2.

Theoretical Understanding of Dance Therapy

2.1. Dance Therapy training with Petra Klein

Petra Klein is a clinical psychologist M.A. and psychotherapist (BDP) since 1980. She
qualified as a dance therapist in the United States in 1982 and became one of the pioneers of
the dance therapy movement in Europe. She is an accredited dance therapist by the
American Dance Therapy Association, ADTA and by the German Dance Therapy
Association, BDT. She lectures at the University of Hamburg, Germany and at the University
of Zürich, Switzerland. As founder and director from 1983 to 1994 of the "Institut für
Tanztherapie Hamburg ITTH" in Hamburg, Germany, she was actively involved in getting
dance therapy established in Germany. She is also the director of the "International Institute
for Dance Therapy IIDT" on Tenerife where I received my dance therapy training and
supervision between the years of 2002 and 2008. Petra’s work has an emphasis on
Humanistic, Depth and Transpersonal Psychology.

Petra Klein’s work has a deep influence of her teacher Trudi Schoop, pioneers Marian Chace,
Mary Starks Whitehouse and Penny Bernstein whom I also got the opportunity to work with
for one day during an intensive seminar in the United States.

My bachelor’s training in psychological counseling and my training in gestalt therapy have

been illuminated by the parallel humanistic and holistic approach of Petra Klein. During my
training at the IIDT I was blessed with the opportunity to observe, experience and learn about
dance therapy through my own processes but also during the application of Petra Klein on
other participants. The training also provided me with a safe environment to lead group
sessions which gave me a basis to build my own understanding of dance therapy as a leader.
Klein’s methodology and teachings have a strong basis of Rudolf Laban and has become my
main tool for movement observation and dance therapy application. Other specific techniques
have also given me instruments to work on different levels in my work and allow me to go
deeper in therapy. Her unique technique named the “salvation dance” gives the therapist a
chance to work with trauma that has proven to be effective over and over again. During
Klein’s “salvation dance” the client/patient has the opportunity to go through a deep process
with the strong support of the therapist, where he/she could focus on past present or future
events. The process is enabled with the symbolic representation of the person’s relevant
people or emotions with the use of objects. It allows people to express and release emotions
and thoughts they carry with them and brings a resolution to deep emotional blockages.
2.2. Dance Therapy essentials by pioneers in the field

Trudi Schoop

“The body can influence even the desperately disturbed mind of the psychotic patient. The
attempt to transform his un-functional physical distortions presents an enormous challenge,
but I must try, and I want to try, to reestablish for him a body that will again operate
effectively, perform normally, one that will have a positive, remedial effect upon his mind.”
(Schoop, 1974, p. 45)

One of the most important steps in a therapeutic relationship is to set goals. Here are the
guidelines to setting goals by Trudi Schoop

1. To identify for each person he specific parts of his body that have been unused or
misused, and to direct his actions into functional patterns.
2. To establish the unifying interactive relationship between mind and body, between
fantasy and reality.
3. To bring subjective emotional conflict into an objective physical form, where it can be
perceived and dealt with constructively.
4. To use every aspect of movement that will increase the individual’s ability to adapt
adequately to his environment and to experience himself as a whole, functioning
human being. (Schoop, 1974, p. 45)

Mary Starks Whitehouse

“Whether it is a given exercise, or free improvisation, one has to learn to let it happen as
contrasted to doing it… The ego learns slowly an attitude toward what wants moving…
Movement, to be experienced, has to be found in the body, not put on like a dress or a coat.”
(Whitehouse 1963, pp. 4-6)

“The core of the movement experience is the sensation of moving and being moved. There
are many implications in putting it like this. Ideally, both are present in the same instant and
may literally be an instant. It is a moment of total awareness, the coming together of what I
am doing and what is happening to me. It cannot be anticipated, explained, specifically
worked for, nor repeated exactly.” (Whitehouse 1963, pp. 4-6)

Petra Klein

“Dance therapy is not about achieving defined forms of dance, but is concerned with genuine,
creative movement. The objective is to re-establish the unity of body, mind and soul….
Through our own experience in movement and dance we are  touched not only physically but
also emotionally, mentally and spiritually. The human being makes contact with the conscious
and unconscious parts of their personality, learns to accept them and to assimilate these
experiences based on their personal history.”
(Klein, IIDT website)

2.3. Theoretical concepts

Though I did not apply therapy, and the work on the group that I have based this thesis on
was not process-oriented, my understanding of the following theoretical concepts gave me a
basis to create appropriate exercises with the principles of dance therapy and the use of
movement.

2.3.1. Building Trust

In order for the patient/client or participant to express his emotions without holding back there
needs to be a trusting environment. It is the therapists’ responsibility to initiate a trusting
relationship and with the person, to allow them to feel and experience the freedom to
authentically be who they are. The relationship between the therapist and the client creates
an learning example for the client to experience and carry into his normal life. Klein refers to
this as the supportive human relationship : “Primal trust can grow or be reinforced through the
healing power of dance together with the supportive human relationship.” (Klein, 1988, Ch. 5)

Once a trusting relationship can be initiated between the client and the therapist – it gives a
strong basis for group processes to occur. It is critical for the participants to feel safe and
secure as they begin a group process. The therapist must create this atmosphere of safety for
participants to feel grounded and open to take part in the process. As Helen Payne puts it,
“The safety of the session and the trust the client establishes with the therapist lead to an
openness within which the client can explore their definition of self. (Payne, 1992, p.7) In the
context of working with a management team and within a corporation, it was crucial for me to
have an initial contact with each participant prior to the workshop for a trusting environment to
be possible. (See 3.2.) The meetings I held with the participants individually are also known
as the preparation phase of the therapy process – in this case the corporate developmental
training. In a corporate environment, during the preparation phase it is crucial for the
participants to understand what they want to get out of this workshop, but also why the
corporation has decided for it to take place. What does the corporation expect as the outcome
of this workshop – and how were the participants chosen. It is especially important to explain
why the participants have been selected if the process has been from different departments.
Since Human Resources are usually involved in organizing such events – the reason of
selection left unknown could result in the individual feeling insecurity with thoughts of possible
evaluation following the workshop. The therapist needs to make sure that the objective is
clear for every single participant.

2.3.2. Id-Ego-Superego

Working as a therapist in a corporate environment, the processes aren’t usually aimed to

apply deep therapy. However, it has been helpful to understand the basic psychodynamics of
individuals in order to keep the work at a certain depth and to be aware of what kind reactions
could be triggered due to different types of dynamics within human beings. It is important to
always be aware as dance therapists that bodily movements open a path for the unconscious
to come to the conscious. Klein emphasizes this connection as follows; “Through our own
experience in movement and dance we are touched not only physically but also emotionally,
mentally and spiritually. The human being makes contact with the conscious and unconscious
parts of their personality, learns to accept them and to assimilate these experiences based on
their personal history.” (Klein, IIDT website)

Different therapists have defined Sigmund Freud’s Id-Ego-Superego theory trio as follows:

According to Siegel, the id is “the repository of all totally unconscious wishes and instinctual
drives”. (Siegel 1979, p. 93) Because instincts, desires and needs coexist in the unconscious,
when bringing these into consciousness, Klein states it is important to realize strong reactions
might arise. (Klein 1998, p.41)

Early on, Freud has described that the “ego was first and foremost a body ego”. (Freud 1923:
26) This is not surprising to therapists working with body and movement, as the body is the
initiator of all senses. Liebowitz states that the ego is the person’s sense of self and that it
begins with sensations; physical experiences that find expression in the body. (Liebowitz,
1992, p. 103) Complimenting to that theory, Chodorow explains that the ego is the conscious
aspect of our personality as a whole. She explains that the ego’s relations to the unconscious
world allows us to gain our sense of identity and capacity for self-reflective consciousness.
(Chodorow, 1991, p. 59)

The client’s reactions can be a guide to understanding the connection between id-ego-and
superego, and what has been triggered. This is also essential during corporate training
specifically when working with high-level management. Cox explains, “Psychic determinism
may have led the patient to the brink of the disclosure, so that the material which has thierto
been unconscious is about to enter consciousness…It is as though the existential component
is a kind of emotional range-finder, which indicates that the dynamics of formulation based on
psychic determinism is ‘on target’, so that the patient responds to an intervention by feeling
‘how true’ rather than ‘how dare you’.” (Cox, 1978: 112) If the ego had been in play, this
example of “how dare you” could have been triggered by the CEO when I snapped my fingers
at him and told him to please be quiet in front of his team (See 3.4.4.) Klein describes the
superego as the container of internalized values and beliefs of early caregivers and society.
(Klein, 1998, p.41) The superego plays a critical role in countries such as Turkey where
cultural and family values are very strong and influential during upbringing. The “do’s and
don’ts” of society can be observed in many moments during everyday life. Politicians who
lead the country often manipulate people with the use of moral values due to a strong sense
of the function of the superego.

2.3.2.1. Active Imagination & Emotion

On active imagination Jung states there are two stages, the first is to let the unconscious
come up. The second stage consists of coming to terms with the unconscious. (Jung 1973, p.
561)

He describes to process of active imagination with a patient as such; “I…took up a dream-

image or an association of the patient’s, and, with this as a point of departure, set him the
task of elaborating or developing his theme by giving free rein to his fantasy. This according
to individual taste and talent could be done in any number of ways, dramatic, dialectic, visual,
acoustic, or in the form of dancing, painting, drawing, or modeling. (1947, p. 202) “The use of
images in this process, with their spontaneous stimulating effect on the unconscious,
facilitates the experiencing of different movement qualities.” (Klein, 1998, Ch. 5)

When working with dance therapy it is critical to understand that emotions that lie within our
unconscious are evoked through movement. Chodorow describes it as two parts that are
interconnected: “Dance and emotion are inseparable. Dance is motivated by and expressive
of emotion. Emotion is the source out of which we dance, i.e. it energizes us. But dance also
has an effect on our emotions. It changes them. Sometimes dance leads to cathartic release;
other times, dance seems to develop, refine and completely transform our emotional state.”
(Chodorow, 1991, p.41)

Jungian analyst and researcher in the field of active imagination and play, Louis H. Stewart
emphasized the connection between play and imagination as he was working on the
archetypal affects. Stewart who defines affects as psychic energy, believes that affect
motivates play and is transformed through play. He explains, “Briefly stated, the archetypal
affects may be thought of as an innate, regulatory system of the psyche which functions as an
unconscious energic, orientating and apperceptive/response system which has evolved to
replace an earlier system of programmed instinct. It comprises a dynamic system of seven
archetypal affects. (Stewart, 1987a, p.40)
The seven archetypal affects according to Stewart are as follows:

JOY (Enjoyment-Ecstasy) Relationship to the Familiar

INTEREST (Interest-Excitement) Novelty

SADNESS (Distress-Anguish) Loss

FEAR (Apprehension-Terror) The Unknown

ANGER (Irritation-Rage) Restriction of Autonomy

CONTEMPT/SHAME Rejection

(Dislik-Disgust/Embarassment-Humiliation)

STARTLE (Surprise-Startle) The Unexpected

2.3.3. Defense Mechanisms and Resistance

Humans have developed specific behavioral and psychological methods to protect

themselves from negative thoughts and emotions, which are called defense mechanisms. The
individual aims to preserve the status quo and is usually afraid to leave its’ comfort zone.
Klein states, “fear is the core affect which sets defense mechanisms in motion” (Klein, 1998,
p.54) When defense mechanisms come into play, there is commonly a reflection or a
distortion in the body or movements of the individual. In extreme situations, the person is
disconnected from his/her wholeness and can cause severe effects on their self perception.
(Klein, 1998, p.54) In corporate environments, many employees are insecure and fearful of
losing their jobs. This type of fear can trigger defense mechanisms when an individual feels
threatened. In this thesis an example of a defense mechanism was carried out by the Human
Resources director towards me as a therapist, as I believe my direct interaction with the CEO
caused a feeling of threat and evoked fear. (See 3.1.)

One of the main defense mechanisms is described by Graafsme and Anbeck as “behavior
that a person carries out in order to forestall the appearance of an unwelcome impulse, an
affect or an action by himself or another. A resistance is a defensive response to sensation
that threatens everyday functioning and the integration of internal and external stimuli.”
(Graafsme and Anbeck 1984: 3)

2.3.4. Our body as our Identity

Our body is a reflection of who we are; our emotions, our thoughts, our beliefs, our character.
When something transforms in our lives, it is reflected in our body and in our movement; and
when we make changes in our body and movement – it effects our lives and our identity. Our
body cannot be separated from our mind or our spirit, it is the interconnectedness of the three
that creates the basic philosophy of dance therapy. This allows dance therapists to build the
potential of change and development through the use of the body and movement. As Klein
describes; “Physicality is the basis for our self-development, for our identity and individuality.
In accordance with the body-mind-spirit unity of human beings, it is the goal of dance therapy,
through an appropriate expansion of the movement repertoire, to uncover the availability of
appropriate inner emotions and thoughts, in order to enable the person to react and
experience themselves appropriately/adequately in all situations.” (Klein, 1998, Ch. 5) Jung
has stressed the interrelation of the body and the psyche and that they are inseparable; “It
seems highly probable that the psychic and the physical are not two independent parallel
processes, but are essentially connected through reciprocal action…” (Jung 1912/1928, p.18)

Rudolf Laban’s movement observation system known as the Labanotation is a fundamental

tool that can be used during every moment of interaction. Laban states; “Conscious
movement involves the intentional use of time (faster or slower, sudden or sustained(, space
(direct or flexible path), weight (firm or light) and flow (bound tension or unrestrained).” (Laban
1971)

The “use of body parts”, is part of the first column and is a place to begin with. During the
initial stage of working with a client, discovering body part modalities gives the person a
sense of connectedness with the self. The person can begin to feel grounded and centered
with the use of body parts. This can be achieved with the use of Petra Klein’s “body journey”
exercise where each body part is awakened. (Klein training notes 2003) This journey allows
the individual to get into strong contact with each body part and sense the importance of each
body part. It is crucial to understand that each part has it’s own significance and is part of the
whole. The bodily feeling of wholeness is connected to the person feeling whole. Self love
and self acceptance are key concepts that are also accessible through the use of the “body
journey”. For a person to accept who they are, and express self love, the use of touch can be
integrated into the exercise. (Klein training notes 2003) In a corporate environment, this
theory of the importance of every body part and it’s role with connection to the whole is
effective in symbolically working with the corporation as being a whole and the individual
being a body part. (See 3.4.5.) During body part exercises it usually becomes very clear for
the individual to understand that body parts working together create harmony – so if
individuals perceive themselves as body parts within a whole, they experience that working
together as a team would create harmony within the corporation.

2.3.5. Personal Space

Understanding how a person’s personal space is reflected in physical movement and bodily
expression is core to Laban’s movement observation. An individual’s personal space is the
physical space around him when his arms and legs are stretched out – much like that of a
symbolic bubble. This “bubble” represents our home. It is home to our being. If we own up to
our kinesphere – as Laban defines it – then we have owned up to our right to exist as a
human being. (Klein, 1998, Ch. 5) The kinesphere has three levels that is described in theory.
The narrow kinesphere – which is the space around our body which is close to us. This is the
level in which a person can turn inward, to get closer in touch with his/her emotions and
thoughts. It is a healthy state when the individual chooses to be here to sefl-reflect and be
alone. When a person tends to stay in this level too long, he/she could lose the connection
with the outside world and be withdrawn. Being able to allow someone into your kinesphere
needs mutual trust and creates a strong sense of connection and potential intimacy. It is
critical for the client to be aware of when he/she is allowing others into this level of personal
space. (Klein training notes 2003) The middle level of the kinesphere is represents where a
person experiences everyday life. It is where we spend most of our days, it is the level of
transition between being very in touch with yourself to start expanding to the outer world. The
broader extension of the kinesphere is expressed when an individuals’ arms and legs are
stretched outwards – this is also an expression of the boundaries of the individuals’ personal
space. In this dimension the person is connected to the outer world and open to space. It is
important for the individual to be able to be on all levels, one not being better than the other.
The person must be able to adapt and react according to situations, therefor having the
freedom to choose to be in one dimension. (Klein training notes 2002-2008) When working in
groups, it is important to mention personal space and make sure that people are not only
aware of their own space, but also are aware of where other people’s space begin. This
theme connects with mutual respect.

2.3.6. Shaping

Shaping is an essential part of Laban’s movement observation that corresponds to the

individual and the three dimensional space around him/her. A person’s ability to adapt
physically to space, objects and people around him is crucial to be able to survive in everyday
life within a community. An individual’s capability to be flexible allows him to function as an
individual within a community. (Klein training notes 2002-2008) While working with shaping, a
strong sense of kinesphere would be important for the person not to get lost in other people’s
space and lose touch with his own core. Working with shaping gives the sense of flexibility
and connectivity as we often need to make some adaptation when we are in relationship with
another being. The critical point is not to lose the connection with yourself, as you are
connecting with another person or when you are going out into the community. (Klein, 1998
Ch. 5) Hobson describes the balance between alone and being a part of a community as
follows;

“The ideal state of a relationship is one of aloneness – togetherness. This is not static, but is
continually re-created out of verbal and non-verbal conversations between people in a
balance of stability and change with a rhythm of intimacy and distance. We need to be in
touch, literally and metaphorically; but just as important, we need space. (Hobson; 1979: 238)

2.3.7. Attunement & Mirroring

For therapists especially working within groups, the “Chace method” and the concept of
“attunement” is of fundamental value. Being attuned to another person is a form of empathic
relationship. It is a concept when one person is reflecting the other person’s bodily
movements with the aim to connect to, relate to and sense the other person. It is crucial to
differentiate between imitating and attunement. Imitation just follows form, attunement follows
emotion. Marian Chace, another pioneer in dance therapy explains the concept as; “The
movements used in establishing initial contact with a patient may be qualitively similar to
those of the patient (not an exact mimicking, since this is often construed by the patient as
mocking) or they may be expressive of an entirely different emotion with which the therapist
has responded to the patient’s gestures.”(Chace 1953, p.221) When mirroring or being in
contact through attunement the therapist is able to pick up movements from the client and
explore the feelings associated with the movement quality. The client experiences the feeling
of empathy and connectedness. However, this method also is important for the client to feel
seen, to feel appreciated in her/his movement as is. Petra Klein adds the verbal use of adding
your name to your movement, which is a significant way of welcoming, greeting and
acknowledging group members. (Klein, training notes 2002-2008) When working with groups,
using the Chace method, it is not only the therapist that can initiate mirroring, group
participants are also encouraged to join the process and experience being the leader of the
group. Chace herself initiated this technique of “passing leadership back and forth from
members of the group and to the dance therapist and her assistants” (Chace 1975, p. 76)
This is exactly what is applied in the “electricity” exercise described in 3.4.4. In large
corporations especially, employees may have the need to feel appreciated, the need to be
seen and acknowledged. For a management team of a private hospital, because most people
are very busy, this type of acknowledgement is often bypassed, which makes it even more
significant of a theme.