MSE 254

Materials Processing

Department of Materials Engineering, KNUST

Dr. M.A. Nartey (Obuasi Campus)

Dr. E.K.A. Asare (Kumasi Campus)
Credit: Prof. F. Momade
Course Objective

This course is aimed at introducing students to:

❑various methods of materials processing;

❑fluid behaviour and its role in aqueous processing;

❑the various principles and equations governing materials

processing.

2
Recommended Material

• Lorraine F. F., Materials Processing: A unified Approach to

Processing of Metals, 1st Edition, Elsevier, 2015.
• John A. Schey, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes, 3rd
Edition, McGraw-Hill Higher Education: Boston, MA, 2000.
• Michael Ashby., Materials Engineering. Science, Processing
and Design, Butrworth Hinmamn, 2007.
• Groza J. R., Shackelford J. F., Lavernia M. T., (2007),
Materials Processing Handbook
• Reading notes from lecturers
Any online resources deem appropriate.

3
Course Outline

• Introduction

• Basic principles of size reduction – an introduction

• Physical Separation Processes – an introduction

• Chemical Separation Processes – an introduction

• Crystallisation and Precipitation as Agents of Materials

Processing in Aqueous Media

• Industrial Applications of Crystallisation and Precipitation

4
Assessment

Attendance 5
Assignment 5
Quiz 5
Mid Sem Exam 15
End of Sem Exam 70
Total 100

University grading system

70-100 A
60-69 B
50-59 C
40-49 D
0-39 F 5
Introduction to Material Processing

Structure of materials determine

the properties of the materials.
For any specified properties,
material design is a prerequisite.
To obtain this, some processing
will be needed to arrive at the
right structure(s).

o Irrespective of material class,

processing plays a key role in the
ultimate performance of materials.

Note that external parameter/factors

may affect material performance
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Introduction to Material Processing
• Modes of processing
1 2 3 4 5
Solid Heat Liquid-Solid Fluid Deformation Vapour-Solid
treatment Processing Behaviour Processing Processing

1. Heat transfer knowledge helps in understanding how to induce/avoid chemical

reactions, precipitation, and other solid-state phase transformations

2. Most processes for making solids involve the liquid state. Initial microstructures
persist to the final part.

5. Transformation with largest entropy change and offers unique opportunities for
structure control
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Introduction to Material Processing

Raw Processing I Processing II

Materials (Extraction) (Synthesis) Products

The building block of the manufacturing process:

• unit operations: effect physical transformation on the feed material
• unit process: leads to chemical changes

Examples of unit operations

➢ Evaporation, Drying, Crystallization, Absorption, Adsorption,
Solvent extraction, Ion exchange…
Examples of unit processes
➢ Precipitation, Electro deposition, Roasting…..
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Introduction to Material Processing
• Drivers of new materials
➢Health, Environment, Energy, Comfort and Convenience

• The Challenges of today

➢ Increasing recognition of the finite nature of minerals
➢ Rapid expansion of materials industry
➢ Climate emergency (environmental degradation)

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Introduction to Material Processing
Link between confronting issues on minerals, materials and management.

Resource
Depletion
Linkage between
extraction and
Material Extraction waste
management is
Synthesis (e.g. Metals) out of scope for
this course
Environment
(e.g. waste
management)

Relationship between resource depletion, metal extraction, material synthesis and the environment

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Introduction to Materials Processing
Extraction systems
➢ Primary feedstock is of natural origin (ores, concentrates) or
highly contaminated scrap.
Synthesis
➢ Based on purified synthetic raw materials

Linkage between extraction & synthesis is that refined products from an

extraction process become direct or indirect input to material synthesis
process.

Unit processes used in extraction processes are similar to those for

material synthesis processes
✓ Reaction, filtration, drying. See appendix A1 of reading material for
more examples.
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Material Synthesis and Aqueous Processing
• Aqueous processing deals with manufacturing via chemical
transformation of metals, metal compounds and metal ions
in aqueous systems.

Aqueous Processing

Material
Hydrometallurgical Waste
Synthesis &
Extraction Management
Processing
o Gold extraction o Electroplating o Catalyst recycle
o Alumina from o Powder synthesis o Battery recycle
Bauxite o Pickling

Seen as a unified treatment. WHY?? 12

Material Synthesis and Aqueous Processing
Why a Unified Treatment
➢ Common solvent i.e. water
➢ Material flow: linkage
➢ Common unit processes
➢ Common scientific/engineering principles
➢ New challenges demand collaboration between mineral, materials
& environmental engineers.

Hydromet.
extr’n

Material
Waste mgt
synthesis
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Material Synthesis and Aqueous Processing
Linkage of aqueous processing fields via material flow

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Material Synthesis and Aqueous Processing
Processing: manufacturing via physico-chemical transformations of
metals, metal compounds, and metal ions in aqueous systems

Feed Material Processing Products

Processing could be in multiple steps

Examples of Unit Processes & Operations

❖ Comminution: size reduction
Ground/fine
Solid particles Comminution
particles

❖ Dissolution (Leaching)
Solid & Liquid Solution
Leaching
(chemicals) (+solid)
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Material Synthesis and Aqueous Processing
Hydrometallurgical extraction: chemical processing of ores or
metallic waste in aqueous systems to recover contained metal
value

Metal Feed Material Hydromet. Product

Al Bauxite ore Alumina trihydrate
( Al2O3 .3H 2O)

Au Native gold (Au) Au metal

associated with
oxide, sulphide ores
Mg Magnesium salts Magnesium chloride
from seawater, well
& lake brines ( MgCl2 )

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Material Synthesis and Aqueous Processing
Hydrometallurgical Extraction

Feed solid
Solid pre-treatment: to prepare the solid with proper
physical and chemical characteristics. (crushing, grinding,
Pretreatment flotation)

Dissolution (leaching): bringing the desired metal into

Dissolution (Leaching) solution with the right chemical reagent (acid, base, etc)
called lixiviant.

Solution Purification Separation of solution (dissolved metal values) from

unleached (undissolved) residue. (sedimentation, filtration,
etc)
Metal Recovery
Metal recovery usually achieved through precipitation or
electrowinning
Product
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Material Synthesis and Aqueous Processing
Powder Synthesis
Objective: transfer chemical homogeneity from solution to powder
product.
Metal Salts Optimal characteristics of powders

Solution ❖ Particle size and Distribution

Purification
❖ Particle Shape

Solvent ❖ Chemical Composition

Removal

❖ Chemical Homogeneity

Salt Powder
Decomposition

Steps in solution-based Powder synthesis 18

Material Synthesis and Aqueous Processing
Powder Synthesis

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Powder Synthesis
Advantages

❑ Transfer of chemical homogeneity in the solution to the

product

❑ Powder processing provides convenient alternatives to

melting and casting for high melting point metals

❑ Demands for optimal characteristics of powder materials

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Size Reduction
Reasons for size reduction:
• to liberate valuable minerals from waste or gangue prior to
concentration,
• to increase the surface area available for chemical reaction, such as in
the reaction of limestone with silica and other minerals in a rotary kiln
and leaching operations
• to produce mineral particles or dimension stone of required size and
shape
• to facilitate easy material handling.

Two main size reduction processes:

• Crushing – coarse comminution: reducing size of particle from up to
1.5m to about 5-20mm
• Milling (grinding) – fine comminution: reducing crushed material to
about 75µm
High energy milling for the preparation of nano-sized particles
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Size Reduction
• Force (energy) is required to break the material
• Breakage mechanisms differ as to whether you are crushing or grinding
• Impact force is required for crushing
• Chipping and attrition used for grinding

(a) Compression or (b) Chipping (c) Abrasion or

Impact Attrition
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Size Reduction

Size and Energy Reduction

• Most inefficient operations in materials processing with regard to

energy consumption
• about 1% of energy input goes into size reduction. Remaining goes into heat
and sound generation for ball milling.
• Plastic deformation. The energy goes into changing shape rather than the size.

Crushing and Grinding processes occur as a result of atom bond

deformation or breakage.

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Quiz 1

1) Crushing and Grinding occur as a result of atom bond

deformation or breakage. TRUE/FALSE

2) Size reduction is considered an inefficient process in

materials processing. Using the ball milling operation as an
example, explain why the process is considered inefficient.

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Metal Processing: An Introduction
Ever wondered how metal products get to be what they look like??

25
Metal Processing: An Introduction
Casting • Nucleation of chill crystal at mould
walls.
➢ Ingot

• Chill crystals grow inward

• Large columnar grains grow and

overtake the chill crystals

• Remaining nuclei within the liquid

grow into equiaxed grains in the
centre of the ingot.

• Crystal growth rejects dissolved

impurities and results in segregation.
Typical ingot structure
• Metals contract on solidification
hence leaving a cavity at the top26
Metal Processing: An Introduction

Casting • This technique eliminates most of the

shortfalls of ingot casting.
➢ Continuous casting

• Contraction cavities do not form since

the mould is continuously topped up
with liquid metal

• Segregation is reduced because

columnar grains grow over a shorter
distance

Continuous casting
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Metal Processing: An Introduction
Permanent Mould Casting
• Makes use of reusable metal moulds.
• Expensive moulds.
• Moulds offer good surface finish.
• Main process that uses this technique is pressure die-casting.

o Molten metal is forced into the

mould cavity at a pressure.

o Under pressure, there is the

ability for the molten metal to
fill sharp corners. This allows
complex shape formation.
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Metal Processing: An Introduction
Deformation Processing

• Because most metals are ductile, they can be worked to shape.

HOW??
• By plastic deformation (NB: necking cannot occur).

• Depending on temperature at work, three (3) categories are known.

• Cold working (room temperature)
• Warm working (0.3𝑇𝑚 ─ 0.5𝑇𝑚 )
• Hot working (0.5𝑇𝑚 ─ 0.7𝑇𝑚 )

What will be the relation between temperature and degree of deformation

and why??

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Metal Processing: An Introduction
Deformation Processing
Rolling Forging
Used to reduce the thickness of a work Work is compressed between two dies
by compressive forces exerted by using either impact or gradual pressure
opposing rows. to form the part.

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Metal Processing: An Introduction
Deformation Processing
Extrusion Drawing
• Compressive force is used to force An operation in which the cross section
the metal piece to flow through a die of a bar, rod or wire is reduced by
opening to produce the desired shape. pulling it through a die opening.

• Could be Direct or Indirect.

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Metal Processing: An Introduction
Recrystallization
• Cold working leads to work hardening
• Deformation (≥ 80%) results in crack and fracture
• Further deformation is possible only after the part is annealed

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Metal Processing: An Introduction
Recrystallization

1. Annealed 2. Plastically deformed 3. Recovery 4. Nucleation

1. Low density of dislocation due to annealing.

2. Plastic work increases the density of dislocation greatly due to
work hardening.
3. Annealing leads to initial recovery: dislocations move to low
energy due to rearrangement.
4. Further annealing results in new grain nucleation and growth.
5. Fully recrystallized containing new undeformed grains.
5. Fully recrystallized 33
Quiz 2

It is your sole aim to produce a casting with less cavity holes.

If the only options available for the process are ingot casting
and continuous casting, which would be your preferred choice
and why?

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Metal Processing: An Introduction
Machining
• Ability of most metals
to deform plastically
allows for them to be
shaped by machining
or grinding.

Lathe turning
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Metal Processing: An Introduction
Machining
• How is part removal achieved in machining??
➢ Plastic shear

• Principal machining processes:

➢ turning, milling, drilling.

• Owing to the high pressure, friction may occur between the tool
and work.
➢ What could be the consequences?
Tool wear; excess energy requirement

➢ What could be the remedy?

Lubrication; cooling with oil-water emulsion.
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Metal Processing: An Introduction
Surface Processing Operations

Categories:
1) Cleaning
2) Surface treatment
3) Coating and film deposition

1) Industrial cleaning processes that remove soils and contaminants that result from
previous processing or the factory environment.

2) Mechanical and physical operations that alter the part surface in some way, such as
improving its finish or impregnating it with atoms of a foreign material to change its
chemistry and physical properties.

3) Various processes that apply a layer of material to a surface.

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Metal Processing: An Introduction
Typical surface engineering processes

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Polymer Processing

Introduction:

Examples of Natural Polymers

• Leather
• Wool
• Cotton

What is the problem with natural polymers as engineering materials?

✓ Their form is not always suited for engineering needs due to their
evolution for specific purposes

How do we combat this?

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Polymer Processing

Introduction:

❖ Cellulose – wood
Replacement of OH with
• COOCH3 - Cellulose acetate (Rayon) – car tires reinforcement
• NO3 – Cellulose nitrate (celluloid) – film industry

❖ Natural Rubber
• NBR filled with CB to make it resistant to sunlight

LIMITED range of polymers until polymerization using monomers

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Polymer Processing

Polymer Synthesis:

Additional polymerization (Free radical)

• Polymerization of HDPE with ethylene as a monomer and peroxide
as initiator

• Degree of polymerization is dependant on:

• Amount of initiators
• Pressure
• Temperature
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Polymer Processing

Polymer Synthesis:

Condensation polymerization (H2O)

• Polymerization of Nylon – 2 different types of molecules react with
H20 as a by product

• Multifunctional molecules will usually give rise to 3D networks

(thermosets) Eg. Epoxy and Polyester

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Polymer Processing

Polymer Alloys:

❖ Copolymers:
• 2 monomers are mixed during an additional polymerization with the
resulting polymer chain containing both units (copolymerization).
• The polymer units add randomly which leads to less order
(amorphous polymers).
• Packing density is lower
• Tg is lower
• Example PVC with vinyl acetate (COOCH3* instead of Cl*)

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Polymer Processing

Solid Solution (Plasticizers):

• Plasticizers are low MW (100-1000) organic liquids (oils)

• Works by forcing apart the polymer chains (lubrication theory)
• Main function is to make the polymer flexible by lowering the Tg
• It affects tensile strength
• Leaching is a big problem

What happens to the polymer if PLASTICIZERS LEACH?

44
Polymer Processing

Two-phase alloys: toughened polymers

• Styrene and butadiene polymerization results a mixture of PS with a

rubbery copolymer of styrene and butadiene.
• Upon cooling, rubbery copolymer precipitates out forming a
“composite”.
• The rubber particles improves the fracture toughness of the material
by preventing crack propagation (HIPS)

45
Polymer Processing
Stabilization and Vulcanization:

• Sunlight (UV radiation) causes polymers to degrade

(photodegradation)
• UV Photon has enough energy to break the C-C bond (chain scission)
• Chain scission leads to shorter polymer chains (eg.Chalking in paints)
• Addition of fillers (eg carbon) will absorbs the radiation, protecting
the polymer chain. Eg NBR/CB
• Oxygen damage of polymers by creating -O- cross-links
• Cross-links increases Tg making the polymer brittle (huge problem for
rubbers and polymers with C=C due to the formation of -C-O-C-)
• Ozone (O3) is more damaging because of the active form of oxygen it
supplies.
• O2 attack is prevented by avoiding polymers with double bonds and
protection of polymers from direct sunlight via stabilization.
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Polymer Processing

Forming Polymers:

❖ Thermoplastics – Injection molding, vacuum forming, blow molding

and compressive molding
❖ Thermosets – Compressive molding. Simultaneous heating, forming
and curing.
❖ Rubbers – same as thermosets. Heating and pressing of an elastomer
and vulcanizing agent mix in a mold.

Products
• Surface coatings (polymer solutions), polymer fibres (uses in fabric)
polymer foams (using chemicals that releases C02).
• Thermoset – resin + hardener which is mixed just before use and cures
as soon as it is applied
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Polymer Processing

Extrusion:

❖ Why Extrusion?

• Cheap
• Fast

48
Polymer Processing

Extrusion:

• Continuous process for producing shapes of constant sections (Semis)

• Polymer pellets are fed into a screw turning in a heated barrel.
• The screw compacts, heats and mixes the polymer.
• The polymer melt is forced through a die and then cooled to give
tubes, sheets, rod etc.
• Shear flow in the die causes orientation of the polymer molecules.
• Cooling leads to significant transverse expansion (final section is
different to die opening).

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Polymer Processing

Injection Molding:
• Polymer pellets are compressed by a ram or screw, heated until molten
and pushed into a mold.
• Polymer is cooled below its Tg under pressure.
• Excess polymer is injected to compensate for contractionin the mold.
• Molecular orientation is parallel to the flow direction leading to
anisotropic properties.

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Polymer Processing

Injection Molding:

Cons:
• Expensive molds
• Slow process (cycle time between 1 and 5 mins)
• High pressures needed for good detail (30 -120MN m-2)

Pros:
• High precision moldings

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Polymer Processing
Vacuum and Blow molding of Sheets:

• Sheets produced by extrusion are

shaped by vacuum or pressure forming.
• Vacuum mold - Heat soften sheet is
pressed into a mold by atmospheric
pressure when a vacuum is created
between the mold and the sheet.
• Blow mold – Heated tube is clamped in
a split mold and expanded with
compressed air to take up its shape.
• Products – plastic bottles

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Polymer Processing

Vacuum and Blow molding of Sheets:

Pros:

• Cheap
• Fast
• Fairly accurate

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Polymer Processing
Compression Molding:

• Both Thermoplastics and Thermosets can be

processed
• Material is heated and compressed between
dies
• Well-matched to Thermoset forming (cycle times
of 10s for small components and 10 mins for
large thick-walled moldings)

Pros:
• Cheaper than injection molding – lower
pressure

Products:
• Casings for appliances
• Car bumpers
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Polymer Processing

Films and Fibers:

• Thin sheet and fine fibers of polymers are extruded using a narrow
slit or a spinneret (a die with many small holes)
• Cooling of the molten polymer is rapid hence solidification occurs in
the amorphous phase.
• Strength can be increased if the films/fibers are drawn though a
tensioning device (unravelling the tangled molecules and aligning
them

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Ceramic Processing: An introduction
• Ceramics are inorganic, nonmetallic solids

• The structure of ceramics can be: amorphous, crystalline or a

mixture of both.

• Most are compounds of oxygen, carbon, or nitrogen with metals such

as Al or Si
➢ 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 , 𝑆𝑖𝐶, 𝐴𝑙𝑁
• Naturally occurring materials like rocks and stones are ceramics.
56
Ceramic Processing: An introduction
• The naturally occurring materials could be:
➢ Igneous: formed at high temperature
➢ Sedimentary: formed at low temperature by deposition or
crystallisation from water plus particles produced by mechanical
breakdown of rocks and stones.

Characteristics of Ceramics
o Most are hard (diamond, a pure of carbon is the hardest material known)
o Inherently brittle
o Chemically stable
o Refractory
o Electrical insulators

57
Ceramic Processing: An introduction
The roman aqueduct in Spain.
Built about 50 AD
Constructed from Granite blocks. No mortar
holds the structure together.
Granite: an igneous rock is the hardest and
weather resistant stone available for
construction

2000 years apart

The Sydney Opera House in Australia.
Built in 1973
The curved shell elements are made of
reinforced concrete.
Walls are made from glass

58
Ceramic Processing: An introduction
Manufactured and high-performance ceramics

Though naturally occurring, ceramics can be synthesised

artificially.
➢ Typical example is the use of glazed ceramics for electrical insulators

• Ever wondered the possibility of drilling oil wells?

➢ Drill bits with teeth coated with industrial diamond

• How about machining tools or sawing wood?

➢ Tungsten carbide or cobalt cutting tool tips

• Thought of the re-entry of space shuttle?

➢ Reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC) wing leading edge 59
Ceramic Processing: An introduction
Generic Ceramics
• Like metals, the number of different ceramics is huge.
➢ Glasses: all are based on silica with some additions to reduce the
melting point or give special properties.
➢ Vitreous ceramics or clay products: used in large quantities for
plates, cups, sanitary ware, tiles, bricks, etc.
➢ High-performance ceramics: applications for resistance to wear
and temperature.
➢ Cement and concrete: complex ceramic with many phases. One
of three essential bulk materials in civil engineering.
➢ Rocks and minerals (natural ceramics)
➢ Ceramic composite

Ceramics may be cheap following the abundant raw ingredients in

nature, the processing cost may be too high 60
Ceramic Processing: An introduction
Generic Ceramics and uses
Glasses

Vitreous ceramics

61
Ceramic Processing: An introduction
Generic Ceramics and uses
High performance ceramics

Cement and concrete

62
Ceramic Processing: An introduction
Generic Ceramics and uses
High performance ceramics

Cement and concrete

63
Quiz

List 3 classes of ceramics and state an example of each

64
Ceramic Processing: An introduction
• Ever seen snow?? What happens when you squeeze it?
➢ You Hot-press when you squeeze snow.
• Hot-pressing of powders is one of several sintering methods
used in forming ceramics.
• Glasses melt at about 1000°C hence can be cast like metals.
➢ At low temperatures (around 700°C), glasses are viscous and can
be formed using methods such as rolling, forging and pressing.
• Engineering ceramics have melting points in excesses of
2000°C. Can they be cast??
➢ Lack plasticity so secondary processes like rolling, etc can’t be
used
• Thus most of such ceramics are made from powders which are
pressed and fired.
65
Ceramic Processing: An introduction
• Vitreous ceramics are hydroplastic.
➢ Water is drawn between the clay particles, lubricating their
sliding and allows clay to be formed by hand or simple
machinery.
• Low-grade ceramics—stone and certain refractories—are
simply mined and shaped.

66
Ceramic Processing: Glasses
• Glasses are mostly silica-soda-lime based.
• The raw material is heated to elevated temperatures where
melting occurs.

• The melt is processed via different routes to obtain different

products.
➢ Pressing: to form shapes like dish and plates.
➢ Blowing: to produce objects like jars, bottle, light bulbs.
➢ Drawing: to make lengthier objects like tubes, rods, and
whiskers.

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Ceramic Processing: Glasses
(1) a gob of glass fed into mould
from furnace.
(2) pressing into shape by
plunger.
(3) plunger retracted and finished
product removed.

Pressing of a flat glass piece.

(1) molten gob is fed into mold

cavity.
(2) pressing to form a parison.
(3) the partially formed parison,
held in a neck ring, is
transferred to the blow mold.
(4) blown into final shape

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Press-and-blow forming sequence
Ceramic Processing: Engineering Ceramics
Following the high melting point of engineering ceramics, they are
mostly formed using powder processing.
• Powder Processing Route
➢ Powder synthesis
➢ Green product fabrication
➢ Consolidation to obtain final product
• Powder synthesis involves crushing, grinding, impurities
separation, blending.
• Green components are manufactured via: tape casting, slip
casting, extrusion, injection moulding and cold/hot compaction.
• Green component is then fired/sintered to obtain final product.
69
Ceramic Processing: Engineering Ceramics
Typical Powder production
• Alumina powder is obtained from bauxite, a hydrated
aluminium oxide [𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 ]
➢ Crushing and purification of 𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3
➢ Heat at 1150°C to decompose alumina 2𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 = 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 + 3𝐻2 𝑂
➢ The alumina is then milled and sieved

• Zirconia, ZrO2, is made from the natural hydrated mineral or

from zircon, 𝑍𝑟𝑆𝑖𝑂4 .
• Silicon carbide and silicon nitride are made by reacting silicon
with carbon or nitrogen.
Powder surface area is very important. WHY??
70
Ceramic Processing: Engineering Ceramics
Forming Engineering Ceramics
After obtaining powders then what??
➢ Consolidation follows

• Surface energy of powders drive sintering.

• Powders are packed and heated to a temperature at which
diffusion occurs, ≈ 2Τ3 𝑇𝑚 .
• Particles sinter, i.e. they bond together and form small necks
• This reduces the surface area and cause the powders to densify.
• Full density cannot be achieved by this method of sintering
71
Ceramic Processing: Engineering Ceramics

Powder particles pressed together at (a) sinter as shown at (b), reducing the surface area
of pores. Final structure contains small nearly spherical pores (c)

• How do you think the particles move??

➢ Grain boundary diffusion
• Do you think grains before and after sintering are same? WHY?

72
Ceramic Processing: Engineering Ceramics

Microscopic mechanism of sintering

• Atoms leave the grain boundary in
the neck between two particles

• Diffuses into the pore, filling it up

• Surface area reduction drives the process.

• Rate of diffusion controls its rate.

This immediately tells us the two most important things we need to know about
solid state sintering:
i. Fine particles sinter faster than coarse ones because the surface area (and thus the
driving force) is higher and the diffusion distances are smaller.
ii. The rate of sintering varies with temperature in exactly the same way as the diffusion
coefficient 73
Ceramic Processing: Engineering Ceramics
• What can be done to achieve higher density and smaller
grains?
➢ Hot-pressing

• Hot-pressing: simultaneous application of heat and pressure to

powder

Die pressing Hot isostatic pressing 74

Ceramic Processing: Engineering Ceramics
Pros of Hot-pressing
• The pressure adds to the surface energy to drive sintering more
quickly.
• The short time gives no opportunity for grain growth, thus good
mechanical properties
• Full density can be achieved
• High precision with little or no subsequent finishing processes
needed.

Cons of Hot-pressing
o Dies may be expensive
o Process may be expensive
75
Ceramic Processing: Engineering Ceramics
Liquid phase sintering
• Allows full density to be reached (with some loss in mechanical
strength).
HOW?
• Small amounts of additive(s) is added to the powder
• The additive reacts with the powder and form low melting phases
which flows between the powder particles at the sintering
temperature.
• This greatly increases the sintering rate.
Eg. Adding MgO to 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑖3 𝑁4

Because this melt remains at the grain boundaries and are

likely to melt again, it reduces the high temperature strength
76
Ceramic Powder Processing: Summary
Casting
• Slurry of ceramic powder is
proceed via casting routes.
➢ Tape casting; Slip casting

Tape casting aka doctor blade

process: used to make thin ceramic
tapes.
• Here, slurry of ceramic powder
+ binders + plasticizers is spread
over plastic substrate.
• Tape is then dried using hot air.
Tape is then subjected to binder
burn out and sintering.

Slip casting: aqueous slurry of

powder is poured into Plaster of Paris
mould.
77
Ceramic Powder Processing: Summary
Extrusion & Injection moulding
• Extrusion: viscous mixture of
ceramic particles, binders and other
additives is fed through an extruder
where continuous of green ceramic is
formed.

• Injection moulding: mixture of

ceramic powder, plasticizer,
thermoplastic polymer and additives is
injected into a die using an extruder.
The polymer is burnt off, and the
ceramic is shaped during sintering.

Extrusion and Injection moulding are

used to make ceramic tubes, bricks and
78
tiles.
Ceramic Powder Processing: Summary
• Ceramic powder is compacted to form green shapes with sufficient
strength to handle and to machine.
• Basis for compaction: application of external pressure.
• Cold isostatic pressing (CIP): pressure is applied using some oil/fluid.
• Hot isostatic pressing (HIP): pressure is applied at high temperatures.
The high temperature makes the process expensive.
➢ Used when very low porosity is required.
➢ For refractories.
➢ CIP cannot provide the required strength.
• Sintering: process of subjecting green ceramic to elevated temperature
with the aim of attaining mechanical strength.
• Driving force for sintering is the reduction in total surface area
• Diffusion is responsible for growth and bonding at contact points ie
necks.
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