig. 12). Johan et al. (1989) proposed a substitution
mechanism in arsenopyrite: [2As[Fe] (Au,Sb)+Fe], where
As[Fe] is As in Fe sites. Similarly, Wu and Delbove (1989)
reported a negative correlation between Fe and Au in
synthetic arsenopyrite, suggesting substitution of Fe by Au.
Fleet and Mumin (1997) provided a review of earlier work
on arsenopyrite and suggested that invisible Au in
arsenopyrite represents Au removed from ore fluids by
chemisorption at As-rich, Fe-deficient sites and incorporat-
ed as a metastable solid-solution.
If arsenopyrite is buffered with respect to sulphur
activity, the As/S ratio of arsenopyrite is mainly a function
of the temperature (Clark 1960) and therefore can be used
as a geothermometer (Kretschmar and Scott 1976; Sharp et al.
1985). Using the fS2-buffered arsenopyrite–pyrite–pyrrhotite
assemblage in the studied deposit (30.4–30.7 wt.% As in
arsenopyrite), a temperature range of 325–344°C is inferred
(Fig. 13).

Fluid inclusions

Fluid inclusion petrography and microthermometry were

aimed at assessing the nature and evolution of the ore fluids
and constraining the physico-chemical parameters that
controlled gold deposition. The data were collected from
fluid inclusions trapped in the type I gold-bearing quartz
veins. Freezing–heating runs were conducted on inclusions
in nine vein quartz wafers using a fully automated Linkam
THMSG 600 heating–freezing stage with a TMS 93 tem-
perature programmer. The stage was calibrated with syn-
thetic inclusions supplied by Synflinc. Measurements were
carried out at the Mineralogisches Institut, Universität
Fig. 12 a Frequency of As at.% in arsenopyrite crystals from Betam
Karlsruhe, Germany. Fluid inclusions were cooled until deposit; b gold concentrations as wt.% in auriferous arsenopyrite
complete freezing and then heated at rates of 20, 5 and 1°C/min. crystals; c bivariant correlation between gold and arsenic contents in
The liquid/vapour phase ratios were estimated with the aid of the auriferous arsenopyrites
Miner Deposita (2008) 43:79–95
Fig. 13 Activity of S2 temperature projection of the stability field of
arsenopyrite (Barton 1969), with atomic wt.% As arsenopyrite-
buffered curves from Kretschmar and Scott (1976). The hatched area
depicts the temperature range and fS2 conditions of precipitation the
auriferous sulphides. As, arsenic, aspy, arsenopyrite, bn, bornite, l,
liquid, lö, loellingite, po, pyrrhotite, py, pyrite
calculated using the ‘‘Fluids’’ software package (Bakker
2003). Salinities from ice melting were obtained using the
equation given by Bodnar (1993). Salinities from final
clathrate melting were based on Diamond’s (1992) equation.
For the CO2-bearing inclusions (carbonic and aqueous–
carbonic), the density of H2O and CO2 were calculated by
applying the equation of state by Saxena and Fei (1987).
Equations of state used for isochore calculations were from
Bowers and Helgeson (1983) and Zhang and Franz (1987) for
the carbonic and aqueous inclusions, respectively.
Petrography and microthermometry
The investigated gold-bearing quartz veins are rich in fluid
inclusions. Petrographic observations and heating/freezing
measurements helped to define three compositionally
different types of inclusions, namely: carbonic CO2 ±CH4,
aqueous–carbonic H2O–NaCl–CO2 ± CH4 and aqueous
Fig. 14 A hand-drawn sketch,
based on microscopic observa-
tions, shows the distribution of
fluid inclusion types in the au-
riferous quartz veins of Betam
deposit. Numbers indicate the
total homogenisation tempera-
tures of the adjacent
inclusions
89
H2O–NaCl inclusions (Fig. 14). All inclusions lack any
daughter mineral phase. Microthermometric data were
collected from inclusions in the less deformed vein quartz.
The obtained data, including temperatures of total homog-
enisation (Th total), melting of CO2 (Tm CO2), homogenisa-
tion of CO2 (Th CO2), melting of clathrate (Tm Clath) and
final melting of ice (Tm ice), are summarised in Fig. 15. As
the investigated gold-bearing quartz veins are spatially and
temporally associated with a shear zone, inclusions are
classified into isolated, clustered and fluid inclusions in
intra-granular, inter-granular and trans-granular trails (e.g.
Simmons and Richter 1976; Touret 1981; Kranz 1983; Van
den Kerkhof and Hein 2001).
The carbonic inclusions, approximately 75% of the
whole population, range from 7 to 15 μm in diameter.
They are commonly oval to negative crystal shaped
monophase inclusions (LCO2) at room temperature with a
vapour bubble nucleating upon cooling (LCO2 +VCO2).
They occur as isolated, inter-granular and trans-granular
inclusion trails. In the coarse-grained quartz and close to
arsenopyrite and pyrite, this inclusion type is associated
with discrete aqueous and aqueous–carbonic inclusions.
These inclusions yielded Th CO2 to the liquid phase ranging
between 20.4 and 29.2°C, corresponding to densities of
0.62–0.77 g/cm3. Generally, the final melting of CO2 (Tm CO2)
occurred between −56.6 and −57.3°C. Lowering of Tm CO2
below the −56.6 is attributed to the presence of incompressible
gases, e.g. CH4 or N2. If only CH4 is considered, a maximum
of 0.10 mole fraction (XCH4) is estimated using the graphical
method of Heyen et al. (1982). Trails of carbonic inclusions
along the sub-grain boundaries are interpreted as having been
trapped during grain boundary migration and dynamic re-
crystallisation (e.g. Johnson and Hollister 1995). Other, late-
paragenic, planar arrays of tiny monophase and biphase
carbonic inclusions (mostly <4 μm long) with elongated to
rounded shapes crosscut populations of the aqueous–carbonic
90
Fig. 15 Summary of microther-
mometric data and geometric
characteristics of the different
types of fluid inclusions in Au–
quartz veins from Betam deposit
inclusions and grain boundaries. The abundance of these
inclusions is directly related to the proximity to fractured
domains and sealed cracks. Inclusions along trans-granular
trails showed higher homogenisation temperatures and pure
CO2 composition compared to those in clusters and along
intra-granular trails (Fig. 15).
The aqueous–carbonic inclusions occur as isolated
singles or clusters showing a random three-dimensional
distribution typically throughout less deformed large quartz
crystals. Close to the clustered inclusions, groups of these
inclusions occur along intra-granular trails. They exhibit a
variety of polygonal forms and range in size from ∼10 to 50
μm. These inclusions are commonly bi-phase at room tem-
perature and a third phase appears during cooling (LH2O +
LCO2 +VCO2). The degree of fill (volumetric proportion of
aqueous phase relative to the total inclusion volume; DF=
VH2O /Vt) varies from 0.6 up to 0.9 within a single trail.
Assemblages of aqueous–carbonic, carbonic and aqueous
inclusions occur also along inter-granular trails. Tm CO2
ranges from −56.6 to −57.4°C but is commonly −56.6°C.
Homogenisation (Th CO2) occurred commonly into liquid at
18.4–23.6°C, implying a range of 0.79–0.68 g/cm3 for CO2
densities. Upon heating of the bubble-dominated inclu-
sions, the CO2 bubble expanded instead of shrinking, in-
dicating homogenisation into vapour (e.g. Roedder 1984).
Although variable, densities of the CO2 fractions were
consistently higher in the water-rich inclusions than in the
vapour-rich ones. Clathrate melting temperatures (Tm Clath)
ranged between 8.4 and 5.7°C, corresponding to salinities
of ∼3.2–7.9 wt.% NaCl eq., respectively (Diamond 1992).
Inclusions with high DF showed low clathrate melting
temperatures compared to those that have relatively low
Miner Deposita (2008) 43:79–95
DF. Generally, a range of CO2 contents of 10–15 mol% was
calculated for the examined aqueous–carbonic inclusions.
Total homogenisation temperature took place between
297.1 and 323.3°C commonly into liquid.
The aqueous inclusions (H2O–NaCl) are commonly
biphase (L+V), ranging in size from 7 to 40 μm. These
inclusions occur preferentially in isolated, inter-granular
and/or trans-granular trails. In very few cases, aqueous
inclusions are associated with carbonic inclusions along
inter-granular trails. Isolated aqueous inclusions showed
final ice melting (Tm ice) at temperatures ranging from −5.4
to −1.2°C, indicating salinities of 8.4–2.1 wt.% NaCl eq.
(Bodnar 1993). Inclusions along trans-granular trails
showed Tm ice between −2.1 and −0.3°C, indicating salin-
ities between 0.3 and 3.6 wt.% NaCl eq. Total homogeni-
sation (Th H2O), consistently into liquid, took place
differentially within two temperature ranges, 263.4–303.7°C
for the intra-granular and inter-granular trail-bound inclu-
sions and 130.1–221.1°C for inclusions along the trans-
granular trails. The different modes of occurrence, lower
homogenisation temperatures and low salinities of aque-
ous inclusions along trans-granular trails indicate a later
dilute fluid. Calculated bulk densities of the isolated and
intra-granular trail bound inclusions range from 0.83 to
0.86 g/cm3, whereas those trapped along the inter-granular
and trans-granular trails have 0.89–0.94 g/cm3.
Interpretation of fluid inclusion data and P–T constraints
Relationships among the three inclusions types, along with
their microthermometric data, indicate that the aqueous,
carbonic and aqueous–carbonic fluid inclusions in isolation,
Miner Deposita (2008) 43:79–95
clusters and in intra-granular trails are early-entrapped
fluids (e.g. Roedder 1979, 1984). On the other hand,
aqueous and carbonic inclusions along inter-granular and
trans-granular trails were trapped later. The spatial association
of the early inclusion groups and gold–sulphide concentra-
tions together with the absence of any later higher-temperature
event suggests that the aqueous–carbonic inclusions likely
represent the ore fluids. Although a complete quantum of fluid
inclusions with variable degrees of filling is missing, and total
homogenisation into vapour is rare, textures of post-
entrapment modifications induced re-equilibrium (e.g. neck-
ing down and decrepitated inclusions, Vityk and Bodnar
1995) are generally absent. Similar salinities of the aqueous–
carbonic and aqueous inclusions as well as comparable CO2
densities in the carbonic and aqueous–carbonic inclusions,
along with the preferential fractionation of salt into the
aqueous-rich inclusions, suggest unmixing of an initially
homogeneous H2O–CO2–NaCl fluid (e.g. Ramboz et al.
1982; Robert and Kelly 1987; Huizenga and Touret 1999).
Accordingly, the aqueous–carbonic inclusions provide the
best approximation of the P–T–X of the mineralising fluid (e.g.
Touret and Dietvorst 1983). The highest homogenisation
temperature of these inclusions (323.3°C) could therefore
provide a minimum temperature of the original trapping
conditions. At this temperature, the isochores of the
aqueous–carbonic inclusions indicate a pressure range of
2–2.6 kbar (conditions defined by points 2 and 3 in Fig. 16).
The arsenopyrite–pyrite–pyrrhotite geothermometer indi-
cates a temperature of 344°C, based on 30.7 wt.% As, and
Fig. 16 P–T diagram with isochores A and B (thick lines) covering
the range in composition of isolated H2O–CO2 inclusions in
populations showing intimate relation to gold grains. Isochores
represented by the dotted lines constrain the range of total density of
the aqueous inclusions (type III). The highest Th total of the aqueous–
carbonic inclusions (323°C) is considered as the minimum entrapment
temperature and gold deposition. The P–T fields given the letters 1, 2,
3 and 4, with the obvious path of retrogression, represent the total
fluid regime imposed from sulphide mineralisation to local exhuma-
tion. For more details, see the text
91
yields an intersection with the fluid inclusion isochore of the
highest bulk density aqueous–carbonic inclusions at 3 kbar
(conditions defined by point 1 in Fig. 16). This might be the
upper limit of P–T conditions of the overall hydrothermal
system. The inter-granular, trail-bound aqueous inclusions
have comparable salinities but slightly lower homogenisation
temperatures compared to the aqueous–carbonic inclusions
along intra-granular trails. They likely represent residual
fluids entrapped through grain boundary migration and CO2
effervescences (probably began at conditions defined by
point 4 in Fig. 16). Variation in Th total, densities and
compositions of the aqueous–carbonic and aqueous inclu-
sions might reflect the variation of the physico-chemical
conditions during the mineralising process (e.g. Schmidt
Mumm et al. 1997). Spread of the isochores and pressure
data may also account for pressure fluctuations, a common
feature in the shear zone-hosted gold deposits, in which fluid
pressure often exceeds the lithostatic conditions (Sibson
1987; Robert and Kelly 1987; Cox et al. 1995).
Discussion
Gold transport and deposition
The Betam deposit is similar to many orogenic lode-gold
deposits formed under comparable temperature and pres-
sure conditions in the greenschist-facies terranes (Ho et al.
1992). These deposits are commonly characterised by low
salinity aqueous–carbonic ore fluids, weakly alkaline to
neutral and slightly reducing in most cases (Mikucki and
Ridley 1993; Mikucki 1998). Under these conditions, the
gold–thio complexes are generally considered the most
important gold-transporting species (Wood and Sampson
1998; Kerrich 1999). In Betam deposit, the temporal and
spatial association of gold with arsenopyrite and pyrite, low
salinity fluid inclusions, the sericite–carbonate alteration
assemblage and scarcity of Cu–Pb minerals are consistent
with the conclusion that bisulphide complexes were
responsible for gold transport. The presence of microscopic
and sub-microscopic gold particles in the altered wallrock
commonly associated with Fe–sulphides points towards the
importance of the wallrock alteration (sulphidation) in
depositing gold through breakdown of the S-complex and
gold precipitation (e.g. Klein et al. 2005). Changes in the
fluid pH might have been caused by sericite alteration,
which should have added H+ to the circulating fluid,
whereas precipitation of carbonate removed CO2 from the
fluid (e.g. Buchholz et al. 1998). Effervescence of CO2
triggered by pressure fluctuations along the shear zone
might have also raised both pH and fO2 (Bowers 1991). As
these two processes were operating in parallel, gold was
deposited in the quartz veins and adjacent wallrocks.
92
Mineralisation controls and timing relative
to the tectono-thermal evolution of the Eastern Desert
According to Kerrich and Cassidy (1994), Goldfarb et al.
(2001) and Groves et al. (2003), the orogenic lode gold
deposits were formed typically during the late stages of the
deformational–metamorphic–magmatic history of an evolv-
ing orogen, synchronously with at least one main penetrative
deformation stage of the host rocks. In the investigated
deposit, gold occurs as free-milling inclusions and refractory
Au in arsenopyrite and pyrite. A similar bimodal distribution
of gold is described in many orogenic gold deposits (e.g. the
Ashanti belt of Ghana, Oberthür et al. 1994). Refractory gold
is considered as a characteristic of mesothermal/orogenic
gold deposits (Cabri et al. 1989, 2000).
The occurrence of most mineralisation in the central-shear
quartz veins along slip surfaces and discrete sub-parallel
quartz lenses, strong steeply plunging ridge-and-groove
lineations along the vein walls parallel to the mylonitic
lineation and abundant asymmetric quartz bends along the
shear zone indicate that emplacement of the gold-bearing
quartz veins at the Betam mine was syn-kinematic with the
shear zone formation. This shear zone is related to D3, late in
the tectonic evolution of the Betam mine area and
surroundings. Replacement of the metamorphic mineralogy
by hydrothermal alteration assemblages, within and adjacent
to the shear zone, indicates that the mineralisation is post-
peak metamorphism. The peak metamorphic event occurred
under amphibolite facies conditions along the Allaqi Heiani
belt and is dated at 630–550 Ma (Abd El Naby et al. 2000).
In the central part of the Allaqi-Heiani belt, the peak
metamorphic conditions were attained during D2 (SW–NE
compressional regime). This deformation increment was
terminated by a northwest-trending transpression, leading to
the formation of abundant kilometre scale sinistral NW-
oriented strike slip faults. These faults are common in the
central Eastern Desert of Egypt, known as Wadi Hodein–
Wadi Kharit shear system (Stern 1985, 1994; Greiling et al.
1994) and in Arabia as Najd Fault System (NFS; Stoesser
and Camp 1985). The NFS imparted deep-seated regional
fabrics that controlled the locus of later episodes of
deformation (e.g. Agar 1987). In the Wadi Allaqi region,
gold mineralisation was chiefly controlled by a system of
discrete NNW-trending, brittle–ductile shear zones (e.g. El
Shimi 1996; El Kazzaz 1996) formed during a D3 trancurrent
shearing event, post-dating the late Proterozoic NFS (∼640–
530 Ma). Accordingly, D3 and the related mineralisation
should be younger than 640–530 Ma. According to Stern
et al. (1989), the magmatic and metamorphic events in the
region ceased at 510±40 Ma.
Botros (2004) described 16 gold deposits and occur-
rences in the Eastern Desert of Egypt in which gold
mineralisation is clearly spatially and genetically related to
Miner Deposita (2008) 43:79–95
brittle–ductile shear zones mostly developed during late
deformational stages of the evolution history of the Eastern
Desert. Loizenbauer et al. (2002) concluded that Late Pan-
African transpressional tectonics controlled gold minerali-
sation at the Fawakhir mine area. One isochron model
based on Pb isotope data of galena associated with gold in
quartz veins at the Fawakhir mine indicates an age of 480
Ma (Delevaux et al. 1967). Helmy et al. (2004) suggested
that gold mineralisation at the El Sukari mine area, took
place during late stage extension and strike-slip tectonics
(∼580 Ma) because of a combined strike-slip and vertical
motion along flower type shear zones.
Fluid evolution and fluid sources in comparison
with similar gold deposits in the Eastern Desert
The occurrence of aqueous, carbonic and aqueous–carbonic
fluid inclusion assemblages as isolated, clustered and along
intra-granular trails in quartz indicates that these fluids were
trapped early during the vein formation. Moreover, the
abundance of these inclusions along intra-granular trails close
to auriferous sulphide crystals suggests that gold mineralisa-
tion occurred late in the history of the vein formation. Based
on the absence of the aqueous–carbonic inclusions in
secondary sites, absence of the aqueous phase in the carbonic
inclusions and variable CO2 densities in carbonic and
aqueous–carbonic inclusions, it is proposed that low-density
CO2 might have been separated from an initially miscible
aqueous–carbonic ore fluid because of changes in tempera-
ture or pressure or both (Bowers and Helgeson 1983; Walsh
et al. 1988). Cooling is unlikely as the main depositional
mechanism in view of the variable fluid densities in both
aqueous and aqueous–carbonic inclusions. Pressure could
have fluctuated widely between lithostatic and hydrostatic
conditions in response to possible fluid overpressure and
movement along the shear zone (e.g. Sibson et al. 1988).
Alternatively, interplay of pressure drop and temperature
decrease is more appropriate to explain variations in
homogenisation temperatures and bulk density of coexisting
fluid inclusions. Similar fluid evolution histories are de-
scribed in other mesothermal gold deposits worldwide and
from the Eastern Desert of Egypt. Loizenbauer and Neumayr
(1996) described pseudosecondary liquid-rich, vapour-rich
and low salinity CO2–H2O in the auriferous quartz veins
from the El Sid gold deposit, for which they proposed a
range of 1.8–2.3 kbar for the formation conditions.
Harraz (2002) suggested that conditions of gold deposi-
tion in the Atud gold deposit were similar to many
mesothermal vein systems and likely occurred because of
a sharp decrease in sulphur activity through un-mixing
because of an abrupt drop in fluid pressure (from 272 to
160 MPa). Further, he concluded that low salinity (2.8–8.2
wt.% NaCl eq.) and homogenisation temperatures of the
Miner Deposita (2008) 43:79–95
H2O–CO2-rich inclusions suggest a metamorphic source,
such as devolatilisation of the metasedimentary rocks and
serpentinites at depth and migrated upward along dilational
structures. The ore fluids leached the metals from the
country rocks. Furthermore, similar assemblages of aque-
ous, aqueous–carbonic and carbonic fluid inclusions have
been described in gold-bearing quartz veins from the El
Sukari mine (Helmy et al. 2004). The authors assumed that
early CO2-rich fluids caused alteration along the shear
zones and these fluids were mixed with meteoric water
during exhumation. They suggested a long-term, cyclic
crack–seal mechanism during pressure fluctuations (be-
tween 210 and 1,890 bar) along with host-rock because of
alteration. The authors suggested that similar gold deposits
within the Eastern Desert of Egypt, located at the contact
between granitoids and mafic–ultramafic rocks and along
shear-zones, are the result of similar formation processes.
At 20 km east of the Betam mine, in the Um El Tuyor
gold deposit, an initial gold/bisulphide-bearing ore fluid
(H2O−6 wt.% NaCl−21 mol% CO2 ±1−2 mol% CH4 or
N2) started to separate into two phases and precipitated gold
when conditions attained ∼340°C at around 1.5 kbar within
a brittle–ductile shear regime, ∼6 km depth under lithostatic
condition (Zoheir 2004). The fluid composition and
precipitation conditions are comparable with those of the
Betam deposit.
Conclusions
In view of the deformation history of the mine area and
surroundings, dextral transpression best explains the for-
mation of the shear zone and quartz veins at the Betam
deposit. The occurrence along the contact between meta-
sedimentary rocks and granite suggests that the contrasting
rock competency and rheology likely controlled fluid
circulation. Simple mineralogy of the auriferous quartz
veins and absence of replacement textures among the ore
minerals suggests a unique mineralisation event. Although
the ultimate source of the mineralising fluid cannot be
confidently determined, calcite and sulphide enrichment
around the auriferous quartz veins suggest that the ore fluid
was externally derived. Gold deposition likely took place as
a result of destabilising gold–bisulphide complexes through
fluid–wallrock interaction and changes in pH and fO2 by
pressure fluctuation within the shear zone and sericite and
carbonate precipitation. Sulphidation of the wallrocks also
contributed in destabilising the gold–bisulphide complexes,
thereby leading to gold precipitation (e.g. Phillips and
Groves 1983; Groves and Phillips 1987; Groves et al.
1998). Gold deposition because of sulphidation is not
conflicting with intermittent fluid pressure fluctuation
within the shear zone as pressure fluctuation could not
have extended into the wall rock (e.g. Guha et al. 1991).
93
Comparison between the Betam deposit and other
important mesothermal gold deposits from the Eastern
Desert of Egypt, Atud, El Sukari and Um El-Tuyor suggests
that comparable ore fluids were involved in them with
similar gold-forming P–T regimes, suggesting that orogenic
lode–gold mineralisation in the Egyptian basement was an
integral part of a regional-scale event during the evolution
of the Arabian-Nubian Shield late in the Neoproterozoic at
ca. 510±40 Ma.
Acknowledgements This work is made possible by the assistance
and expertise of Prof. J. Walter, Institute of Mineralogy and
Geochemistry, Karlsruhe (Germany), during the fluid inclusion
microthermometric measurements and interpretation. Interpretations
benefited greatly from discussions with Reinhard Kaindl (Graz) and
Van den Kerkhof (Göttingen). Appreciation should extend to the
journal editor, Prof. Dr. Lawrence Meinert, associate editor, Dr. Robert
Moritz and to the reviewers, Drs. Jean Vallance and Damien Gaboury.
Their criticism and suggestions greatly improved the initial version of
this manuscript.
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