LOGIC

MIDTERM REVIEWER
WEEK 7- LOGICAL OPPOSITION OF PROPOSITION • If A is true, I is true.
• If E is true, 0 is true.
• Just as some concepts include other concepts in their connotation, there are some • If A is false, I is doubtful.
whose connotation excludes other concepts. • If E is false, 0 is doubtful.
• This mutual exclusivity between concepts is called logical opposition. • If I is false, A is false.
• Logical opposition of proposition refers to the different relations that exist between • If 0 is false, E is false.
propositions having the same subject and predicate but differing in quantity or quality, • If I is true, A is doubtful.
or both. • If 0 is true, E is doubtful.
• Let's present the opposition in schematic form known as the Square of Opposition.
IMMEDIATE INFERENCE BASED ON LOGICAL OPPOSITION
• Knowing the logical relation between two propositions enables us to infer the truth-
value of a proposition when you know the truth-value of the other proposition.
• Such inferences are called immediate inferences.

If A is true, If A is false,
E is false. O is true.
I is TRUE. E is doubtful.
O is false. I is doubtful.

If E is true, If E is false,
A is false. I is true.
I is false. A is doubtful.
O is true. O is doubtful.

If I is true, If I is false,
E is false. A is false.
A is doubtful. E is True.
O is doubtful. O is true.

If O is true, If O is false,
TYPES OF LOGICAL OPPOSITION A is false. A is true.
E is doubtful. E is false
Contradiction/Contradictories- a relation which exists between propositions that differ both in I is doubtful. I is true.
quantity and quality.
A and O, E and I propositions are contradictory.

Examples: RULES IN TRANSLATING ORDINARY STATEMENTS INTO THE STANDARD FORM OF

“All men are mortal beings” and “Some men are not mortal beings” are contradictory CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
propositions.
“All men are not emotional” and “Some men are emotional” are contradictory propositions. 1. Translate universal statements as universal propositions unless the statement points to a
particular usage.
Contrary/Contrariety - a relation which exists between universal propositions that differ in quality Examples:
only. 1. Dogs bark.
A and E propositions are contraries. All dogs are barking animals.
2. Filipinos are hospitable people.
Examples: Some Filipinos are hospitable people
“All politicians are honest” and “No politician is honest” are contrary propositions. “No student is 3. Men are stronger than women.
intelligent” and “All students are intelligent” are contrary propositions. Some men are people stronger than women.

Subcontrary - a relation which exists between particular propositions that differ in quality only. 2. Add the missing complement to an adjective or to a describing phrase to show that they refer
I and 0 propositions are subcontraries. to classes/terms.
Examples:
Examples: 1. All lions are fierce.
“Some buildings are houses” and “Some buildings are not houses” are contrary propositions. All lions are fierce animals.
“Some criminals are not harmful” and “Some criminals are harmful” are contrary propositions. 2. Mothers love their children.
Some mothers are children lovers.
Subalternation - a relation that exists between two propositions having the same quality but
differing in quantity. 3. Singular statements should be treated as universal statements.
A and I, E and O propositions are subalterns. Examples:
The universal proposition is the superaltern; The particular proposition is the subaltern. 1. The first lady is very extravagant person.
Examples: The first lady is very extravagant person. A proposition
“All men are liars” and “Some men are liars” are sub-alternating propositions. 2. The author of Don Quijote is a good writer.
“Some students are not absent” and “No student is absent” are sub-alternating propositions. The author of Don Quijote is a good writer. A proposition
3. This student is not lazy.
LAW OF CONTRADICTION This student is not a lazy guy. E proposition
Two contradictory propositions cannot be both true and both false at the same time.
* If A is true, O is false * If A is false, O is true 4. Quantifiers that refer to universal or particular should be replaced by: all, no or some
* If O is true, A is false * If O is false, A is true respectively.
* If E is true, I is false * If E is false, I is true Examples:
* If I is true, E is false * If I is false, E is true 1. Almost 50% of the students in logic are members of the debate team.
Some students in logic are members of the debate team.
LAWS OF CONTRARIETY 2. Most of the teachers are nationalists.
Contrary opposition is one which exists between two universal propositions that differ only in Some teachers are nationalists.
quality. 3. Every student is a learner.
A and E, propositions are contraries. All students are learners.
1. Contraries cannot be both true.
2. Contraries may be both false. 5. Exclusive statements should be translated into universal statements by reversing the order of
• If A is true, E is false. the original
• If A is false, E is doubtful. statement.
• If E is true, A is false. Examples:
• If E is false, A is doubtful. 1. None but men are priests.
All priests are men.
LAWS OF SUBCONTRARIETY 2. Only voters are citizens.
Subcontrary opposition is one which exists between two particular propositions that differ only in All citizens are voters.
quality.
I and 0 propositions are subcontraries. 6. Exceptive statements should be translated to an E statement.
1. Subcontraries cannot be both false. Examples:
2. Subcontraries may be both true. 1. All except seminarians are members of the club.
• If I is false, 0 is true. No seminarian is a member of the club.
• If I is true, 0 is doubtful. 2. Everybody except the judges are members of the administration.
No judge is a member of the administration.
• If 0 is false, I is true.
• If 0 is true, I is doubtful.
7. “Not all” should be translated as an O proposition
Examples:
LAWS OF SUBALTERNATION
1. Not all applicants are qualified workers.
Subalternate opposition is one which exists between two propositions that differ only in quantity.
Some applicants are not qualified workers.
• A and I are the affirmative subalterns; 2. Not all politicians are liars.
• E and 0 are the negative subalterns. Some politicians are not liars.
• The universal subaltern is called superaltern or subalternant;
• The particular subaltern is called subalternate or simply subaltern.
• In subalternation the universal subaltern implies the particular subaltern. WEEK 8- EQUIVALENCE OF PROPOSITION
• The particular subaltern, however, does not imply the universal subaltern.
1. If the universal is true, the particular is true. • Our thoughts may be expressed in various ways although we mean the same thing.
2. If the universal is false, the particular is doubtful.

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 LOGIC
MIDTERM REVIEWER
• Equivalence of proposition is the process of expressing the proposition in varied ways EXAMPLES:
without changing Its original meaning.
Convertend: All stones are inanimate.
KINDS OF EQUIVALENCE Converse: Some inanimate (x) are stones.

OBVERSION Convertend: All judges are lawyers.

• It is a form of immediate inference which consists in substituting an affirmative Converse: Some lawyers are judges.
proposition with its negative equivalent, or vice versa.
• This type of equivalence is also known as equipollence (L. "aequus" meaning equal and
"pollens" meaning strength). CONTRAPOSITION
• The original proposition is called OBVERTEND; the resultant inference is called • It is a form of immediate inference that involves the method of obversion and
OBVERSE. conversion.
• The original proposition is called CONTRAPONEND; the resultant inference is called
Rules of Obversion CONTRAPOSIT.
1. Change the quality of the proposition, i.e., the affirmative proposition becomes negative
and vice versa. TWO KINDS OF CONTRAPOSITION
2. Substitute in place of the predicate its contradictory term.
PARTIAL CONTRAPOSITION
Examples: • It consists in obverting the original proposition, then converting its obverse.
Obvertend: A – All men are free. • It is simply the converse of the obverse of the given proposition.
Obverse: E – No men are non-free.
Rules of Partial Contraposition
Obvertend: E – No men are free. 1. Obvert the given proposition.
Obverse: A – All men are non-free. 2. Convert the resultant proposition.

Obvertend: I – Some men are free. EXAMPLES:

Obverse: O – Some men are not non-free.
A - ALL ROSES ARE FLOWERS.
Obvertend: O – Some men are not free. Obverse: No, roses are non-flowers.
Obverse: I – Some men are non-free. Converse: Non-flowers are not roses.
(Partial contraposition)
CONVERSION The obverse being an E-proposition converts simply.
• It is a form of immediate inference which consists in transposing the subject and the
predicate without changing their meaning. E - NO DOGS ARE CATS.
• The original proposition is called CONVERTEND; the resultant inference is called Obverse: All dogs are non-cats.
CONVERSE. Converse: Some non-cats are dogs.
(Partial contraposition)
TWO KINDS OF CONVERSION The obverse being an A-proposition converts partially.

SIMPLE CONVERSION O - SOME STUDENTS ARE NOT SCHOLARS.

• It consists in transposing the subject and the predicate and retaining the quality of the Obverse: Some students are non-scholars.
original proposition and the quantity of the terms. Converse: Some non-scholars are students.
• This kind of conversion is also known as PERFECT or FULL conversion because the (Partial contraposition)
converse perfectly tallies with the convertend. The obverse being an I-proposition converts simply.

Rules of Simple Conversion FULL CONTRAPOSITION

1. Transpose the subject and the predicate of the convertend. • It consists in obverting the outcome of partial contraposition.
2. Retain the quality of the proposition. • It is simply the obverse of the converse of the obverse of the given proposition.
3. Retain the quantity of the terms. • The resultant inference is, nevertheless, the equivalent of the original contraposit.

Note: Only E and I propositions can undergo simple conversion because they are the only ones Rules of Full Contraposition
whose meaning is retained even after conversion. 1. Obvert the given proposition.
2. Convert its obverse.
EXAMPLES: 3. Obvert its converse.

Convertend: No pen is a chalk. EXAMPLES:

Converse: No chalk is a pen.
A - ALL ROSES ARE FLOWERS.
Obverse: No roses are non-flowers.
Convertend: No soldier is coward.
PC. Non-flowers are not roses.
Converse: No coward is soldier. FC. Non-flowers are non-roses.

Convertend: Some scholars are students. E - NO DOGS ARE CATS.

Converse: Some students are scholars. Obverse: All dogs are non-cats.
PC: Some non-cats are dogs.
Convertend: Some actors are politicians. FC: Some non-cats are not non-dogs.
Converse: Some politicians are actors.
I - SOME LAWYERS ARE JUDGES.
NOTA BENE Obverse: Some lawyers are not non-judges.
• A-proposition cannot be converted simply for it involves a change in the quantity of the PC. Some non-judges are not lawyers. (Not valid)
predicate term. FC: Since I cannot be partially contraposited, it cannot be fully contraposited either.
• No term can have a greater extension in the converse than in the convertend;
O - SOME STUDENTS ARE NOT SCHOLARS.
otherwise, the meaning of the converse differs from that of the convertend.
Obverse: Some students are non-scholars.
• The following examples, therefore, are not valid:
PC: Some non-scholars are students.
FC: Some non-scholars are not non-students.

INVERSION
• Like A-proposition, 0-proposition cannot be converted simply either.
• Its conversion results in an invalid inference.
• The following examples, therefore, are not valid:
• While full contraposition requires the transposition of the subject and the predicate of
the original proposition, inversion does not undergo such transposition but merely
introduces negative particles before the subject and the predicate.
• The original proposition is called INVERTEND; the resultant inference is called
INVERSE.
• It is important to note that the inverse of a proposition is valid only for A and E
propositions.
TWO KINDS OF INVERSION
PARTIAL INVERSION AND FULL INVERSION

INVERSION OF A – PROPOSITION
• To get the full inverse of an A-proposition, convert its contraposit.
• To gain the partial inverse, obvert the full inverse.

EXAMPLE:
A - All roses are flowers
PARTIAL CONVERSION Obverse - No roses are non-flowers.
• It consists in transposing the subject and the predicate with the quantity of the Converse - Non-flowers are not roses.
proposition changed from universal to particular. Obverse - All non-flowers are non-roses.
• This kind of conversion is also called accidental conversion or conversion by limitation Converse - Some non-roses are non-flowers. (Full inverse)
because the quantity of the proposition is lessened. Obverse - Some non-roses are not flowers. (Partial Inverse)

Rules of Partial Conversion

1. Transpose the subject and the predicate.
2. Retain the quality of the proposition. INVERSION OF E - PROPOSITION
3. The universal affirmative proposition (A-proposition) becomes particular. • To get the partial inverse of E-proposition, convert, obvert and convert again the
Only A-proposition can undergo partial conversion. original proposition.
• To obtain the full inverse, obvert the partial inverse.

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 LOGIC
MIDTERM REVIEWER
EXAMPLE: • You can eat spaghetti or cake or fried chicken.
E - No dogs are cats. • I can sing or dance or smile.
Converse: No cats are dogs.
Obverse: All cats are non-dogs.
Converse: Some non-dogs are cats. (Partial inverse)
Obverse: Some non-dogs are not non-cats. (Full inverse)
CONJUNCTIVE PROPOSITION
WEEK 9- HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION • Is one which denies that two contrary predicates together can be true of the
• A hypothetical proposition is a compound proposition that does not affirm nor same subject at the same time.
negate the components themselves but only the nature and validity of their • It denies simultaneous possibility of two alternatives.
connection.
• It does not declare an unconditional affirmation or denial but expresses a Example
relation of dependence such as an opposition or a likeness between two • You cannot stand and sit at the same time.
clauses. • A man cannot walk forward and backward at the same time.
• A man cannot walk forward and backward at the same time.
3 KINDS OF HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION
➢ The truth of a conjunctive proposition depends on the incompatibility of the
CONDITIONAL PROPOSITION alternatives.
• Expresses a real dependence between a condition (antecedent) which is
usually introduced by the word “If”, and the conditioned (consequent) These examples, therefore, are not true:
introduced by the word “THEN”. • We cannot have rain and sunshine at the same time.
• No one can sing and dance at the same time.
EXAMPLES:
• If a man is farsighted, then he needs eyeglasses. WEEK 10- HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION - MODAL PROPOSITIONS
• If the rain stops, then we can go hiking. • A modal proposition expresses the manner or mode (Lt. "modus" meaning
• If the person is mute, then he can't communicate well. "manner") in which the predicate agrees or disagrees with the subject.
• If jitney drivers go on strike, then transportation service will be paralyzed. • Unlike simple categorical proposition which merely states that it affirms or
denies the predicate of the subject, the modal proposition states how it
➢ From The given examples, we can observe that there is a real dependence affirms or denies the predicate of the subject.
between the antecedent and the consequent. • It signifies the way in which the subject and the predicate are joined together.
➢ The truth of the consequent necessarily follows from the truth of the
antecedent. Necessary Proposition
➢ The truth of a conditional proposition depends on the conditional connection • is one that is not possible to deny. What is cannot be otherwise.
between the two components, prescinding from the truth value of the • What is, is necessarily. It is something that is and must be so.
components taken separately. Examples:
• A circle Is round.
The following examples, therefore, are not true: • Fire burns.
• If Francis is the brother of James, then Francis is the child of James' father.
• If you get operated on, then you'll survive. Contingent Proposition
• is one that is, but not necessarily so.
➢ Conditional proposition can be expressed in varied forms. • A proposition is contingent if it might not have occurred; something that is but
➢ The statement, “If he pays his income tax honestly, then he will not be need not be.
penalized," can equally be expressed without "then": If he pays his income tax
• The denial of contingency in proposition may mean either necessity or
honestly, he will not be penalized.
impossibility.
➢ At times, the order of the antecedent and the consequent can be reversed
Examples:
provided that the “if” still precedes the antecedent as in this example: We will
understand each other if we have a dialogue. • Mary exists.
➢ Other words may be used for "if" like in case, provided that, in the event that,
given that, on the condition that, etc. Possible Proposition
• one which signifies that something Is not, but eventually comes to be.
Examples: Examples:
• In case he pays his income tax honestly, he will not be penalized. • It is possible that Eman and Mher are the culprits.
• That he pays his income tax honestly implies that he will not be • It is possible for Athan to be the Rector's awardee.
penalized. Impossible Proposition
• His paying the income tax honestly entails his not being penalized. • one which signifies that something cannot be and will never be.
Examples:
DISJUNCTIVE PROPOSITION • It is impossible for dead to tell lies.
• It is one whose subject or predicate consists of parts which exclude each • It is impossible for an infant to carry a 100-pound load.
other.
• It is sometimes called an EITHER-OR statement due to its construction. OTHER LOGICAL PROPOSITIONS
• The parts of a disjunction are called disjuncts (alternants).
BICONDITIONAL PROPOSITION
• Disjunctive proposition expresses alternatives (disjuncts) all of which cannot
be true or false together but only one can be true, and the other must be false • A biconditional is a proposition whose components are materially equivalent,
(exclusive disjunction), or at least one of which is true with the possibility that that is, they have the same truth value. The 2 propositions materially imply
the rest of the alternatives may also be true (inclusive disjunction). each other.
Ex: We will not elect a president if and only if the Philippines adopts a parliamentary
EXCLUSIVE DISJUNCTION government.
• Here, the disjuncts are mutually exclusive, i.e., one necessarily excludes the
PRIMITIVE STATEMENT
other.
A primitive statement is one that does not contain any other statement as a component
• One of the disjuncts is necessarily true, while all the others are false. part.
Examples: Ex:
• The vehicle is either moving or not moving. • The evidence is admissible in the court.
• The request is either answered or unanswered, • Jim is eligible for the state scholarship.
• The patient was either dead or alive. • Heroes are freedom fighters.
➢ The truth of an exclusive disjunction depends on the mutual exclusion of NEGATION
the disjunct. A negation connotes the denial of a statement and generally it is expressed by inserting
➢ The exclusive nature of the disjuncts is due to the opposition between the word not into the original statement.
contradictory terms. Ex:
• The evidence is inadmissible in court. [The evidence is not admissible in
These examples, therefore, are not true:
court.]
• the man is either young or old.
• Jim is ineligible for the state scholarship.
• The applicant may either be the first or the last in line
• Heroes are not freedom fighters.
• They should be expressed this way:
• The man is either young or not young.
• The applicant is either the first or not the first. A - UNIVERSAL AFFIRMATIVE
E - UNIVERSAL NEGATIVE
INCLUSIVE DISJUNCTION I - PARTICULAR AFFIRMATIVE
• Here, at least one of the disjuncts is true, although the rest can also be true at O - PARTICULAR - NEGATIVE
the same time.
• The disjuncts can all be true but all of them cannot be false altogether.

Examples:
• You either have a mango or an apple.
• One can avail himself of the scholarship grant if he is either a Dean's Lister or
a financially poor person.

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