Chapter 4: Art Throughout the History

Objectives:

Identify and explain the periods of art history; identify and discuss period artworks.

• Identify and describe key characteristics and defining events of art from:
▪ Prehistory and Ancient
▪ Medieval
▪ Renaissance to Mannerism
▪ Baroque to Neoclassicism
▪ Romanticism
▪ Modern/Contemporary age

Introduction

Art is one of the building-blocks of civilization, no significant culture or society has ever flourished
without it. Throughout the history, artistic works have taken on many forms and served many
purposes and they have constantly evolved in the process. Sometimes these changes have been
imperceptibly slow, while at other times – most notably in the early years of the 20th century –
there has been an explosion of artistic diversity and innovation.

PREHISTORY AND ANCIENT ART

The idea of creating a work of art purely as an object of aesthetic delight is fairly new development
in human history. In the more distant past, art was usually made with a purpose – sacred, ritual,
or talismanic – and in the case of some ancient and isolated cultures, these purposes remain
unclear today. However, even when an intellectual understanding of the context of such art is
elusive, the works can still carry a powerful emotional message. The Woman (or Venus) of
Willendorf, for example, is a potent rendering of the female form, in spite of its tiny size and
exaggerated proportions; and the Paleolithic cave paintings at Altamira in Spain depict animals –
bison, horses, and deer – with a sense of sheer life that has rarely been matched.

Prehistoric art can be divided into three distinct periods:

• Paleolithic Period or Old Stone Age (30,000 BCE–10,000 BCE)

• Mesolithic Period or Middle Stone Age (10,000 BCE–8,000 BCE)
• Neolithic Period or New Stone Age (8,000 BCE–3,000 BCE)

Paleolithic Period

There were only two kinds of art: portable or stationary, and both forms were limited in scope.
Portable art during the Upper Paleolithic
period was necessarily small (in order to be
portable) and consisted of either figurines or
decorated objects. These things were
carved (from stone, bone, or antler) or
modeled with clay. Most of the portable art
from this time was figurative, meaning it
depicted something recognizable, whether
animal or human in form. The figurines are
often referred to by the collective name of
"Venus," as they are unmistakably females Venus of Willendorf
of a child-bearing build.

Stationary art was just that: It didn't move. The best examples exist in (now famous) cave
paintings in western Europe, created during the Paleolithic period. Paints were manufactured from
combinations of minerals, ochres, burnt bone meal, and charcoal mixed into mediums of water,
blood, animal fats, and tree saps. Experts
guess (and it's only a guess) that these
paintings served some form of ritualistic or
magical purpose, as they are located far from
the mouths of caves where everyday life took
place. Cave paintings contain far more non-
figurative art, meaning many elements are
symbolic rather than realistic. The clear
exception, here, is in the depiction of animals,
which are vividly realistic (humans, on the other
hand, are either completely absent or stick
figures).

Key Characteristics:

It seems a bit flippant to try to characterize the art from a period that encompasses most of human
history. Paleolithic art is intricately bound to anthropological and archaeological studies that
professionals have devoted entire lives researching and compiling. That said, to make some
sweeping generalizations, Paleolithic art:

• Paleolithic art concerned itself with either food (hunting scenes, animal carvings) or fertility
(Venus’s figurines). Its predominant theme was animals.
• It is considered to be an attempt, by Stone Age peoples, to gain some sort of control over
their environment, whether by magic or ritual.
• Art from this period represents a giant leap in human cognition: abstract thinking.

Mesolithic Art

Pottery was beginning to be produced at this time, though it was mostly utilitarian in design. In
other words, a pot just needed to hold water or grain, not necessarily exist as a feast for the eyes.
The artistic designs were mainly left up to later peoples to create.

The portable statuary of the Upper Paleolithic was largely absent during the Mesolithic Age. This
is likely a result of people settling down and no longer requiring art that could travel. Since the
invention of the arrow had occurred, much of this period's "carving" time seems to have been
spent knapping flint, obsidian and other minerals which lent themselves to sharp, pointy tips.

The most interesting Mesolithic Age art that we know of consists of rock paintings. Similar in
nature to the Paleolithic cave paintings, these moved out of doors to vertical cliffs or "walls" of
natural rock, often semi-protected by outcroppings or overhangs. Though these rock paintings
have been found in locations ranging from the far north in Europe to southern Africa, as well as
elsewhere around the globe, the largest concentration of them exists in eastern Spain's Levant.

While no one can say with certainty, the theory exists that the paintings' locations weren't chosen
at random. The spots may have held sacred, magical, or religious significance. Very often, a rock
painting exists within close proximity to a different, more suitable spot upon which to paint.

Characteristics of Mesolithic Art

Between the Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic eras, the biggest shift in painting occurred in the
subject matter. Where cave paintings overwhelmingly depicted animals, rock paintings were
usually of human groupings. The painted humans typically seem to be engaged in either hunting
or rituals whose purposes have been lost to time.

Far from being realistic, the humans shown in rock

painting are highly stylized, rather like glorified stick
figures. These humans look more like pictographs than
pictures, and some historians feel they represent the
primitive beginnings of writing (i.e.: hieroglyphs). Very
often the groupings of figures are painted in repetitive
patterns, which results in a nice sense of rhythm (even if
we're not sure what they're meant to be doing, exactly).

Neolithic Art

The "new" arts to emerge from this era were weaving, architecture, megaliths, and increasingly
stylized pictographs that were well on their way to becoming writing.

The earlier arts of statuary, painting, and pottery stuck (and still remain) with us. The Neolithic era
saw many refinements to each.

Statuary (primarily statuettes) made a big comeback after having been largely absent during the
Mesolithic age. Its Neolithic theme dwelt primarily on the female/fertility, or "Mother Goddess"
imagery (quite in keeping with agriculture). There were still animal statuettes, however, these
weren't lavished with the detail the goddesses enjoyed. They are often found broken into bits—
perhaps indicating that they were used symbolically in hunting rituals.

Additionally, sculpture was no longer created strictly by carving. In the Near East, in particular,
figurines were now fashioned out of clay and baked. Archaeological digs at Jericho turned up a
marvelous human skull (c. 7,000 BC) overlaid with delicate, sculpted plaster features.
 Painting, in Western Europe and the Near East, left the
caves and cliffs for good and became a purely decorative
element. The finds of Çatal Hüyük, an ancient village in
modern Turkey, show lovely wall paintings (including the
world's earliest known landscape), dating from c. 6150
BC.

As for pottery, it began replacing stone and wood utensils

at a rapid pace and also become more highly decorated.
Seated Woman of Çatal Hüyük

Art for Ornamentation

Neolithic art was still—almost without exception—created for some functional purpose. There
were more images of humans than animals, and the humans looked more identifiably human. It
began to be used for ornamentation.

In the cases of architecture and megalithic constructions, art was now created in fixed locations.
This was significant. Where temples, sanctuaries and stone rings were built, gods and goddesses
were provided with known destinations. Additionally, the emergence of tombs provided unmoving
resting places for the dearly departed that could be visited—another first.

Ancient Art

Ancient art was used as a way for people to depict, enforce, and document religious and political
beliefs that governed ancient societies. Ancient art thrived in countries like India, Mesopotamia,
China, Greece, Egypt, Palestine, Japan, and Rome.

Egyptian:

3100 - 30 BCE

Artwork during Ancient Egypt wasn’t meant to be

looked at like art today. Instead, each work served
a religious or functional purpose. They were
decorated household items and objects used as
offerings to the gods. Artworks included statues,
pottery, paintings, drawings, and jewelry. Art was
used to create an idealized view of the world in
order to worship gods and create an image of the
afterlife.
Art from the Egyptian Book of the Dead, 1275 BCE
Greek:

1000 BCE – 31 CE

Greek art is divided into four periods that

Geometric Funerary Amphora, Phrasikleia Kore, Discobolus, and
Laocoön and His Sons
Geometric Funerary Amphora, Phrasikleia Kore, Discobolus, and
Laocoön and His Sons
changed with time: Geometric, Archaic,
Classical, and Hellenistic. As art in Greece
evolved, it became more realistic. Like
Egyptian art, it started off as a visual way
to document life and to create useful items
for the home. As time progressed,
sculptures of Greek gods and goddesses
became the standard of beautiful art.

Roman:

500 BCE – 476 CE

Roman art was very influenced by Greek art. Think

of it like Greek art 2.0. Rome looked at the
sculptures in Greece and created Roman copies of
their gods and goddesses. Rome also began
sculpting Roman emperors as a way to spread their
images across the Empire.
Ancient Roman portrait of 'Terentius Neo' from
Pompeii

Ancient China

Ancient Chinese painting utilized the same materials

and skills like calligraphy. The painting was thought to
be the purest art form in China, and the traditional
Chinese style has been preserved for millennia.
Ancient Chinese painting was created on walls,
coffins, silk scrolls, screens, book covers, and fans.
MEDIEVAL ART
300 – 1400

Medieval art—which includes a wide variety of art and

architecture—refers to a period also known as the Middle
Ages, which roughly spanned from the fall of the Roman
Empire in 476 A.D. to the early stages of the Renaissance
in the 14th century. Work produced during this era
emerged from the artistic heritage of the Roman Empire
and the iconographic style of the early Christian church,
fused with the “barbarian” culture of Northern Europe.
Mosaic of Jesus Christ in Istanbul, Turkey.

What developed over the course of these ten centuries yielded a diverse range of artistic styles
and periods, some of which include the early Christian and Byzantine, Anglo-Saxon and Viking,
Romanesque, and Gothic. Grand monuments and architectural masterpieces such as the Hagia
Sophia in Constantinople, celebrated mosaics in Ravenna, and illuminated manuscripts like the
Lindisfarne Gospels all emerged from the medieval period. Because the period produced a high
volume of art bearing historical significance, it remains a rich area of study for scholars and
collectors, and is viewed as an enormous achievement that later influenced the development of
modern genres of Western art.

History and Characteristics of Medieval Art

The history of medieval art is expansive and covers

a wide range of centuries and genres. Medieval art
was prominent in European regions, the Middle
East, and North Africa, and some of the most
precious examples of art from the Middle Ages can
be found in churches, cathedrals, and other
religious doctrines. Also prominent was the use of
valuable materials such as gold for objects in
churches, personal jewelry, backgrounds for
mosaics, and applied as gold leaf in manuscripts.

Madonna and Child with Saint Jerome and Saint John the
Though the Middle Ages neither begin nor end
Baptist. Sold for $1,350,000 via Sotheby’s (May 2018).
neatly at any particular date, art historians generally
classify medieval art into the following periods:
Early Medieval Art, Romanesque Art, and Gothic Art.

Early Medieval Art

Art from this period was created between the fourth century and 1050 A.D. During this time, the
Catholic Church and wealthy oligarchs commissioned projects for specific social and religious
rituals. Many of the oldest examples of Christian art survive in the Roman catacombs or burial
crypts beneath the city. Artists were commissioned for works featuring Biblical tales and classical
themes for churches, while interiors were elaborately decorated with Roman mosaics, ornate
paintings, and marble incrustations.
A large part of the art created during this time was also
related to Byzantine work of the Eastern Mediterranean.
It included a variety of media including glass mosaic, wall
painting, metalwork, and carved relief in precious
materials. Byzantine art was conservative in nature,
primarily featuring religious subject matter, and much of
it was characterized by a lack of realism. Paintings in
particular were flat with little to no shadows or hint of
three-dimensionality, and the subjects were typically Mosaics on the floor of The Torcello Cathedral
in Venice, Italy.
more serious and somber.

Romanesque Art

Romanesque art took shape in the eleventh century, initially

developing in France then spreading to Spain, England,
Flanders, Germany, Italy, and other regions. As the first style
to spread across Europe, it symbolized the growing wealth of
European cities and the power of church monasteries.

Romanesque buildings were characterized by semi-circular

arches, thick stone walls, and durable construction.
Sculptures were also prevalent during this time, where stone
was used to represent biblical subject matter and church
doctrines. Other significant media during this period include
stained glass and the continued tradition of illuminated
manuscripts.
Vita Christi Illuminated Manuscript. Sold
for £1,700,500 via Sotheby’s (December
2007).

Gothic Art

Late medieval art includes Gothic art, which originated in

the 12th century with the rebuilding of the Abbey Church in
Saint-Denis, France. Gothic architecture offered
revolutionary structural advancements such as ribbed
vaults, flying buttresses, and decorative pinnacles all
contributing to taller, lighter building designs.

Similarly, Gothic sculpture borrowed motifs from the

architecture of the period since it was primarily used to
decorate exteriors of cathedrals and other religious
buildings. Figures depicted in Gothic sculpture became
more realistic and closely related to medieval cathedrals.
Paintings also became more lifelike, and with the rise of Left: Vierge a l’Enfant Sculpture. Sold for
€1,488,250 via Sotheby’s (November 2007).
cities, foundation of universities, increase in trade, and Right: Vierge a l’Enfant Sculpture. Sold for
creation of a new class who could afford to commission €6,337,000 via Christie’s (November 2011).
works, artists started to explore more secular themes and
non-religious subject matter.
RENAISSANCE ART

Known as the Renaissance, the period immediately following the Middle Ages in Europe saw a
great revival of interest in the classical learning and values of ancient Greece and Rome. Against
a backdrop of political stability and growing prosperity, the development of new technologies–
including the printing press, a new system of astronomy and the discovery and exploration of new
continents–was accompanied by a flowering of philosophy, literature and especially art.

The style of painting, sculpture and decorative arts identified with the Renaissance emerged in
Italy in the late 14th century; it reached its zenith in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, in the
work of Italian masters such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael. In addition to its
expression of classical Greco-Roman traditions, Renaissance art sought to capture the
experience of the individual and the beauty and mystery of the natural world.

Top 5 Characteristics of Renaissance Art that Changed the World

1. A positive willingness to learn and explore

The onset of technology and new discoveries led artists and learners to seek more.

While the Western world saw simultaneous discoveries and innovations, the artists in Italy
became more and more curious to explore the world and all the possible aspects of nature.

The discoveries in Europe included new sea routes, continents, and colonies along with new
innovations in architecture, sculpting, and painting. They believed that revival of the classical
antiquity could lead to a much worthy and standardized stake in that era.

2. Faith in the nobility of man- Humanism

Prior to Renaissance was the Renaissance Humanism which contributed immensely to the rise
of the Renaissance.

Humanism was a major offshoot, and

characteristic of the Renaissance period. While
the Renaissance Humanism was an intellectual
movement that began in the 13th century. The
major ideal of the philosophy was tied around the
study of classical texts, and the alteration of these
classical thinking by more contemporary ones. As
in the 15th century, Renaissance Humanism had
become the dominant form of education. It was so
popular that it was divided into a range of sub-
developments. Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) is
regarded as the Father of Italian Humanism, his
contribution to the philosophy was quite huge.
Renaissance Humanism was very instrumental to the reign of the Renaissance. It was popular
and predominant during the period. This was to the extent that the church had to support and
even “patron” it.

Humanists shared the belief that God created humans with so many potentials and
abilities, and to get the best of them, one has to dignify himself and esteem himself rightly.
So, they felt that they had the responsibility to act on this belief and make the most of it.

Through humanism, Art especially enjoyed the support of the church. The church began to finance
and sponsor creative ventures and education. And with the high rate of patronage from the
wealthy royals, there was always a ready market for the paintings that were made.

Intellectuals, artisans, and common men

concluded that the Church was never a
responsible source for their behavior and beliefs
towards God and fellow men and that they
themselves are responsible for the actions.

The parallel vision between religion and humanism

was cleared and the esteem related to self-
importance was thought upon. The magnificent
Procession of the Magi, portrayed by Gozzoli
along with companies, seeks a more regal face
rather than a religious one. The School of Athens by Raphael

3. The discovery and mastery of linear perspective

The revival in math and proportions led to the innovations of two major systems: the use of linear
perspective and the introduction of the vanishing point – This is considered to be one of the
revolutionary characteristics of renaissance art.

This was created by the famous architect of that time, Filippo Brunelleschi.

He used the innovations in math to create a linear perspective using parallel lines, a horizon line,
and a vanishing point to realistically portray space and depth in art.

Since painting is a two-dimensional activity,

the advent of linear perspective created a
three-dimensional look through practice.

To achieve this, artists took a horizon line at

eye level and marked a vanishing point on it.
A receding checkerboard of intersecting lines
was created that converged and met the
vanishing point. This created a sense of
Linear Perspective Renaissance art
distance and depth.
With constant practice, artists managed to create a three-dimensional effect in their paintings.

Not only did the art with linear perspective shoot high, but the ability to portray convincingly
naturalistic figures in illusionistic spaces was praiseworthy too.

The mastermind behind the developments was the author of three mathematical treatises and a
wonderful artist, Piero Della Francesca, whose perspective paintings, and impressive figures
showed technique and finesse. One such classic example of his work is The Flagellation of Christ.

4. Rebirth of Naturalism.

This is another characteristic of Renaissance Art that brought about change in world patterns.

At the period, there was the rise of anatomical drawings and paintings. The Italian Renaissance
artist-Leonardo da Vinci pioneered this move. He set the standard for drawing and painting
anatomically correct bodies. He birthed this out of his quest to thoroughly understand the human
body. He did this by performing 20 autopsies while drawing all that he found in the human body,
the way he saw them. He then incorporated what he learned of bone structures, musculature, and
organ placement (from the bodies he drew or painted), into the body of knowledge.

Italian Renaissance artists integrated figures into complex scenes that permitted a broader
perspective and a glimpse into the lives of the wealthy or rich.

Both light, shadow, and perspective were used effectively to

draw attention to figures in paintings.

Leonardo Da Vinci was considered to be a scientist as well

as an artist.

Leonardo Da Vinci and Michelangelo observed cadavers

being dissected. This was for them to study how human
muscles lay underneath the skin.

In Medieval days, the human body was regarded as being

sinful, smelly, and disgusting. And therefore, it was to be
covered at all times. But then, during the Renaissance
period, this changed. Renaissance thinkers considered the
human body to be a beautiful thing. And in fact, a model for
God’s universe. In Da Vinci’s 1487 drawing; “Vitruvian Man,”
which meant “universal man”, he expressed how a spread-
Lady with an Ermine by Leonardo da
eagle human body, fits into a perfect circle. And he did this Vinci
with its arms stretched out into a perfect square.

Michelangelo’s nude statue, “David” is a prime example of the Renaissance’s fascination with the
human body. And its belief that the human body is the apex of God’s creation. Michelangelo
painted so many nude characters in his “Last Judgement”. He did this on the wall of the Sistine
Chapel. And after a while, the Vatican had to hire another painter to paint modest clothes around
his drawings, to cover many of the nude paintings.
5. Secularism

Secularism, which is the last characteristic we’ll dwell on, was also a useful force. It is the
transition of predominant beliefs and thought patterns from religious themes to broader themes.
And also, the incorporation of practices such as architecture and sculpture. Renaissance artists
portrayed non-religious themes, meanwhile, Medieval Art was exclusively religious in nature.

During Medieval times, most people believed the world would end in the year 1,000 A.D., so they
believed that any other art subject was inappropriate.

Renaissance art focused on religious subjects, and Bible characters. So, the trend gradually
shifted toward the painting of scenes that were not religious.

One of the earliest Renaissance examples of a non-religious theme was van Eyck’s revolutionary
“Arnolfini Marriage.” Jan van Eyck employed the art of depth and reflection by adding a mirror on
the back wall. That way, the people that viewed the picture got a reflection of themselves in the
view of the painting.

The interest in Classical Roman culture was rekindled during

this period. Then, the Renaissance put forward artworks that
often portrayed scenes from Greek and Roman mythology.

One of the evidence of the rebirth of the Greek and Roman

culture was the revival of sculpture works.

In classical times, only the important cities were filled with

statues and sculptures. But during the Renaissance, there was
an increased interest in archeology, to rediscover the Classical
culture. Michelangelo was present when the Laocoon; carved
in the 1st century, was discovered in Rome.

Michelangelo was not only a painter and sculptor of great

talent. He also served as the architect of the Dome for St.
Arnolfini Portrait Painting by Jan van Eyck
Peter’s Basilica in Rome. And this church building is acclaimed
to be the largest church building on earth.
MANNERISM
1520 – 1590

Francesco Guardi as a Halberdier' by Pontormo, 'Madonna with the Long Neck' by Parmigianino, and 'Monsignor della Casa' by
Pontormo

The term mannerism describes the style of the paintings and bronze sculpture on this tour.
Derived from the Italian maniera, meaning simply “style,” mannerism is sometimes defined as the
“stylish style” for its emphasis on self-conscious artifice over realistic depiction. The sixteenth-
century artist and critic Vasari—himself a mannerist—believed that excellence in painting
demanded refinement, richness of invention, and virtuoso technique, criteria that emphasized the
artist’s intellect. More important than his carefully recreated observation of nature was the artist’s
mental conception and its elaboration. This intellectual bias was, in part, a natural consequence
of the artist’s new status in society. No longer regarded as craftsmen, painters and sculptors took
their place with scholars, poets, and humanists in a climate that fostered an appreciation for
elegance, complexity, and even precocity.

Mannerism’s artificiality—its bizarre, sometimes acid color, its illogical compression of space, the
elongated proportions and exaggerated anatomy of figures in convoluted, serpentine poses—
frequently creates a feeling of anxiety. Works appear strange and unsettling, despite their
superficial naturalism. Mannerism coincided with a period of upheaval that was torn by the
Reformation, plague, and the devastating sack of Rome. After its inception in central Italy around
1520, mannerism spread to other regions of Italy and to northern Europe. In Italy, however, it
remained largely a product of artists in Florence and Rome.

The character of mannerism continues to be debated. It is often discussed, and judged, in relation
to the High Renaissance that preceded it. Some scholars see mannerism as a reaction to
Renaissance classicism, while others regard it as a logical extension of it—a natural outgrowth of
Michelangelo’s emphatic modeling or Raphael’s refinement. Already in 1600, mannerists were
criticized for having willfully broken the unity of Renaissance classicism, its integration of form
and content, its balance of aesthetic aims and ideas. Today, when classicism no longer has a
unique claim on “perfection,” mannerism emerges more clearly as a link between the High
Renaissance and the emotionally charged and dynamic baroque art that followed.

Mannerism was an exaggerated European art style that did not focus on human anatomy, but
instead on imagination. Artists began extending figures’ necks, arms, legs, and torsos. The goal
wasn’t to create art that mimicked nature, but to exaggerate beauty.
BAROQUE ART
1600 – 1750

'Portrait of Juan de Pareja' by Valezquez, 'Saint Jerome Writing' by Caravaggio, and 'Self-Portrait as the Allegory of Painting' by
Artemisia Gentileschi

The term Baroque, derived from the Portuguese ‘barocco’ meaning ‘irregular pearl or stone’,
refers to a cultural and art movement that characterized Europe from the early seventeenth to
mid-eighteenth century. Baroque emphasizes dramatic, exaggerated motion and clear, easily
interpreted, detail. Due to its exuberant irregularities, Baroque art has often been defined as being
bizarre, or uneven.

Baroque: origins & key ideas

The Baroque era was very much defined by the influences of the major art movement which came
before it, the Renaissance. So much so that many art history scholars have argued that Baroque
art was simply the end of the Renaissance and never existed as a cultural or historical
phenomenon. Others have disagreed and argued that the events of the Protestant Reformation
and the devastation of the Thirty Year’s War changed the way Europeans and European artists
saw and engaged with the world shifted the directions of the arts and cultures, therefore
implicating a clear distinction from the Renaissance.

It’s the sheer scale and importance of events as well as the contrasting painting styles over the
course of the era that make it hard to pin an idea to Baroque. Europe was encountering one of its
greatest shifts in society, especially with the challenge to the Roman Catholic Church; yet, through
the early Baroque artists Gian Lorenzo Bernini and Francesco Borromini, the Baroque art
movement began with the commissions of masterpieces from the Vatican and the social and
religious circles around it. The Renaissance architectural mode went from linear to painterly, and
Renaissance ideas of perfection, completion, and conceivability were challenged with ideas of
becoming, paint likeness, endlessness, and limitlessness.

Style & characteristics

The Baroque art movement had no real directive or specific school driving it. Instead, it consisted
of many great schools and artists across Europe throughout the 150 or so years of the Baroque
Era encompassing a wide range of styles. Additionally, the quantity of genius-level artistry coming
from different countries, schools, styles, and fields injects an added level of subjectivity to what
Baroque may mean for an observer of the art movement. The best way to approach the mapping
of Baroque art characteristics is therefore often the interaction with specific schools, artists, and
artistic mediums. Generally, the main features of Baroque painting manifestations are drama,
deep colors, dramatic light, sharp shadows and dark backgrounds. While Renaissance art aimed
to highlight calmness and rationality, Baroque artists emphasized stark contrasts, passion, and
tension, often choosing to depict the moment preceding an event instead of its occurrence.

Baroque painting

The most prominent Baroque painters originated from the

Netherlands, Italy, and Spain. Generally, they were concerned
with the human subjects or subjects and depicted similar scenes.
The renaissance spheres of power still dominated the art
directions of their cultures, and, accordingly, most of the
commissions were portraits of royals, religious scenes,
depictions of royal life and society. However, with the Baroque
era came a rise in history and landscape paintings, as well as,
portraits, genre scenes and still lives.

Such paintings flourished specifically in the Netherlands. Great

Dutch Baroque painters included Rembrandt van Rijn, Johannes
Vermeer, and Peter Paul Rubens. Their mastery of the medium
was sought after by royal houses all over Europe. So great were
the talents of the Dutch painters that Carl Klaus and Victoria
Johannes Vermeer, Girl with a Pearl
Charles remarked ‘he [Rubens] is the only one who came near to
Earring, c. 1665
Michelangelo in acting out drama’ and that “as a colourist,
Rubens even perhaps overshadowed Michelangelo”.

Rivaling with the Dutch and Spanish artists of the

caliber of Diego Velazquez, Italian Baroque
painters were imbued with the legacy of
Renaissance and Mannerist style. Two of the
leading painting schools in Italy were the so-called
‘eclecticism’ of the Carracci family and their
academy on the one hand, and Naturalism on the
other – a revolutionary style founded by
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, which broke
the barriers between religious and popular art and
avoided the idealization of religious or classical
figures, depicting to also ordinary living men and
Caravaggio, Supper at Emmaus, 1606
women in contemporary clothing.

Baroque sculpture

Many great Baroque artists were architects as well as sculptors, and common traits can be seen
in their oeuvre. A key similarity is the rejection of straight lines, resulting in increasingly pictorial
sculptures where movement and expression are emphasized.
Baroque sculpture was primarily concerned with the
representation of Biblical scenes spurred by the church but
also by the beliefs of the sculptors themselves, as many
worked on uncommissioned portrayals of biblical epics as
well. Be it scenes from the old or new testaments, the desire
of most Baroque sculptors was to portray pathos, as well as
movement. The leading figure of Baroque sculpture was
certainly Italian artist Gian Lorenzo Bernini.

Gian Lorenzo Bernini, The Ecstasy of

Saint Teresa, 1647-1652.
Baroque architecture

At the start of the 17th century, Italian architects were the dominant talents of Europe. Immense
competition for the contracts offered by churches and the Vatican between Gian Luca Bernini,
Francesco Borromini, Baldassare Longhena and others drew the rest of Europe’s attention,
soon spreading the style across the continent. Royal courts were desperate to commission
projects from the great Italian architects. Baroque architecture is characterized by intricate
details and extreme decoration. Elements of
Renaissance architecture were made grander
and more theatrical, emphasized by optical
illusions and the advanced use of trompe-l’œil
painting. With the beginning of the 18th
century, the European architectural focus
shifted to France. There Jules Hardouin-
Mansart broke away from the Baroque style
and reverted to classicism, while Charles Le
Brun brought the style and its traditions to new
heights with his designing of the Galerie des
Glaces in the Palace of Versailles.
Charles Le Brun, Galerie des Glaces, Palace of Versailles
.

Baroque art had two very specific purposes. First, to undo the exaggeration of the Mannerist
movement so that art depicted real people and nature. Second, to create religious artwork that
could convince viewers of the power of Christianity – as asked by the Church. Some artists
wanted to return to the beauty of Renaissance art, while others created very natural – and
sometimes imperfect – images of people, both to promote Christianity.
ROCOCO ART
1700 – 1754

'Ca Rezzonico' Ceiling by Giovanni Battista Crosato, 'The Swing' by Jean-Honoré Fragonard, and 'The Love Letter' by François
Boucher

This period can be summed up in one word: extravagance. Curves, illusions, and movement
were large focuses in Rococo art. The goal of the work was to catch viewers off guard with
theatrical paintings. This was achieved with soft colors, rosy cheeks, and luxurious
backgrounds.

NEOCLASSICISM
1770 – 1830

'Portrait de Juliette Récamier' by François Gérard, 'Oath of the Horatii' by Jacques-Louis David, and 'Cornelia, Mother of the
Gracchi, Pointing to her Children as Her Treasures' by Angelica Kauffman

The Neoclassical art period reached its height in the late 18th and early 19th century. Born in
Rome, the movement spread throughout Europe and the United States. It was a return to ancient
Greek and Roman art characteristics and ideals. Therefore, Neoclassical art portrayed the ideas
of simplicity, reason, order, virtue, and civilized society.
This article covers four important things that led to the Neoclassical art period. And in addition,
the main characteristics of the art during this time.

How did the Neoclassical art period start?

There are four main things that led to the Neoclassical art movement:

1. A pushback on the Baroque and Rococo art movements

2. Writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann
3. Excavations of Pompeii and Herculaneum in Italy
4. The 18th century Age of Enlightenment

1. Neoclassicism – A pushback on Baroque and Rococo

The two preceding art movements to Neoclassicism are Baroque and Rococo. The Baroque art
movement lasted approximately 150 years from 1600 to 1750. It was full of drama, emotion, and
tension.

Next, the Rococo or Late Baroque art movement started in the early 1700s and lasted until the
mid-to-late 1700s. Rococo built was similar to Baroque, but was more fun and frivolous.
Therefore, it’s not surprising that Rococo turned its attention away from the church and Christian
themes. The art became more hedonistic in a way.

The Neoclassical art movement follows Baroque and Rococo in the late 1700s. In many ways, it
was a push back to the gaudy, frivolous, and over-the-top nature of these previous movements.
In fact, some of the leading figures of Neoclassicism fought against the leaders of Rococo and
the French aristocracy. So, Neoclassicism art shows a stark contrast to the preceding art. It was
full of simplicity, reason, and a return to order and virtue.

2. Writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann

You can’t talk about the Neoclassical art movement without mentioning the writings of Johann
Joachim Winckelmann. He was a German art historian and archaeologist. In fact, many people
believe he was the father of art history.

His writings from the mid-1700s were a deep dive into the ideals of Roman and Greek art.
Winckelmann believed that art should aim for “noble simplicity and calm grandeur”. And that the
only way for us to become great is to imitate the ancients. These writings had a huge impact on
our return to Greek and Roman ideals, especially in art.

3. Excavations of Pompeii and Herculaneum

In the mid-1730s and 40s, the real excavations of the ancient cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum
began. These excavations included the discovery of Roman art and architecture, which revived
the study of Greek and Roman art. In fact, Rome was a major stop for The Grand Tour – a
traditional trip taken by European upper-class men once they reach the age of 21. This stop on
The Grand Tour helped spread Neoclassicism from Rome to other parts of Europe.
4. The 18th century Age of Enlightenment

Finally, the Neoclassical art period coincided with the 18th century Age of Enlightenment. This
philosophical movement valued science and reason. It was a main driver of the Industrial
Revolution. The ideals of individual liberty, religious tolerance, and constitutional governments
were pushed. Therefore, Neoclassical artists were inspired by these ideas. They portrayed art
that was civilized, reasonable, and contributed to a more orderly society.

Neoclassical art period characteristics

With the background of these four things that led up to the Neoclassical movement, it’s a little bit
easier to understand the art and architecture styles of this period. As well as everything else
already mentioned, the characteristics of art during this time were serious, symmetrical, orderly,
virtuous, and heroic. The art often depicted characteristics from classical history, as well as
political, philosophical, and religious leaders who were important to the time. The architecture
became more simple and less ornate than Baroque and Rococo architecture.

Although some may find Neoclassical art boring, I think you can find a lot of beauty in the classic
nature of the Roman and Greek art characteristics. Even though there is generally less drama
and emotion, some Neoclassical artists were able to bring the intensity and drama into their
painting.

Neoclassicism can be thought of as New Classicism. Artists at the time rejected the
extravagance of Rococo and instead focused on recreating Classical Greek art. Although it
is similar to Renaissance art, Renaissance was about innovating with a Classical influence,
while Neoclassicism
Classical was focused
influence, while on returning
Neoclassicism wastofocused
Classicalon
art. It focused
returning toon symmetry
Classical and
art. It
modesty.
focused on symmetry and modesty.

ROMANTICISM
1800 – 1850

The Soul of the Rose' by John William Waterhouse, 'Bridal Procession on the Hardangerfjord' by Hans Gude and Adolph Tidemand,
and 'Wanderer above the Sea of Fog' by Caspar David Friedrich
Defining the Romanticism Period

While a person may understand artistic techniques and greatly appreciate paintings, drawings, or
sculptures, they may not identify the different art periods throughout history and why they are
named a certain way. For example, have you ever heard of the Romanticism period? If not, you're
not alone, and there is no need to fret since we will provide you with all the information you need
to know.

For example, in the simplest of terms, the Romanticism period can be defined as an artistic
movement that started in the late 18th century and was at its peak from 1800 to 1850 in Europe.
While many individuals might think that the Romanticism period only had to do with paintings and
sculptures, it's worth highlighting that literature and music were also positively influenced in the
Romantic era.

The Romanticism era mainly occurred in England and France and is viewed by art historians as
a response to the aftermath of the French Revolution. The blurring of stylistic boundaries is
evident in the Romantic period.

But why is it called the "Romantic" period? While origins of the name may differ based on the
expertise of one person to another, most accredit the term "Romanticism" to the fact that during
that period in the 1800s, there was a sharp shift from the more classical methods and
Romanticism focused on the imagination, fantasy, nature, and simplicity of things.

Let's take a more profound look into the unique characteristics of the Romanticism era in the
following subheading.

Features That Define the Romanticism Age

Just like every person, place, and thing is unique and different from the other, the Romanticism
period can say the same. Romanticism paintings, books, songs, and buildings can be identified
as different when compared to other periods based on the following features:

• The brushwork of artists in the Romanticism age when less precise and looser than during
other periods,
• The Romanticism era focused on emotions, feelings, and moods of all persons,
• Romanticism art pieces were highly varied and included people, landscapes, peaceful
beauty, religion, and revolution.

Though there are some other characteristics of Romanticism, the art era can be defined by the
great quote from Friedrich that claims that "the artist's feeling is his law."

Well-Known Art Pieces of the Romanticism Period

• The Raft of the Medusa: an oil painting completed in either 1818 or 1819 by French
Romanticism painter Theodore Gericault, The Raft of the Medusa is the most easily
recognized piece of art from the Romantic period. The painting was completed when
 Gericault was only 27 years of age, and it depicts a terrifying moment of war after a French
ship was destroyed.
• Liberty Leading the People: a painting that has become an icon, Liberty Leading the
People was painted by artist Eugene Delacroix and was created to commemorate the July
Revolution of 1830. Liberty Leading the People is located at the Louvre in Paris and has
been reenacted and observed countless times in the past two centuries.
• Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog: German painter Caspar David Friedrich's magnum
opus, Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog, is an oil painting created in 1818. It has been
considered a masterpiece of the Romanticism era.

Romanticism is when we start to see the artists’ emotions through their work. The artwork
wasn’t made solely for the Christian church anymore, but to share the political and social
views of the artist. We consider this period ‘romantic’ because of the emotional expression
of the artists in a way that contrasts with Classical art.

REALISM
1848 – 1900

'Whistler's Mother' by James McNeill Whistler, 'The Shepherdess' by William-Adolphe Bouguereau, and 'The Stone Breakers' by
Gustave Courbet

Realist artists disliked Romanticism’s exaggerated emotions and decided to create

art that represented real people and experiences. This movement originated in
France and used neutral colors that did not focus on beauty. Instead, artists
focused on depicting the lives of the lower class, rather than God, royalty, and the
wealthy elite.

MODERN ART

Modern art began after the Industrial Revolution when travel became more accessible,
and artists were more exposed to new ideas and cultures. Art became focused on the
artists’ personal experiences and exploration. The invention of photography also pushed
artists to explore new ideas in art, since no artist could capture the same images that
photography did. The invention and easy access to tubed paint allowed for artists to
create work outside of studios and at their leisure. This meant that art became a means
for experimentation because of the new developments in the modern age and led to the
creation of many different movements within the Modern art period.

Impressionism
1867 – 1886

This movement originated in Paris,

France and drifted away from the realistic
styles of past movements. Instead, artists
would often paint outdoor scenes quickly
to catch the changing light with short
brush strokes. Claude Monet was one of
the founding fathers of the impressionist
movement.

'San Giorgio Maggiore at Dusk' by Claude Monet

Post-Impressionism
1886 – 1905
Like impressionists, post-impressionists
used bright colours and thick paint, but
where impressionists painted purely what
they saw, post-impressionists brought in
their imagination. Artists like Vincent Van
Gogh and Paul Gauguin started to distort
faces and scenes and used geometric
shapes in their work.
'Rue de l'asile et de la Chapelle de Saint-Rémy' by Vincent van Gogh.’

Fauvism
1905 – 1910
Fauvism was co-created by Henri
Matisse, who began using unnatural
colours in paintings. Instead of skin
tones that we see in real life, faces
were painted with blue, orange, red,
and many other hues. Fauvist
scenes were simplified to basic
areas of colour on canvas.
'Woman With a Hat' by Henri Matisse
Expressionism
1905 – 1920

Expressionism can seem hard to define at times since it

overlaps with so many other periods. The trait that makes it
unique is that the artwork is distorted or exaggerated to
show the artists’ internal feelings. It was a way for artists to
express themselves… pun intended.

'The Scream' by Edvard Munch

Cubism
1907 – 1920s

Created by Pablo Picasso and Georges

'Guernica' by Pablo Picasso
Braque, cubism was a movement that
was influenced by African art and masks.
In cubist art, figures and scenes were
distorted and rearranged to make an
abstracted image. They didn’t look like
people in real life, but like a collage of
body parts joined together to make one
figure.

Dadaism
1916 – 1924

Dadaism was a political art movement

that was different from any movement
prior. It didn’t focus on paintings or
traditional ideas of art. Instead, the goal
was to use sculpture, collages, and
writing to create a political statement.
Dada art was meant to be absurd and
intentionally not make sense.

‘A Fountain' by Marcel Duchamp

Surrealism
1924 – 1966

Surrealist art is about creating a dream-like

world that doesn’t really exist. Artists would
make faces out of objects or never-ending
landscapes that played with the viewer’s
imagination. Salvador Dali was a surrealist artist
that is known for painting objects that look like
they’re melting. Frida Kahlo was a surrealist
artist known for incorporating self-portraits into
'Roots' by Frida Kahlo
her scenes.

Abstract Expressionism
1943 – 1950s

This style of art was created in New

'Convergence' by Jackson Pollock
York, USA and was based on
expressing emotion, in a similar way to
expressionism. The main difference in
Abstract Expressionism is that the
artwork is not meant to look like
anything specific. It could be created
by simply splashing paint onto a
canvas, like Jackson Pollock.

Pop Art:

1950s – 1960s

Pop art was a way for artists to comment

on the brands and celebrities that we
see in popular culture. Artists, like Andy
Warhol and Keith Haring, would show
repeated logos or faces to show the
impact of American pop culture on daily
life. You may recognize pop art for its Campbell's Soup Cans' by Andy Warhol
colorful icons and flat, vibrant colors.
Contemporary Art
1960s – present

'Fountain of Light' by Ai Weiwei, 'Balloon Girl' by Banksy, 'Dacia Carter' by Kehinde Wiley, and 'All the Eternal Love I Have for the
Pumpkins' by Yayoi Kusama

Not to be confused with Modern art, the definition of contemporary art is constantly
changing because it refers to art that is created right now. The main difference in
contemporary art is the way that we are influenced by cultures around the world
because of easier access to travel and the internet. Ai Weiwei is a contemporary
Chinese artist and activist that explores sculpture, architecture, photography, and
videography in the name of activism.
References:

Caroline Bugler et. al. (2020), The Art Book: Big Ideas Simply Explained. Great Britain: Dorling
Kindersley Limited.

Esaak, Shelley. (2020, August 27). Neolithic Art. Retrieved from

https://www.thoughtco.com/neolithic-art-history-183413
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https://www.thoughtco.com/neolithic-art-history-183413
Esaak, Shelley. (2020, August 27). Art of the Mesolithic Age. Retrieved from
https://www.thoughtco.com/art-of-the-mesolithic-182386
https://www.wingedcanvas.com/single-post/art-history-timeline-a-guide-for-teachers
https://www.invaluable.com/blog/medieval-art/
https://www.history.com/topics/renaissance/renaissance-art
https://www.theartist.me/art/top-characteristics-of-renaissance-art/
https://www.nga.gov/features/slideshows/mannerism.html
https://magazine.artland.com/baroque-art-definition-style/
https://arthistorywithalder.com/neoclassical-art-period-summary-and-characteristics/
https://www.superprof.com/blog/romanticism-art-periods-details/