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FLUID MECHANICS
Chapter 2
Fluid properties
Dr. Ibrahem Altarawneh

1
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2: Fluid Properties Dr. Ibrahem Altarawneh
Course Contents
The course will cover the following chapters from the textbook:
Ch1: Introduction.
Ch2: Fluid properties.
Ch3: Fluid statics.
Ch4: Flowing fluids & pressure variation.
Ch5: Control volume & continuity equation.
Ch6: Energy equation.
Ch7: Flow in conduits.

CHAPTER 2: Fluid Properties
• A fluid has certain characteristics by which its physical condition may

be described. These characteristics are called properties of the fluid.
This chapter introduces material properties of fluids and presents key
equations, tables, and figures.
Introduction
 Any characteristic of a system is called a property.

• Familiar: pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m.
• Less familiar: viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity,
thermal expansion coefficient, vapor pressure, surface tension.
 Intensive properties are independent of the mass of the system. Examples:

temperature, pressure, and density.
 Extensive properties are those whose value depends on the size of the
system. Examples: Total mass, total volume, and total momentum.
 Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties.

Examples include specific volume v = V/m and specific total energy
e=E/m.
Properties Involving Mass and Weight

• Mass Density, ρ:
Mass density is defined as the ratio of mass to volume at a point,
given by: m m  kg 
  lim   3
V 0 V V m 
• For example:
• ρwater at 4°C = 1000 kg/m3 (62.4 Ibm/ft3)
• ρair at 20°C = 1.2 kg/m3 (0.075 Ibm/ft3)
• Mass density for liquids does not change significantly with

temperature
• Mass density of gases change significantly with temperature and
pressure
Densities of common fluids are given in Tables A.2 to A.5.


• Specific Weight γ:
• The gravitational force per unit volume of fluid, or simply the weight
per unit volume, is defined as specific weight.
• It is given the Greek symbol γ (gamma).
• Water at 20°C has a specific weight of 9790 N/m3 (or 62.4 lbf/ft3 at
50°F).
• The specific weight of air at 20°C and standard atmospheric pressure
is 11.8 N/m3.
• Specific weight and density are related by
  g
Specific weights of common liquids are given in Table A.4.

• Specific Gravity, S :
• The ratio of the specific weight of a given fluid to the
specific weight of water at the standard reference
temperature 4°C is defined as specific gravity, S:
 fluid  fluid
S 
 water  water
• The specific weight of water at atmospheric pressure is
9790 N/m3. The specific gravity of mercury at 20°C is
133kN / m 3
S Hg  3
 13.6
9.779kN / m
• Because specific gravity is a ratio of specific weights, it is
dimensionless and therefore independent of the system of
units used
Ideal Gas Law

• The ideal gas law relates important thermodynamic properties, and is
often used to calculate density.
PV  nRuT
where P is the absolute pressure, V is the volume, n is the number
of moles, Ru is the universal gas constant (the same for all gases),
and T is absolute temperature.
• Absolute pressure is referred to absolute zero. The universal gas
constant is 8.314 kJ/kmol-K in the SI system.
• Another form is
nM Ru
P T  RT
V M
where M is the molecular weight of the gas. The product of the number
of moles n and the molecular weight M is the mass of the gas. Thus is the
mass per unit volume, or density. The quotient Ru/M is the gas constant,
R.
Ideal Gas Law

Example 1: Air at standard sea-level pressure (P =101 kN /m2) has a
temperature of 4°C. What is the density of the air?
Situation: Air with a known temperature and pressure.

Find: Density (kg/m3).
Properties: Air, 4°C, P at 101 kN/m2; Table A.2, R =287 J /kg K.
101 103 N2
kg
ρ P  m  1.27 3
RT 287 J (273  4) m
kg K
Remember: Use absolute temperatures and pressures with the ideal gas law.
Remember: use R from Table A.2. Do not use Ru.

Example 2: Calculate the density and specific weight of carbon dioxide at

a pressure of 300 absolute and 60°C.
Solution:
From Table A.2, RCO2 = 189 J/kg·K. p = 300 kPa, T = 60◦C.
Ideal gas law

P 300000 kPa kg
ρ CO2    4.767 3
RT 189 J (273  60 ) K m
kg K
γ  ρg  4.767 kg/m 3  9.81 m/s 2
Specific weight
 46.764 N/m3
Always use absolute pressure when working with the ideal gas law
Properties Involving Thermal Energy

Energy
• The forms of energy related to the molecular structure of a system and
the degree of the molecular activity are referred to as the microscopic
energy.
• The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called the internal
energy of a system, and is denoted by U (or u on a unit mass basis).
• Kinetic energy: the energy that a system possesses as a result of its

motion relative to some reference frame is called.
• The energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a

gravitational field is called potential energy and is expressed on a per-
unit mass basis as gz

Specific Heat, c
• The property that describes the capacity of a substance to store
thermal energy is called specific heat.
• It is the amount of thermal energy that must be transferred to a unit
mass of substance to raise its temperature by one degree.
• If the specific volume v of the gas (v = 1/ρ ) remains constant while

the temperature changes, then the specific heat is identified as cv .
• If the pressure is held constant during the change in state, then the
specific heat is identified as cp.
• The ratio cp/cv is given the symbol k.
• Values for cp and k for various gases are given in Table A.2.

Internal Energy
• The energy that a substance possesses because of the state of the molecular
activity in the substance is termed internal energy.
• Internal energy is usually expressed as a specific quantity— that is, internal energy
per unit mass.
• In the SI system, the specific internal energy, u, is given in joules per
kilogram;
Enthalpy
• The combination u + P/ρ is encountered frequently
in equations for thermodynamics and compressible
flow; it has been given the name specific enthalpy.
• For an ideal gas, u and P/ ρ are functions of

temperature alone.
VISCOSITY
• A fluid can be distinguished from a solid in this discussion of
viscosity by its behavior when subjected to a stress (force per unit
area) or applied force.
• An elastic solid deforms by an amount proportional to the applied
stress. However, a fluid when subjected to a similar applied stress will
continue to deform.
• A fluid exhibits resistance to this stress.
• Viscosity is that property of a fluid which gives rise to forces that
resist the relative movement of adjacent layers in the fluid.
• These viscous forces arise from forces existing between the
molecules in the fluid and are of similar character as the shear forces in
solids
• Viscosity of a fluid originates from the nature of molecular
interactions.
But, is it really a Friction Force?
• Viscosity is a property that represents

the internal resistance of a fluid to
motion.
• The force a flowing fluid exerts on a
body in the flow direction is called the
drag force, and the magnitude of this
force depends, in part, on viscosity.
VISCOSITY
• Viscosity (also called dynamic viscosity, or absolute viscosity) is a
measure of a fluid’s resistance to deformation under shear stress.
• For example, crude oil has a higher resistance to shear than does
water.
• Crude oil will pour more slowly than water from an identical
beaker held at the same angle. This relative slowness of the oil
implies a low “speed” or rate of strain.
Dynamic Viscosity
Dynamic Viscosity (µ) is a

measure of a fluid's resistance
to deformation under shear
stress.
VISCOSITY
• Suppose that the top plate (in Fig.) is
moving parallel to the bottom plate and at
a constant velocity (∆v, m/s) faster relative
to the bottom plate because of a steady
force (F, N) being applied. This force is
called viscous drag, and it arises from the
viscous forces in the fluid.
• The plates are ∆y (m) apart. Each layer of liquid moves in the z-
direction.
• The layer immediately adjacent to the top plate is carried along at the
velocity of this plate.
• The layer just below is at a slightly slower velocity, each layer moving
at a slower velocity as we go down in the y-direction.
• This velocity profile is linear, with y-direction
VISCOSITY
• It has been found experimentally that
the force is directly proportional to
the velocity (∆v, m/s), to the area (A,
m2) of the plate used, and inversely
proportional to the distance (∆y, m),
or F dv
  
A dy
• where µ is a proportionality constant called the viscosity of the fluid
(Pa s or kg/m s). If we let ∆y approach zero, then, using the definition
of the derivative
• Kinematic Viscosity (ʋ,) μ Ν s / m 2
m 2
• Sometimes the viscosity is given as, v  
ρ 3
kg / m s
• Another non-SI unit commonly encountered is the “stoke” where 1
stoke = 10-4 m2/s.
• Viscosity is not a strong

function of pressure;
hence the effects of
pressure on viscosity
can be neglected.
• Viscosity depends
greatly on temperature.
• For liquids, the viscosity decreases with temperature

• For gases, the viscosity increases with temperature.
• For example, crude oil is often heated to a higher temperature to reduce
the viscosity for transport.
Example 4: In a fluid the velocity measured at a distance of 75 mm

from the boundary is 1.125 m/s. The fluid has absolute viscosity μ
of 0.048 Pa s and relative density of 0.913. What the velocity
gradient (dv/dy) ant the shear stress at the boundary assuming a
linear velocity distribution? Determine its kinematic viscosity
dv  1.125  15 / s
dy 0.075
   dv  0.045(15)  0.720 Pa
dy
 0.048
v   5.257  10 5 m 2 / s
 913
Temperature Dependency
• Liquids viscosity decrease as temperature increases. Variation of
liquid viscosity with temperature can be estimated using
b
 Ce T
where C and b are empirical constants that require viscosity data at two
temperatures.
• Gases viscosity increase as temperature increases. Variation of liquid
viscosity with temperature can be estimated by using Sutherland's
equation
where S is the Sutherland's constant (Sair = 111 K); µ0 is the viscosity at

temperature T0
Work out Example 2.2 and Example 2.3
Example 6: The kinematic viscosity of helium at 288 K and 100 kPa is

11.33×10-5 (m2/s). Using Sutherland's equation and the ideal gas law, find
the kinematic viscosity at 272 K and a pressure of 150 kPa
Example 5: The temperature dependence of liquid viscosity is the

phenomenon by which liquid viscosity tends to decrease as its
temperature increases. Viscosity of water can be predicted with accuracy
to within 2.5% from 0 °C to 370 °C by the following expression:
 (kg / ms )  2.414  10 5 10 ( 247.8 K /(T 140 K ))

Calculate the dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosity of water at 20 oC
respectively. You may assume that water is incompressible, and its density
is 1000 kg/m3. Compare the result with that you find from the viscosity
chart and comment on the difference.
Solution
 (kg / ms )  2.414 105 10( 247.8 K /(T 140 K ))
 2.414  10 5 10( 247.8 K /(( 20 273) 140 K ))
1.005  10 3 kg / ms

v(m / s) 
2

1.005  10 3 kg / ms 6
 3
 1 .005  10 m 2
/s
1000 kg / m
Viscosity measurements:
• Viscosity is measured using a wide range of viscometers that measures
the time taken to flow a known amount of the liquid
• Or measuring the shear rate by indirectly measuring the torque of a
shaft rotating in the liquid.
• Ostwalt, Cannon-Fenske and Saybolt viscometers measures the flow
time and cone and plate type viscometers use the torque measurements
Example 6: A shaft 100 mm diameter (D) runs in a bearing 200 mm long

(L). The two surfaces are separated by an oil film 2.5 mm thick (c). Take the
oil viscosity (μ) as 0.25 kg/ms. if the shaft rotates at a speed of (N)
revolutions per minute.
A) Show that the torque exerted on the bearing is given as:
 2 NL
 D3
120c
B) Calculate the torque necessary to rotate the shaft at 600 rpm.
The viscous shear stress is the ratio of viscous force divided by area
of contact
 F/A
VA
F ; A  DL; V  DN / 60
c
DN D  2 NL 3
  F r   DL  D
60c 2 120c
The torque at the given condition is calculated using the above equation
 F/A
VA
F ; A  DL; V  DN / 60
c
0.25 2 (600)(0.2)
 2 NL
 D  3
(0.1) 3  0.987 Nm
120c 120(0.0025)
Problem 2.41: The device shown consists of a disk that is rotated by a

shaft. The disk is positioned very close to a solid boundary. Between
the disk and the boundary is viscous oil.
A. If the disk is rotated at a rate of

1rad/s what will be the ratio of
the shear stress in the oil at r =
2cm to the shear stress at r =3
cm?
B. If the rate of rotation is 2 rad/s
what is the speed of the oil in
contact with the disk at r = 3cm?
C. If the oil viscosity is 0.01 N-
s/m2 and the spacing y is 2 mm,
what is the shear stress for the
conditions noted in part (b)?
Linear velocity dV/dy = V/y = ωr/y

a) Ratio of shear stresses
dV r
  
dy y
 2  (1)(2) / y 2
 
b) Speed of oil  3  (1)(3) / y 3
V  r  2(0.03)  0.06 m / s
c) Shear stress at surface
   dV  0.01 0.06  0.30 N/m2

dy 0.002
Newtonian versus Non-Newtonian Fluids

• Newtonian fluids: the shear stress is
directly proportional to the rate of strain
• Because shear stress is directly (Dilatant)

proportional to the shear strain dV/dy,
a plot relating these variables results in a
straight line passing through the origin.
(Pseudoplastic)
The slope of this line is the value of the
dynamic (absolute) viscosity
• Non-Newtonian fluids: the shear stress may not be directly
proportional to the rate of strain
• Shear-thinning fluids, the ratio of shear stress to shear strain
decreases as the shear strain increases (toothpaste, catsup, paints,
and printer’s ink)
Newtonian versus Non-Newtonian Fluids

• Non-Newtonian fluids:
• Shear-thickening fluids: fluids for
which the viscosity increases with shear
rate (mixtures of glass particles in
water and gypsum-water mixtures)
• Bingham plastic, acts like a solid for
small values of shear stress and then
behaves as a fluid at higher shear stress.
• Surface Tension
• Surface tension, σ (sigma), is a material property whereby a liquid at a
material interface, usually liquid-gas, exerts a force per unit length along
the surface.
• According to the theory of molecular attraction, molecules of liquid
considerably below the surface act on each other by forces that are
equal in all directions
• Surface Tension
• Molecules near the surface have a greater attraction for each other than
they do for molecules below the surface because of the presence of a
different substance above the surface.
• This produces a layer of surface molecules on the
liquid that acts like a stretched membrane. Because
of this membrane effect, each portion of the liquid
surface exerts “tension” on adjacent portions of
the surface or on objects that are in contact with
the liquid surface. This tension acts in the plane of
the surface, and is given by:
F  L
where L is the length over which the surface tension
acts Surface tension for a water–air surface is
0.073 N/m at room temperature
• Surface Tension
• The effect of surface tension is illustrated for the case of capillary action (rise
above a static water level at atmospheric pressure) in a small tube.
Here the end of a small-diameter tube is
inserted into a reservoir of water, and the
characteristic curved water surface profile
occurs within the tube.
• The relatively greater attraction of the
water molecules for the glass rather than
the air causes the water surface to curve
upward in the region of the glass wall.
• For a spherical droplet, the surface
tension force is balanced by the internal
pressure
F  L  pA
2r  pr 2  p  2
Consider a small spherical drop of one fluid at rest in another

Since the drop is small, we can neglect the slight hydrostatic pressure variation with
height and assume a uniform but different pressure inside and outside the drop
Cutting the drop in half and performing a force balance in the vertical direction on the
hemispherical interface
• Surface Tension
For a bubble of radius r that has internal and external
surfaces and the surface tension force acts on both
surfaces, so
p  2
r
For a cylinder supported by surface-tension forces. The
liquid does not wet the cylinder surface. The maximum
weight the surface tension can support is
W  2 F  2L where L is the length of the cylinder
For a ring being pulled out of a liquid. This is a technique
to measure surface tension. The force due to surface
tension on the ring is
F  F ,i  F ,i
  ( Di  Do )
Problem 2.51: A water bug is suspended on the surface of a pond by surface

tension (water does not wet the legs). The bug has six legs, and each leg is in
contact with the water over a length of 5 mm. What is the maximum mass (in
grams) of the bug if it is to avoid sinking?
Solution: A water bug is balanced on the surface of a

water pond. n = 6 legs, l = 5mm/leg.
σ = 0.073 N/m
Force equilibrium
Upward force due to surface tension = Weight of
Bug
FT = mg
To find the force of surface tension (FT

), consider the cross section of one leg of the
bug:
To find the force of surface tension (FT ), consider the cross section of one leg of
the bug:
Surface tension force

FT = (2/leg)(6 legs)σ
= 12σ = 12(0.073 N/m)(0.005 m)
= 0.00438N
Apply equilibrium
FT − mg = 0
m = FT/g = 0.00438/9.81 = 0.000447 kg
Problem 2.53; Calculate the maximum capillary rise of water between

two vertical glass plates spaced 1 mm apart.
Situation: Two vertical glass plates, y = 1mm
Find: Capillary rise (h) between the plates.
Properties: From Table A.4, surface tension of water is 7.3 ×
10−2 N/m.
PLAN: Apply equilibrium, then the surface tension force
equation.
Force due to surface tension = Weight of fluid that has been

pulled upward; (2l) σ = (hlt) γ
h 2 
2(0.073)
 0.0149 m
t 9810(0.001)
Problem 2.54: What is the pressure within a 1 mm spherical droplet of

water relative to the atmospheric pressure outside?
Situation: A spherical water drop, d = 1mm
Find: Pressure inside the droplet (N/m2)
Properties: From Table A.4, surface tension of water is 7.3 × 10−2 N/m
PLAN: Apply equilibrium, then the surface tension force equation.
SOLUTION: Equilibrium (half the water droplet)
Force due to pressure = Force due to surface tension
pA = σL
pr 2  2r
p  2 
2(0.073)
 292 N / m2
3
r 0.5  10
• Vapour pressure
Saturation temperature Tsat: The temperature at which a pure substance
changes phase at a given pressure.
Saturation pressure Psat: The pressure at which a pure substance changes
phase at a given temperature.
Vapor pressure (Pv): The pressure exerted by its vapor in phase equilibrium
with its liquid at a given temperature. It is identical to the saturation pressure
Psat of the liquid (Pv = Psat).
Partial pressure: The pressure of a gas or vapor in a mixture with other gases.
For example, atmospheric air is a mixture of dry air and water vapor, and
atmospheric pressure is the sum of the partial pressure of dry air and the
partial pressure of water vapor.
Evaporation occurs in a fluid when liquid molecules at the surface have

sufficient momentum to overcome the intermolecular cohesive forces
and escape to the atmosphere.
Boiling occurs when the absolute pressure in the fluid reaches the vapor
pressure. Boiling of water occurs at approximately 100 °C, but it is not
only a function of temperature, but also of pressure. For example, in
Karak, water boils at temperatures less than 100 °C (96 °C ).
• Vapour pressure
• Vapor pressure is the pressure at which a liquid will vaporize, or boil, at
a given temperature.
• Boiling occurs whenever the local pressure equals the vapor pressure.
Vapor pressure increases with temperature (see Table below):
Temperature °C Vapor pressure kPa
0 0.611
20 2.34
40 7.38
60 20
80 47.4
100 101.3
The ways of liquid boiling:
• Rising the temperature, assuming that the pressure is fixed.
• Reducing liquid pressure to the vapor pressure of liquid corresponding
to that lower temperature.
Problem 2.64: The vapor pressure of water at 100°C is 101 kPa. Because
water boils under these conditions, the vapor pressure of water decreases
approximately linearly with decreasing temperature at a rate of 3.1
(kPa/°C). Calculate the boiling temperature of water at an altitude of 3000
m, where the atmospheric pressure is 69 kPa absolute

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FLUID MECHANICS

Dr. Ibrahem Altarawneh

Ch2: Fluid properties.

Ch3: Fluid statics.

Ch4: Flowing fluids & pressure variation.

Ch5: Control volume & continuity equation.

Ch6: Energy equation.

Ch7: Flow in conduits.

CHAPTER 2: Fluid Properties

• A fluid has certain characteristics by which its physical condition may

 Any characteristic of a system is called a property.

 Intensive properties are independent of the mass of the system. Examples:

 Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties.

Properties Involving Mass and Weight

• Mass density for liquids does not change significantly with

Densities of common fluids are given in Tables A.2 to A.5.

Properties Involving Mass and Weight

Properties Involving Mass and Weight

Ideal Gas Law

Ideal Gas Law

Situation: Air with a known temperature and pressure.

Remember: use R from Table A.2. Do not use Ru.

Example 2: Calculate the density and specific weight of carbon dioxide at

From Table A.2, RCO2 = 189 J/kg·K. p = 300 kPa, T = 60◦C.

Ideal gas law

Properties Involving Thermal Energy

• Kinetic energy: the energy that a system possesses as a result of its

• The energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a

Properties Involving Thermal Energy

• If the specific volume v of the gas (v = 1/ρ ) remains constant while

Properties Involving Thermal Energy

• For an ideal gas, u and P/ ρ are functions of

But, is it really a Friction Force?

• Viscosity is a property that represents

Dynamic Viscosity (µ) is a

• Viscosity is not a strong

• For liquids, the viscosity decreases with temperature

Example 4: In a fluid the velocity measured at a distance of 75 mm

where S is the Sutherland's constant (Sair = 111 K); µ0 is the viscosity at

Work out Example 2.2 and Example 2.3

Example 6: The kinematic viscosity of helium at 288 K and 100 kPa is

Example 5: The temperature dependence of liquid viscosity is the

 (kg / ms )  2.414  10 5 10 ( 247.8 K /(T 140 K ))

Example 6: A shaft 100 mm diameter (D) runs in a bearing 200 mm long

Problem 2.41: The device shown consists of a disk that is rotated by a

A. If the disk is rotated at a rate of

Linear velocity dV/dy = V/y = ωr/y

   dV  0.01 0.06  0.30 N/m2

Newtonian versus Non-Newtonian Fluids

• Because shear stress is directly (Dilatant)

Newtonian versus Non-Newtonian Fluids

Consider a small spherical drop of one fluid at rest in another

Problem 2.51: A water bug is suspended on the surface of a pond by surface

Solution: A water bug is balanced on the surface of a

To find the force of surface tension (FT

Surface tension force

Problem 2.53; Calculate the maximum capillary rise of water between

Force due to surface tension = Weight of fluid that has been

Problem 2.54: What is the pressure within a 1 mm spherical droplet of

Evaporation occurs in a fluid when liquid molecules at the surface have

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