EVS031 Env Monitoring and Energy Studies - Pre-Edited PDF

School of Architecture, Science and Technology
Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University
EVS031: V136
M.Sc.
Environmental [EVS]
Monitoring and
Energy Studies
EVS031
Email: director.ast@ycmou.ac.in
Website: www.ycmou.ac.in
Phone: +91-253-2231473
Yashwantrao Chavan EVS031
Maharashtra Open University Environmental Monitoring and
Energy Studies
Brief Contents
Vice Chancellor’s Message ....................................................... 3
Foreword By The Director ....................................................... 4
Credit 01 ................................................................................. 7
CREDIT 01 -UNIT 01-1: ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ASSESSMENT AND
MONITORING: ..................................................................... 7
CREDIT 01-UNIT 1-2: METHODS OF ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL
QUALITY: ........................................................................... 15
CREDIT 01-UNIT 1-3: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT: 18
Learning objectives ......................................................... 18
CREDIT 01-UNIT 1-4: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES:
............................................................................................ 45
Credit 02 ............................................................................... 53
CREDIT 02 -UNIT 2-1: ABOUT ENERGY: ....................... 53
CREDIT 02 -UNIT 2-2: ENERGY PROFILE OF OIL AND NATURAL GAS: 71
CREDIT 02 -UNIT 2-3: ENERGY RESOURCES AND THEIR EXPLOITATION: 82
CREDIT 02 -UNIT 2-4: ENERGY USE PATTERN: ......... 104
Credit 03 ............................................................................. 107
CREDIT 03 -UNIT 3-1: BIO CATALYSIS AND NONCONVENTIONAL ENERGY:
.......................................................................................... 107
CREDIT 03 -UNIT 3-2: BIOFUEL PRODUCTION (BIO-ETHANOL AND BIODIESEL):
.......................................................................................... 125
CREDIT 03 -UNIT 3-3: PRODUCTION OF BIODEGRADABLE MATERIALS: 136
CREDIT 03 -UNIT 3-4: ENERGY USE: .......................... 147
Credit 04 ............................................................................. 156
CREDIT 04 -UNIT 4-1: ENERGY CONSERVATION AND ENERGY ECONOMICS:
.......................................................................................... 156
CREDIT 04 -UNIT 4-2: SOLID WASTES: ....................... 174
CREDIT 04 -UNIT 4-3: SOLID WASTE PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES: 207
CREDIT 04 -UNIT 4-4: DISPOSAL IN LANDFILLS: ..... 214
EVS031 Environmental Monitoring and Energy Studies Page 1

EVS031: Environmental Monitoring and Energy Studies
Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University

Vice-Chancellor: Prof. Dr. P. G. Patil
School of Architecture, Science and Technology
Director of the School: Dr. Sunanda More
Programme Advisory Committee
Dr Sunanda More Dr Manoj Killedar Dr.Chetana Kamlaskar
Director, School of Architecture, Associate Professor, School of Assistant Professor, School of
Science & Technology, YCMOU, Architecture, Science & Architecture, Science &
Nashik Technology, YCMOU, Nashik Technology, YCMOU, Nashik
Prof. Jaydeep Nikam Dr. Pondhe G.M. Prof. Dr. Sharad Ratan
Director, School of Continuing Assot.Professor and Head, Khandelwal
Education & School of Health Department of Environmental Professor & Principal
Science , YCMOU, Nashik Science Padmshree Vikhe Patil H.A.L. College of Science &
College of Arts, Science and Commerce, Ozar Township Tal:
Commerce, Pravaranagar, A/P- Niphad Dist: Nashik 422207
Loni-413713
Prof. Pravin Nalawade Dr. Anita V. Handore,
Assistant Professor and Head Department of Incharge, Research and Development Dept. Sigma
Environmental Science, KTHM College, Nashik – 2 Wineries Pvt.Ltd., Nashik
Development Team
Course Coordinator and Book Writer Book Editor
Instructional Technology Editor
Dr. Pondhe G.M. Prof. Jaydeep Nikam
Dr Sunanda More Assot.Professor and Head, Director, School of Continuing
Director, School of Architecture, Department of Environmental Education & School of Health
Science & Technology, YCMOU, Science Padmshree Vikhe Patil Science , YCMOU, Nashik
Nashik College of Arts, Science and
Commerce, Pravaranagar, A/P-
Loni-413713
This work by YCMOU is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

4.0 International License.
 Book Publication : 28-Sep-2022 Publication No:
 Publisher : Dr. Prakash Deshmukh, Registrar [I/C], YCMOU, Nashik - 422 222, MH, India
 ISBN:

V ICE C HANCELLOR ’ S M ESSAGE
Dear Students,
Greetings!!!
I offer cordial welcome to all of you for the Master’s degree programme of Yashwantrao Chavan
Maharashtra Open University.
As a post graduate student, you must have autonomy to learn, have information and knowledge
regarding different dimensions in the field of Environmental Science and at the same time intellectual
development is necessary for application of knowledge wisely. The process of learning includes appropriate
thinking, understanding important points, describing these points on the basis of experience and observation,
explaining them to others by speaking or writing about them. The science of Education today accepts the
principle that it is possible to achieve excellence and knowledge in this regard.
The syllabus of this course has been structured in this book in such a way, to give you autonomy to study
easily without stirring from home. During the counseling sessions, scheduled at your respective study centre, all
your doubts will be clarified about the course and you will get guidance from some qualified and experienced
counsellors/ professors. This guidance will not only be based on lectures, but it will also include various
techniques such as question-answers, doubt clarification. We expect your active participation in the contact
sessions at the study centre. Our emphasis is on ‘self study’. If a student learns how to study, he will become
independent in learning throughout life. This course book has been written with the objective of helping in self-
study and giving you autonomy to learn at your convenience.
During this academic year, you have to give assignments, complete laboratory activities, field visits and the
Project work wherever required. You have to opt for specialization as per programme structure. You will get
experience and joy in personally doing above activities. This will enable you to assess your own progress
and thereby achieve a larger educational objective.
We wish that you will enjoy the courses of Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University,
emerge successful and very soon become a knowledgeable and honorable Master’s degree holder of this
university.
I congratulate “Development Team” for the development of this excellent high quality “Self- Learning
Material (SLM)” for the students. I hope and believe that this SLM will be immensely useful for all students
of this program.
Best Wishes!
- Prof. Dr. P. G. Patil
Vice-Chancellor, YCMOU

F OREWORD B Y T HE D IRECTOR
Dear Students,
Greetings!!!
This book aims at acquainting the students with conceptual and applied fundamentals about
Environmental Science required at degree level.
The book has been specially designed for Science students. It has a comprehensive coverage of
environmental concepts and its application in practical life. The book contains numerous
examples to build understanding and skills.
The book is written with self- instructional format. Each chapter is prepared with articulated
structure to make the contents not only easy to understand but also interesting to learn.
Each chapter begins with learning objectives which are stated using Action Verbs as per the
Bloom’s Taxonomy.Each Unit is started with introduction to arouse or stimulate curiosity of
learner about the content/ topic. Thereafter the unit contains explanation of concepts
supported by tables, figures, exhibits and solved illustrations wherever necessary for better
effectiveness and understanding.
This book is written in simple language, using spoken style and short sentences. Topics of each
unit of the book presents from simple to complex in logical sequence. This book is appropriate
for low achiever students with lower intellectual capacity and coversthe syllabus of the course.
Exercises given in the chapter include MCQs, conceptual questions and practical questions so as
to create a ladder in the minds of students to grasp each and every aspect of a particular
concept.
I thank the students who have been a constant motivation for us. I am grateful to the writers,
editors and the School faculty associated in this SLM development of the Programme.
Best Wishes to all of you!!!
- Dr. Sunanda More

Director,
School of Architecture, Science and Technology,
YCMOU

Environmental Monitoring and Energy Studies (M.Sc.-Sem-03)
UNITS AND DETAILED SYLLABUS
CR Unit Content Page No.

1 1-1 Environmental Quality Assessment and Monitoring: What is environmental 1-9
quality? Quality of environment for life on earth and man. Deterioration of
environmental quality with reference to anthropogenic impact.
1 1-2 Methods of assessment of environmental quality, short term studies, 10-12

surveys rapid assessment continuous short and long term monitoring.
1 1-3 Environmental Impact Assessment: Need of EIA, scope and objectives, 13-39
types of environmental impacts, steps involved in conducting the EIA
studies.
1 1-4 Environmental Impact Assessment Techniques - Ad - hoc method, checklist 40-47

method, overlay mapping method, network method, simulation and
modeling technique, matrix method, diagram technique, matrix method,
and system diagram technique, Merits and Demerits of EIA studies.
2 2-1 About Energy: Present status of energy use patterns in India. Population 48-65
and energy demand, energy use pattern in rural and urban area, impact of
growing population on energy use, changing life style and energy use.
2 2-2 Energy profile of oil and natural gas, Indian production and reserves, 66-76
nuclear option, role of IRDA and MEDA in energy generation.
2 2-3 Energy resources and their exploitation: Sun as source of energy - nature of 77-98
its radiation, Conventional energy sources: coal, oil, and nature gas, non-
conventional energy sources: hydroelectric power, tidal, wind, geothermal
energy, solar collectors, photovoltaic’s, solar ponds, nuclear-fission and
fusion, magneto-hydrodynamic power (MHD).
2 2-4 Energy use pattern in different parts of the world and its impact on the 99-102
environment. CO2 emission in atmosphere.
3 3-1 Bio catalysis and nonconventional energy: Biocatalysts, green chemistry in 103-120
industries, fuel cell and electric vehicles, solar energy and hydrogen
production, energy from alternate sources; Solar photovoltaic technology.
3 3-2 Biofuel production (bio-ethanol and biodiesel), Biomass, 121-130

prevention/minimization of hazardous/toxic products. Agricultural related
practices and food processing.
3 3-3 Production of biodegradable materials, concept of green building and 131-141

pollution free engineering processes.

3 3-4 Energy Use: Relationship among energy, environment and economical level 142-150
of development. Resources of energy and energy use pattern in different
parts of the world. Indian energy scenario and its impact on the
environment.
4 4-1 Energy Conservation and Energy Economics: Energy efficiency at national 151-168
level, improving energy efficiency, energy analysis, concept of exergy
(theoretical treatment), capital recovery factor, levelised annual cost,
economic analysis of wind electric generation and thermal power systems.
4 4-2 Solid wastes: Definition, types, sources, characteristics, and impact on 169-201
environmental health. Waste generation rates. Concepts of waste
reduction, recycling and reuse. Collection, segregation and transport of
solid wastes. Handling and segregation of wastes at source. Collection and
storage of municipal solid wastes.
4 4-3 Solid waste processing technologies: Mechanical and thermal volume 202-208
reduction. Biological and chemical techniques for energy and other
resource recovery. Composting, vermicomposting and incineration of solid
wastes.
4 4-4 Disposal in landfills - site selection, design, and operation of sanitary 209-248
landfills, secure landfills & landfill bioreactors, leachate & landfill
gas management, landfill closure & post-closure environmental
monitoring and landfill remediation.
References 249-250

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ENERGY STUDIES
C REDIT 01
CREDIT 01 -UNIT 01-1: ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ASSESSMENT AND

MONITORING:
Learning Objectives
After successful completion of this unit, you will be able to learn
 What is environmental quality?
 Quality of environment for life on earth and man
 Deterioration of environmental quality with reference to anthropogenic impact.
1-1 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ASSESSMENT AND MONITORING: WHAT IS

ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY? QUALITY OF ENVIRONMENT FOR LIFE ON EARTH
AND MAN. DETERIORATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY WITH REFERENCE
TO ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACT.
1-1 Environmental Quality Assessment and Monitoring:
What is environmental quality?
Environmental Quality is a set of properties and characteristics of the environment,

either generalized or local, as they impinge on human beings and other organisms.
Similarly, it is a measure of the condition of an environment relative to the requirements
of one or more species, any human need or purpose. Environmental quality includes
the natural environment as well as the built environment, such as air, water
purity or pollution, noise and the potential effects which such characteristics may have
on physical and mental health.
Generally, environmental quality is defined as the level and competitiveness of all

environmental services, with the exception of those related to waste receptors. There
are a number of characteristics that can be referred to as environmental quality,

including: air and water purity or pollution, noise, access to open space, building visual
effects, as well as the potential health impacts that such characteristics may have on
the physical and mental health of individuals (caused by human activity).The value of
these non-waste receptor services can be measured in terms of the willingness of the
public to pay for them, which is a valid way to measure environmental quality.
Ecologists refer to environmental quality as a nonexcludable or 'public' good. The costs
of degradation, on the other hand, are borne by society, not just the polluter, thus
providing benefits to most if not all citizens. There are significant implications for
environmental policy arising from this seemingly self-evident observation. There are
large portions of the environment - the atmosphere and open oceans - that belong to all
people and cannot be restricted from their use. Despite the fact that the benefits of
resource use tend to be spatially concentrated, the costs or externalities are typically
distributed among a number of individuals as pollution (or economic harms). As an
example, consider the black soot that is emitted from a factory chimney. In these
circumstances, the polluter is given an economic incentive to continue to consume
clean air since the harm will be borne by the entire neighbourhood as a result of the
pollution. Second, environmental improvements generally benefit a wide range of
people rather than a small group (e.g., factory owners). Those suffering the disbenefit
have an advantage over polluters, who are motivated to protect their pollution rights. In
many cases, these groups are too widely dispersed or suffer too little to mobilize
effectively. The third important point is that those who are dedicated to promoting the
'public' interest or the welfare of natural entities usually do not act automatically in
accordance with their own or the group interests.
The environment directly affects health status and plays a major role in quality of
life, years of healthy life lived, and health disparities. Poor air quality is linked to
premature death, cancer, and long-term damage to respiratory and cardiovascular
systems. Secondhand smoke containing toxic and cancer-causing chemicals
contributes to heart disease and lung cancer in nonsmoking adults. Globally, nearly
25% of all deaths and the total disease burden can be attributed to environmental
factors.Poor environmental quality has its greatest impact on people whose health
status is already at risk. In 2016, 1 in 12 children and 1 in 12 adults in the United States

had asthma, which is caused, triggered, and exacerbated by environmental factors such
as air pollution and secondhand smoke.
Therefore, people are willing to pay more to improve their welfare and their living
conditions in order to maintain the existing level of environmental quality. It is also
intended for all to have equal access to environmental quality as a public good.
Forms of Environmental Quality:

The major forms of the environmental quality can be classified as follows:
i. Air as an Environmental Quality:
A living organism cannot exist without its atmosphere, the life blanket of the earth. Two
hundred million square miles of the surface of the earth are covered in air. As the most
commonly used natural resource, air cannot be excluded by any individual, which is the
primary reason for its pollution.
ii. Water as an Environmental Quality:

All living organisms and humans depend on water as an environmental quality. Any
form of life depends on it to survive. Human body weight is about 70% composed of it.
Water resources are degrading and being polluted due to rapid population growth and
industrialization.
iii. Forests as an Environmental Quality:

Forests are unique organisms of unlimited kindness and generosity. They serve
mankind as producers and custodians of favorable environmental conditions, making no
demands on humans, but supplying them with the products they require for their lives
and activities. As well as food, fuel, fiber, building materials, industrial products,
packaging materials, textiles, and clothing, they provide a variety of other goods and
services.
iv. Land as an Environmental Quality:

Humans rely on land for all their needs and activities, which is a distinctly limited
resource. In addition to providing a basis for all economic activities, it also serves as a
storage place for all natural resources. The air we breathe would not be possible without

it. All forms of human activity can be carried out on land, which is the surface of the
earth.
Quality of environment for life on earth and man-
It is important for people's physical, mental, and social well-being that their environment
is healthy. Although the environment and human health within and between European
countries have improved significantly, there remain significant differences. A broader
spatial, socioeconomic, and cultural perspective is needed to better understand the
complex relationships between environmental factors and human health. Air pollution,
noise, chemicals, poor quality water and loss of natural areas, along with changes in
lifestyle, may contribute substantially to obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular and nervous
system diseases, and cancers as a result of the degradation of the environment.It is
also becoming increasingly difficult to manage reproductive health and mental health.
Several types of cancer and asthma are particularly prevalent among children due to
environmental factors.
Environmental diseases account for 15 to 20% of total deaths in the pan-European
region, and 18 to 20% of disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), with a higher burden in
the east. Various environmental factors, including particulates, noise, radon, and
environmental tobacco smoke, could be attributed to 6 to 12 percent of the total burden
of disease, according to preliminary findings of a study conducted in Belgium, Finland,
France, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands. In light of the uncertainty in the results, the
results should be interpreted with caution as a guide to assessing environmental health
impacts only.Environmental quality differs significantly across Europe due to factors
such as urbanization, pollution, and natural resource use. A population's exposure to
pollution and associated health risks, as well as the benefits of a natural environment,
are not uniformly distributed. A number of studies have demonstrated that vulnerable
groups are particularly affected by poor environmental conditions.
Deterioration of environmental quality with reference to anthropogenic impact
''Environmental degradation occurs when resources such as air, water, and soil are
exhausted, ecosystems are destroyed, and wildlife is extirpated. A deleterious or

undesirable change in the environment is defined as any change or disturbance to the
environment.‖
Figure 1: Different sources of Environmental Deterioration
Degradation of the environment is primarily caused by human activities. As a result of

automobiles and industries, poisonous gases such as SOx, NOx, CO, and smoke are
released into the atmosphere. The uncontrolled growth of cities and industries has led
to pollution of water, soil, air, and sound. Urbanization, industrialization, and sewage
waste all contribute to water pollution. Air pollution is also caused by pollutants like
chlorofluorocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and carbon monoxide emitted by vehicles and
industries. Deforestation, pollution, overpopulation, and burning fossil fuels are just
some of the ways humans impact the environment. These changes have caused the

climate to change, soil to erode, air to become polluted, and water to become
undrinkable. Human behavior can be affected by these negative impacts, resulting in
mass migrations or battles for clean water.
There is a blanket covering us everywhere, the environment. Environmental factors

include more than just plants and animals. In addition to living creatures on Earth, the
environment also includes nonliving organisms. From the beginning of human existence
on earth, humans have interacted with the environment. The environment is significantly
affected by humans. When it comes to how human activity impacts the environment,
there are many possible answers. It is positive and negative that human activities affect
the environment. In addition to impacting the biophysical environment, biodiversity, and
other resources, humans are also responsible for affecting the mechanism of how the
environment works. The environment has been altered by a number of factors. Is there
ever a question about how human population affects the environment?
1. Loss of Biodiversity - Human activities are the major cause of biodiversity loss in
the environment. An ecosystem's biodiversity refers to the variety of species living there.
A greater biodiversity occurs when there are more species and genetic variation.
Forests are being cut down as a result of the increased number of human settlements.
Plant species have been reduced as a result. There are many animals that become
homeless. Biodiversity has also been lost due to the constant changes in climatic
conditions and the extinction of many ecosystems. Environmental damage caused by
human activities is astonishing.
2. Ozone Depletion - Our planet is protected from the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation
by the ozone layer, which is a thin band of gas surrounding the planet. It is possible that
we would not be able to live on Earth if it were not for it. As a result of human activity
over the past few decades, the ozone layer has shrunk dramatically. A major contributor
to this problem has been the production of chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), and halons. As a result of the release of
these chemicals into the atmosphere, they break down the ozone molecules. These
chemicals are used in refrigeration systems, air conditioning systems, spray cans, and
many other products. In 1987, the Montreal Protocol was signed to reduce the

production of CFCs, HCFCs, and halons in order to protect the ozone layer. The ozone
hole's size has gradually begun to stabilize after some success has been achieved.
Researchers indicate that some countries are not abiding by the Montreal Protocol and
are continuing to use CFCs, which will likely take many years for the ozone layer to
recover. Additionally, other chemicals have been substituted for CFCs and HCFCs,
which continue to harm the ozone layer.
3. Acid Rain - Human activity has a number of negative effects on the environment,
including acid rain. During the production of rain, snow, or fog, pollutants from power
plants or factories react with the atmosphere to produce acid. Acid rain can be caused
by a number of factors, so let's take a closer look.
Fuels such as coal and oil are the most common causes of acid rain. In the process of
burning these materials, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the
atmosphere. Sulfuric and nitric acids are formed when these gases react with water
vapour in the atmosphere. Acids can damage the environment when they fall back to
Earth as precipitation. The majority of acid rain is caused by human pollution, especially
from power plants that burn fuel to produce energy. There are some natural causes of
acid rain, including wildfires, decaying vegetation, and other biological processes within
the environment. If acid rain falls, it can cause disastrous effects on plants, wildlife, and
even humans. A tiny particle created by it can form in the air and can also produce a
layer of highly irritating gas just above the ground (ground-level ozone) that can cause
respiratory problems and even permanent lung damage when inhaled. The effects of
acid rain can also be seen on buildings and monuments, such as the peeling of paint
and the appearance of worn and aged stone. Additionally, it can result in the pH level of
many lakes and streams dropping, which makes the water unfit for drinking and
unsuitable for marine life.
4. Air pollution - Pollution in the air can be defined as the presence of different
chemicals and particles. It is possible to pick up pollutants from a variety of sources,
such as cars, factories, power plants, and even fires in the outdoors. Coal, oil, and
natural gas are the most common fossil fuels that cause air pollution. Chemicals such
as carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and sulphur dioxide are released into the air when

these materials are burned. Particulate matter, lead, and ground-level ozone are other
air pollutants (e.g. dirt and soot). Various respiratory diseases such as asthma,
emphysema, and chronic bronchitis can be caused by these gases and pollutants. Air
pollution has been linked to birth defects, lower reproductive rates, and increases in
diseases among animals. In addition to destroying crops, air pollution contains
chemicals that can damage and kill crops. In the same way, air pollution damages plant
life and biodiversity, which animals depend on for survival. Additionally, it can corrode
building materials such as metals, sandstone, and limestone, as well as infrastructure.
5. Water pollution- Several bodies of water are contaminated by water pollution,

including lakes, rivers, and oceans. In the ocean, it can be caused by nets from fishing
nets, agricultural runoff, wastewater discharges, and seepage from landfills. Human
health and the environment are adversely affected by water pollution. Drinking water
quality can be affected, leading to water scarcity. Water contaminated with harmful
bacteria can spread disease. It has been recently reported that scientists are studying
the effects of microplastics on the human body, including hormone disruption, low levels
of antioxidants, DNA damage, and inflammation. Humans are not the only ones affected
by environmental contamination. If microplastics are mistaken for food in the ocean,
they can choke animals to death, leading to the accumulation of plastics in aquatic
ecosystems. The entanglement of larger pieces of plastic can make it difficult for them
to locate food and to avoid predators. Fish that are exposed to water pollutants have to
work 30 percent harder than fish that are not exposed to these pollutants; these
chemicals may make it more difficult for them to survive. According to Graham Scott, a
biologist at McMaster University, this means they will have less energy available to
support the other activities that fish need to carry out, such as moving around and
interacting with other fish. It is also important to note that predator fish, birds and other
animals are also ingesting high levels of toxins when they consume these contaminated
fish.
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CREDIT 01-UNIT 1-2: METHODS OF ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL
QUALITY:
Learning Objectives
 Methods of assessment of environmental quality
 Short term studies
 Surveys rapid assessment continuous short and long term monitoring
1-2 METHODS OF ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY, SHORT TERM

STUDIES, SURVEYS RAPID ASSESSMENT CONTINUOUS SHORT AND LONG
TERM MONITORING.
1-2: Methods of assessment of environmental quality
Analyzing and monitoring environmental factors such as air, water, soil, noise,
ecosystems, and conducting laboratory tests is defined as environmental monitoring
and assessment. Identifying pollution effects and educating the public about
environmental conditions can be accomplished through environmental monitoring. A
more integrated approach to environmental policy requires assessing the quality of
whole ecosystems rather than focusing on the direct effects of a given stressor.
It provides information to national policymakers, international forums, and the public on

environmental conditions and trends. European and Central Asian countries have had
difficulty maintaining monitoring activities over the past decade. Many cities in the
subregion do not monitor urban air pollution, a significant health risk. Emission charges
and fines are less effective due to weak solid waste and hazardous waste monitoring. It
is also necessary to strengthen transboundary monitoring. There are also
incompatibilities between the classification systems of many European and Central
Asian countries.
1) Short term studies- Using this method, a crisis or disaster can be rapidly assessed
and analyzed in terms of its environmental context. In applying it, it enables the
mitigation of identified priority environmental risks in a strategic and efficient manner.

a) Analyzing information in the following areas was the focus of this method:
b) Disasters/conflicts are generally contextualized.
c) There can be immediate environmental impacts associated with disasters and
conflicts.
d) Impacts of disasters and conflicts on the environment.
e) Disaster/conflict survivors have unmet basic needs that could negatively impact
the environment.
f) It is possible for relief operations to have negative environmental impacts.
2) Surveys rapid assessment-It usually involves answering standardized questions in

a short, structured questionnaire. It is common to administer them to a group of 25
to 50 people at the same time. Using probability sampling techniques, one can
select respondents or use convenience sampling (interviewing stakeholders at
places where they are most likely to be or where they contact the campaign).
Data collected and analyzed within a few days is one of the biggest advantages of
rapid survey assessment.
A generic rapid assessment possesses four characteristics identified by Macintyre

(1999): 1) low cost, 2) quick feedback of results, 3) smaller sample size than would be
found in traditional survey techniques, and 4) increasing reliance on computerized data
collection and analysis. The Rapid Assessment Survey documents regional patterns of
established marine invaders as well as monitors marine species, tracks trends in
distribution, and detects new marine invasions.
In order to understand the impacts of shocks and policy changes, planners and
researchers have used 'Rapid Surveys' as a tool for collecting data quickly and cost-
effectively. In contrast, economic and behavioral models do not reflect the actual
situation, as they are usually based on more formal techniques that use household
surveys. A rapid (nearly) real-time monitoring initiative can provide valuable insight into
how households cope with a crisis event or how policies or adjustments are affecting
them. The goal of rapid surveys is generally to provide fast feedback to decision-makers
by using a short questionnaire and a small sample size. Many of these approaches

don't represent national issues, nor do they analyze crisis- or policy-related issues
directly. While these tools can help households cope with difficult circumstances,
complex crises, and adjustments, they are also effective warning indicators of rising
stress levels.
3) Continuous short and long term monitoring-Long-term and short-term continuous

monitoring are essential parts of site management because the data is used to estimate
trends in contaminant concentrations, evaluate remediation performance, determine if
clean-up objectives were met, and predict future changes. Detecting and understanding
ecosystem changes as well as human impacts on natural systems requires long-term
environmental monitoring and research. Over the past decade, long-term monitoring
has been strengthened by identifying a few critical components. To ensure consistency
and comparability of data, quality assurance/quality control protocols are essential. A
river assessment is challenging since stakeholder concerns need to be addressed and
data collection and assessment have to be integrated with decision-making. In this
scenario short and long tern continuous monitoring may benefitted. Continuous
environmental monitoring has numerous benefits that will become evident over time. As
a result, anyone will be able to capture and manage any rising risk across the facility
very quickly as anyone will see more accurate readings across the facility. Ultimately,
this ongoing monitoring will significantly reduce your risk of contamination, support your
bottom-line growth targets, and enhance the natural aspect of your business.
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CREDIT 01-UNIT 1-3: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT:
Learning objectives
 Need, scope and objectives of EIA.
 Types of environmental impacts.
 Steps involved in conducting the EIA studies.
1-3 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT: NEED OF EIA, SCOPE AND

OBJECTIVES, TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, STEPS INVOLVED IN
CONDUCTING THE EIA STUDIES.
1-3: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Environmental Impact Assessment is the full form of EIA. An EIA may be considered an
approach to improving development by examining priorities. EIA, according to Munn
(1979), aims to identify and predict the effects of legislative proposals, policies,
programmes, projects, and operational procedures on the bio-geographical environment
and human health and well-being as well as interpret and communicate these impacts.
According to Hagerty &Heer, 1997, an Environmental Impact Assessment involves
establishing quantitative values for selected parameters in order to measure the quality
of the environment before, during, and after the proposed activities. According to UNEP
(1987), EIAs aim to ensure environmentally sound and sustainable development by
examining, analyzing and assessing planned activities. As a matter of fact, an EIA
allows for wider perspectives and consequences of any development project or
operation, including legislative actions, administrative programs, chemical, biological,
cultural, and socioeconomic compartments of the human environment as a whole.
A development's environmental impact is evaluated through an EIA, which is simply a
process. Taking into account the interrelationships between socioeconomic, cultural,
and human-health impacts is part of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).The
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) measures the environmental, economic, and
social impacts of a project. To reduce the adverse impacts of a project, this method is
used in the planning stage itself to predict the environmental impacts. The term

environmental impact assessment (EIA) refers to an assessment of the environmental
impact of a planned activity, including the effects on the environment, biodiversity,
vegetation, ecology, water, and air. The purpose of an Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) is to identify, predict, and evaluate the likely environmental,
socioeconomic, cultural, and other impacts of a proposed development or project in
order to determine mitigation actions in order to reduce negative impacts as well as to
contribute positively to the natural environment and human health. Assessing the
environmental impact of a project (such as constructing a dam) identifies potential risks
associated with it and identifies measures to mitigate or eliminate those risks. It is
possible to modify or replace planned activities in order to reduce their impact. The
purpose of an EIA in this context is to gather information about the project's risks,
impacts and mitigation measures, and to outline (and if possible quantify) them across
the entire project lifecycle, from design to closure, in order to ensure decision makers
are fully informed when approving a project. Agriculture, manufacturing, tourism, mining,
and forestry are just a few industries where EIAs are conducted. EIAs can be required
for large or small projects, such as hydroelectric dams or new hotels. It is, however, the
level of impact on human and environmental health that determines the need for an EIA,
rather than the size of the project.
In the 1900s, EIA was regarded as a great policy innovation. Environmental impact
assessments aim at balancing economic and environmental benefits and costs in a way
that conserves the environment. Understanding the evolution and history of
Environmental Impact Assessments can be achieved by reading the following points:
a) It dates back to the 1970s when EIA was born. A National Environmental Policy
Act (NEPA) had been introduced in 1969 in the United States.
b) EIAs were originally practiced by developed nations, but slowly developed
nations, such as India, also adopted them.
c) As early examples of developing nations incorporating EIA into their policies,
Columbia and the Philippines stand out. It was introduced by Columbia in 1974
and by the Philippines in 1978.

d) More than 100 countries practice EIA around the world. EIA had become a major
environmental policy for 110 countries by the mid-1990s.
e) A major project of the World Bank was EIA, which was adopted in 1989.
Traditionally, project appraisal techniques have failed to consider environmental impacts

in their evaluations. EIA has been developed as a result. The traditional approach to
development was designed and constructed without any consideration for the
environment, which led to higher costs, failure of projects, and environmental change
that was detrimental to society.
AIMS OF EIA- While EIA systems vary from country to country, certain principles are
common to all:
 Analyze the total environmental situation in order to provide decision-makers

with the most complete and balanced information possible;
 A cost/benefit analysis and other technical reports cannot address
intangible/unquantifiable effects;
 A proposal is presented to the public for information;
 The process of examining alternatives to a proposed solution, with the goal of
selecting the least environmentally harmful method of achieving the given goal;
 Through mitigation and avoidance measures, new developments can be
improved and the environment can be protected
Purpose of EIA-
1. Making decisions easier: EIA is primarily intended to ensure that projects, policies,
and programs are adequately and appropriately reviewed and mitigation measures for
adverse significant impacts are taken into account when decisions are taken.
2. Ensures development actions are formulated: Many developers do not see EIA as
anything other than another hurdle in the approval process that has to be cleared before
they can proceed. A comprehensive environmental impact assessment can be of great

benefit to them, since it can enable them to consider location and design issues along
with environmental concerns simultaneously.
3. A framework for sustainable development : An instrument for sustainable

development : Sustainable development must be achieved without harming the
environment. EIA is one of the means to accomplish this mission: Development that
does not cost the Earth!
In the planning and design stages of a project, EIA aims to anticipate potential
environmental problems that might arise from a proposed development. It is then
important that this information be communicated to the following parties as part of the
EIA process:
(a) Proponents of a project;
(b) the regulatory agencies and
(c) all interested parties and stakeholders.
When developing the feasibility report, EIA incorporates environmental concerns right
from the start. This allows the inclusion of environmental concerns and mitigation
measures in the development of a project. It is often possible to prevent future liabilities
and expensive alterations in project design by conducting an EIA.
1) Need of EIA- Sustainability of the environment is closely connected to human well-

being. Human development thus affects the natural environment in both positive and
negative ways, including the development of infrastructure (e.g., roads, pipelines,
mines, and tourism facilities, etc.). There is no doubt in my mind that large-scale
development has irreversible consequences for the environment and livelihoods of
people due to large-scale deforestation, excessive water use, habitat destruction, and
resettlement. Examples include open-pit mines, hotels with thousands of rooms, and
hydroelectric dams. Programs, projects and planned development that may alter the
quality of the environment and impact well-being have a complex relationship to the

natural and human environments, so predicting their environmental and social impacts
is very important. It has become increasingly important to improve the sustainability of
development and identify mitigation measures-and therefore to create high-quality EIAs-
as human populations continue to grow and natural resources become increasingly
limited.
The environment is affected by every anthropogenic activity. Environment-harming

activities are more common than benign ones. In today's developed world, mankind
cannot survive without taking part in these activities for food, security, and other needs.
Thus, development activities must be harmonized with environmental concerns.
Planners can achieve the above-mentioned goal with the help of environmental impact
assessments (EIAs).Sustainability should be ensured when considering development
options. The project design must take into account environmental consequences early
in the project cycle. Following are they vitality of EIA for maintaining sustainability along
with development.
a) Potentially screens out projects that are unsustainable for the environment
b) Reduces environmental impact by proposing modified designs
c) Analyzes alternative approaches and identifies those that are feasible
d) Analyzes adverse impacts and predicts them
e) Reduces, offsets, or eliminates major impacts by identifying mitigation measures
f) Incorporates communities and individuals that may be affected into the
engagement process and informs them
g) Develops terms and conditions and influences decision-making
2) Scope and objectives of EIA-
a) Scope of EIA- However, theoretically speaking, any action, project, operation,

administrative policy, plans and programmes, legislation, and even administrative
policies can be included in EIA, even if the scope is limited to major developmental
projects with wider impacts on the human environment. There should be an EIA
exercise conducted on any project that may result in significant environmental
changes.In accordance with ―The Environmental Impact Assessment Notification‖,
1994, issued by the Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India, any new

project listed in Schedule 1 of the notification or any expansion of modernization of an
existing activity (if the pollution load exceeds the existing one) shall not be undertaken
without obtaining environmental clearance from the Central Government in accordance
with the procedures outlined hereinafter.According to Schedule - I of the
aforementioned notification, the following projects are being undertaken in India:
(i) Nuclear power projects, including heavy water plants, nuclear fuel complexes,
and rare earths.
(ii) Hydroelectric and irrigation projects in river valleys, as well as their
combination, including flood control.
(iii) Harbors, ports, and airports (excluding minor ports and harbours).
(iv) Refineries for petroleum, as well as crude and product pipelines.
(v) Fertilizers containing chemical ingredients (nitrogenous and phosphoric, other
than single superphosphate).
(vi) Pesticides (Technical).
(vii) Production of basic plastics, including LDPE, HDPE, PP, PVC, and basic
Olefinic and Aromatic Chemical Complexes, including DMT, Caprolactam, and
LAB.
(viii) Bulk pharmaceuticals and drugs.
(ix) Exploration, production, transportation, and storage of oil and gas.
(x) Rubber substitutes, such as synthetic rubber.
(xi) The use of asbestos and asbestos products.
(xii) Hydroxycyanic acid and its derivatives.
(xiii) (a) Manufacturing of primary metals (such as iron and steel, aluminium,
copper, zinc, lead, and ferro-alloys).
(b) Micro steel plants (electric arc furnaces).
(xiv) alkali-chlorine industry.
(xv) Manufacturing of resins and basic raw materials used in the manufacture of
paints.
(xvi) Fibers made from viscose staples and filament yarn.
(xvii) The manufacture of storage batteries integrated with the manufacture of
lead oxides and lead antimony alloy.

(xviii) All tourism projects with an elevation of more than 1,000 meters or a high
tide line between 200 and 500 meters with an investment of more than 5 crores.
(xix) Power plants using thermal energy.
(xx) Major mining projects (mining leases exceeding 5 hectares).
(xxi) Projects related to highways.
(xxii) Tarred Roads in Himalayas and/or Forest areas.
(xxiii) Breweries and distilleries.
(xxiv) Unprocessed skins and hides.
xxv) The pulp industry, paper industry, and newsprint.
(xxvi) Colours.
(xxvii) Concrete.
(xxviii) Manufactures (individual).
(xxix) Metal plating.
b) Objectives of EIA-
A long-term EIA objective and a short-term EIA objective can be distinguished.
Sustainability and conservation of natural resources are the long-term objectives, along
with the protection and improvement of all species, as well as consideration of the
environment in development planning. Following are the short-term objectives:
i. The purpose of this assessment is to determine the nature, intensity, and

duration of the impacts of proposed development projects
ii. Promoting public and community participation in the environmental impact
assessment process
iii. Designing projects with a social and cultural perspective in mind
iv. Providing a methodology for preventing and mitigating the impacts of a project
3) Types of environmental impacts assessment- It will be explained in detail what

the major types of environmental impact assessments are. There are 5 major types of
environmental assessment.
1) State of the Environment- Reporting on the state of the environment (SOE) falls
primarily under the purview of government departments or ministries with a mandate to

perform such assessments and report to parliament or government or for public
consumption. Traditionally, SOE reports provide information about the environment and
its key variables.
2) Integrated environmental assessment and reporting- It has been more than three
decades since the State of the Environment (SOE) report evolved into Integrated
Environmental Assessment and reporting (IEA). A response to the emergence of
sustainable development, which is based on three pillars: social, economic, and
environmental, practitioners developed IEAs, which integrate social, economic, and
environmental aspects. In an integrated assessment and reporting system, the goal is to
illustrate the cause-and-effect relationships between the actions of humans and natural
forces on the environment, as well as to show the effects of the changes in the
environment on human development and the state of the environment. There should be
more to environmental assessment than simply knowing the status of the
environment. Moreover, it should provide insight into how to better manage the
environment to policymakers and other stakeholders.
3) Environmental Impact Assessment- It is well known that EIA is one of many types
of environmental assessment processes. Investors and developers have often regarded
EIA as an environmentalist tool with suspicion. Major developments must be evaluated
for their social, economic, and environmental impacts in order to determine migration
measures. In the context of environmental policy, bilateral environmental agreements
(MEAs) as well as environmental impact assessments are considered. In accordance
with the Southern African Institute for Environmental Assessment (SAIEA),
environmental assessment is the process of determining, evaluating, and assessing the
effects of a proposed development on the environment.
4) Corporate environmental assessment and reporting - As part of their

environmental performance in production, the private sector produces annual
environmental reports. More than 25 percent of Fortune 500 companies now publish
reports about their environmental, social, or sustainability initiatives (Oracle 2005).
Business operations have increasingly incorporated corporate responsibility due to a

number of factors, including the erosion of trust in large corporations, globalization of
business, corporate governance movements, the rise of socially responsible funds, as
well as competitive pressures. Developed globally applicable guidelines for
Sustainability Reporting, the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) facilitates the public
accounting of the private sector's operations, products, and services in terms of
economic, environmental, and social performance.
In order to achieve the same level of rigor, comparability, credibility, and verifiability as
financial reporting, GRI, which is a UNEP collaborating center (CC), serves as an
information hub for stakeholders from civil society, government, labor, and the private
sector. As of 2002, GRI reports had been produced by about 3,000 organizations
worldwide. Among the indicators included in the GRI guidelines are those relating to
economics, the environment, and society.
5) Strategic environmental assessment- Woodsworth (2006) argues that the SEA

provides a broader view of environmental issues that contributes to decisions regarding
both environmental protection and sustainable development. A strategic action policy
program and plan should be considered in light of its effects. Identifying the best
practicable environmental option is also part of a strategic environmental assessment.
Another way to contribute to integrated policy-making and planning is to provide early
warning of cumulative effects and large-scale changes. Strategic Environmental
Assessment features include:
a) Ensures that sustainability principles are incorporated into policy decisions.

b) Enhancing decision-making in a way that also ensures environmental
sustainability and integration.
c) Ensure that policy, planning, and programming are integrated to ensure
environmental sustainability.
d) Assessing cumulative effects in a better context.
e) Contextualizing EIA screening for lower-level environmental assessments. EIA
can be strengthened by anticipating impacts that can also occur at the project
level.
4)Steps involved in conducting the EIA studies- Initial environmental examinations
(IEEs) are the first phase of an environmental assessment, followed by Environmental
Impact Studies (EISs) or detailed environmental assessments.
a) Initial Environmental Examination (lEE)- Initiating Environmental Assessments are

conducted to identify adverse environmental effects that might occur and potentially
mitigate them. During the early stages of project planning (pre-feasibility) the IEE
provides a brief summary of key environmental issues based on readily available
information. In addition, the IEE makes recommendations regarding the need for
additional research. An EIA is not required when an IEE can provide a definite solution
to an environmental problem. A clear definition of potential environmental problems can
also be achieved through the use of expert advice and technical input from
environmental specialists.
b) Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) – EIAs are used to evaluate the

environmental impacts of proposed development projects, both beneficial and
detrimental, and to ensure that these impacts are taken into account in project design.
Predictions are used in the EIA. In addition to natural and social impacts, there are also
economic and human impacts. Therefore, the feasibility study should be conducted at
an early stage of the project and with a multidisciplinary approach. Therefore, the
environmental feasibility of a project should be evaluated. An Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) should, therefore, be considered as an integral part of the process of
planning a project. Unlike the environmental audit (EA), which is performed on existing
projects, the environmental impact assessment (EIA) is conducted on new projects as
well as the expansion and modification of existing projects.

Figure No.2: Steps involved in Environmental Impact Assessment
1) Screening- The EIA begins with the screening of the project as the first step of the
process. The EIA screenings are the first step of deciding whether or not an EIA is
needed before moving forward. A proposal is screened in order to determine if it should
be subjected to an EIA, and, if so, at what level of detail an EIA should be conducted.
EIAs are either required or not depending on the laws or norms in place in a particular
country, depending on the regulations and legislation in place. Screening criteria and
the requirements for a full environmental impact assessment are often specified in
legislation. In addition to screening projects for financing, development banks use their
own set of criteria to determine whether an Environmental Impact Assessment is
required. Oftentimes, the screening process concludes with a document called an Initial

Environmental Examination or Evaluation (IEE). It is anticipated that the project will be
classified according to the likelihood of its environmental sensitivity as the primary
conclusion. As a result, it will be determined whether an EIA is necessary, and if so,
what level of detail should be included. There must be emphasis placed on the iterative
nature of the EIA process. The developer can re-evaluate the project design based on
the need for an EIA and its associated cost implications at this early stage of screening
in order to reduce the significant impacts so that an EIA is not legally required.
If the area of irrigated land that would be adversely affected exceeds a predetermined
surface area, or if the flow will be diverted in excess of a certain percentage, or if the
costs of the project exceed a certain amount, this may be a good indication. There is
also the option of relying on site-specific information to make a decision. In the case of a
newly destroyed diversion structure, it would less likely be necessary to prepare an EIA
for the repair of this structure as opposed to the construction of a new headwork
structure. It is important to note that the guidelines determining whether or not an EIA is
required will differ from country to country depending on the laws and norms in place. In
many cases, the legislation stipulates the criteria for screening and a full environmental
impact assessment. A comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is
required by all major donors before any project can be considered for financing.
2) Scoping - In an EIA, environmental impacts are not exhaustively studied for every
project. At the early stages of planning, scoping is used to identify key concerns (Ahmed
& Sammy, 1987). During the early stages of a project cycle, scoping occurs along with
outline planning and pre-feasibility studies. It is perhaps the most important step in an
EIA to identify the key environmental issues. A scoping process is designed to canvass
the views of various groups, including decision makers, local residents, and scientific
experts, on the issues that should be considered. The importance of scoping can be
attributed to two factors. This allows early detection of potential problems and the
possibility of making mitigation changes to the design prior to the completion of costly
detailed work. To ensure that only important issues are considered in the detailed
prediction work. In order to conduct an EIA, it is not necessary to analyze all
environmental impacts for all projects exhaustively. A scoping should include terms of

reference for these further studies if key issues are identified and it is determined that a
full scale EIA is necessary.
In the event that major environmental problems are identified, the project may be
canceled or drastically revised. Alternatively, if the impacts are deemed to be
insignificant, the EIA process may come to an end. It is no longer possible to make
major changes to the project after this stage has passed. It is imperative that the scope
of the study is defined and agreed upon by the relevant parties before the scoping
exercise can proceed. There will be a wide range of options depending on the
organizational structure. Those responsible for deciding whether a policy or project is
implemented, those responsible for conducting the EIA (or ensuring it is carried out by
others), and those responsible for conducting parallel engineering and economic studies
related to the proposal are all expected to contribute to determining the remit. The
scope of the study is an important consideration. In the case of a proposed project
increasing the area of irrigated agriculture in a region by 10%, is it the responsibility of
the EIA to study only the proposal, or should it also consider options that could also
have the same effect on production.
Scoping involves identifying key interest groups, both governmental and non-
governmental, as well as establishing good communication lines. There is a need to
inform those who will be affected by the project as soon as possible. An EIA's focus
may be influenced significantly by their knowledge and perspectives. It provides a
means of assessing the needs and preferences of the affected population through the
use of rapid rural appraisal techniques.
A baseline study, checklist, matrix, and network diagram are among the most commonly
used EIA techniques in scoping. In order to make a logical decision about which
impacts are most significant, these techniques gather and present knowledge and
information in a straightforward manner. In the section Managing uncertainty, risk and
uncertainty are discussed in more detail.

During scoping, the scope, depth, and terms of reference of the Environmental
Statement will be determined. A scoping study is conducted in order to:
a) Determine the concerns and issues that should be considered in an EIA
b) Make sure the EIA team is properly briefed on the alternatives and impacts to
consider at various levels of analysis
c) Identify the assessment methods to be used Identify all stakeholders affected by
the assessment
d) Involve the public in the determination of the factors to be assessed, and
facilitate early agreement on contentious issues
e) Save both time and money
f) Determine the scope of the EIA study (TOR)
Throughout the course of the project, scoping should be carried out continuously.
Scoping can be accomplished using the following environmental tools.
(i) Checklist- It is common for checklists to include a list of impacts associated with
particular types of projects. In general, checklists are used to organize information or to
ensure that no potential impacts are overlooked. The list consists of questions about the
project's features and the impact it has on the environment. A generic nature makes
them useful as assessment tools.
(ii) Matrices - An analysis of matrix methods identifies interactions between the actions
of various projects and the parameters and components of the environment. A list of
project activities is included with a checklist of the potential effects of these activities on
the environment. These two lists are combined to produce a matrix of potential
interactions (one list is placed on the vertical axis and the other on the horizontal axis).
The project should ideally be covered both during construction and during operation, as
the former may have a greater impact than the latter. The disadvantages of matrices
are, however, their lack of explicit representation of spatial and temporal considerations,
as well as their inability to adequately address synergies.
(iii) Networks – These are cause-and-effect flow diagrams which facilitate the
identification of the web of interactions between the different actions associated with the
action and the environment they interact with. Furthermore, they contribute to the

identification of direct and cumulative effects. Due to their complexity, they require
expertise in order to be used effectively.
(iv) Consultations – Ensure that all potential impacts are detected by decision-makers,
affected communities, and environmental interest groups. The ToR can, however, be
dangerous if excessive consultation is conducted and unjustified impacts are included.
3) Baseline data collection - An assessment of the biophysical, social, and economic

features of the proposed project area is considered a baseline. A secondary source of
information, or the acquisition of new information, is generally obtained through surveys,
interviews, and field samplings. A majority of baseline data collection occurs during
scoping and EIA, which starts at the time of project inception. Two main purposes are to
collect baseline data: (1) to provide a description of the current status and trends of
environmental factors (e.g., air pollution concentrations) in the host area, (2) to provide
a way to detect actual change once a project has been started by monitoring. During the
scoping and ToR development, only the baseline data that is required to assist in
predicting the impacts outlined in the ToR and scoping report should be collected.
4) Impact assessment and mitigation- As part of the environmental assessment

process, it is essential to predict the magnitude of a development's likely impacts and to
evaluate their significance. In order to make a prediction, the project area's
environmental baseline should be used. The predictions are described in quantitative or
qualitative terms.
There are many steps that make up an EIA, but this is one of the most important. There
is a term called impact assessment which refers to the detailed investigation of
how the planned project will affect the environment and the society and the
alternatives that will be made available to the project, compared to the baseline
conditions. These include qualitative descriptions such as determining the level of
impact on the environment, as well as quantitative descriptions, such as specifying the
amount of cubic metres of water withdrawn, sewage produced, and pollutants released.
There is a comparison to be made between the planned project and the identified
alternatives, allowing for comparisons between the two. Following the detailed

assessment, mitigation measures are identified as a way of reducing or avoiding the
negative effects of the project.
In general, mitigation measures should cover all the areas identified by impact
assessments. They should minimize or avoid the impacts described. Actions
aimed at mitigating climate change should focus on:
a) The prevention of impacts and, consequently, the prevention of harm or even

the production of positive results as a result of them.
b) Impacts that are limited in severity and duration through mitigation measures.
c) Arrangements for compensating unavoidable impacts that cannot be reduced
further.
Land is often the subject of key impacts and mitigation measures. Disturbance of the
land surface is a necessary part of almost every development proposal. In addition to
major linear projects (roads, pipelines), dams and reservoirs, and large-scale farming,
agriculture, and forestry projects, as well as large-scale housing schemes, this is usually
comprehensive. It is especially important to consider the environmental impact of
draining wetlands, converting natural areas, or expanding in areas susceptible to natural
hazards.
Following the completion of the scoping exercise and identification of the major impacts
to be studied, prediction work can be initiated. A critical component of an EIA is this
stage. At the scoping stage or earlier, a number of major options are likely to have been
proposed, and each option may require its own prediction study. Without a realistic and
affordable assessment of the magnitude of the impacts, mitigation measures cannot be
proposed. Such assessments should be conducted in monetary terms where possible.
After the suggested improvements have been made, further prediction work must be
conducted in order to quantify their impact. There is no doubt that options should be
discarded as soon as their unsuitability is demonstrated or alternatives are found to be
superior in terms of environmental or economic factors. Testing the scenario without the
project is also important.

During this stage, mitigation measures will be recommended. An Environmental Impact
Statement would contain this information. There will be a focus on minimizing any
adverse impacts and enhancing positive impacts. A formal and informal communication
link needs to be established with feasibility study teams so that proposals can be taken
into account. In similar fashion, feasibility studies may indicate that some options are
economically or technically unfeasible, and thus environmental prediction work for these
options is not necessary.
It is important to note that many mitigating measures do not require physical changes,
but rather require management and institutional changes or additional investment, such
as that in health services. In addition to substantive changes, mitigation measures can
also take the form of procedural changes, such as the introduction of, or increase in,
irrigation service fees in an effort to promote water conservation and efficiency.
The preparation for the project will have advanced by the time prediction and mitigation
are undertaken, and a decision will most likely have been taken as to whether to
proceed with the project. In order to implement the project, substantial expenditures
may already have been made and budgets allocated. In the event that major changes
are made to a project, the process could be disrupted and only accept them if the
prediction shows that the impacts will be significantly worse than originally anticipated at
the scoping stage. A measure to protect downstream fisheries could, for instance,
involve altering the mode of operation of a reservoir, but a measure proposing a
potential alternative to dam construction would be highly controversial at this point. In
order to avoid conflict, it is important to begin the EIA process early in the development
process of the project.
In this phase of an EIA, it will be vitally important to manage the expertise of a broad
range of technical specialists, with special attention paid to:
a) Methods for predicting events;

b) Incorporating mitigating measures into predictions;
c) Comparisons should be assessed.

It is important to determine the level of accuracy that is required for predictions. It is
important to choose models that are appropriate to the available data when using
mathematical modelling. Physical systems are more likely to be successfully modelled
than ecological systems, which, in turn, are more likely to be successfully modelled than
social systems due to the level of knowledge available and the complexity of the
systems. Studies of social issues (including studies of institutional capacity) are likely to
produce outcomes that are not numerical in nature. It is possible to quantify impacts that
cannot be quantified by models with the help of experts, particularly those familiar with
the locality. It is possible to remove the bias of individual opinions through the use of a
variety of techniques.
An EIA is designed to identify and analyze (assess), and then prevent or minimize
(mitigate) the adverse effects of a proposed project on the environment and people. As
the impacts of a project can change over time, they must be assessed and measured
throughout the project's life cycle - starting with its construction and continuing through
its operations and after its closure.
The impact assessment is essential in order to provide systematic and detailed

information regarding potential impacts on the project alternatives that have been
identified. In the EIA process, mitigation measures play a vital role in preventing
adverse impacts of the project on the environment and to the human population,
ensuring that unavoidable impacts remain within acceptable limits.
In a good environmental impact assessment, impact assessment and mitigation play a

key role in:
a) The document also identifies cumulative effects, social impacts, and health risks.
b) Mitigation actions are identified based on the results of the impact assessment.
In the area where the project will be implemented, the impacts and associated
mitigation measures are evaluated and identified. Impacts are commonly described in
terms of their magnitude, frequency, duration, spatial distribution, reversibility, effects
that are positive or negative, likelihood of occurrence, direct and indirect effects, and

cumulative impacts. A list of categories/subcategories for EIAs is often provided by
international agencies and banks, such as the environment/air, water, and land.
Additionally, they provide information on the types of impacts that must be assessed,
such as direct impacts, indirect impacts and cumulative impacts.
Table 1:A classification of impact assessment categories and subcategories
Categories Subcategories
Environment In addition to land- Groundwater Air: Biodiversity:
use changes, soil (location,
The factors to be Trees and canopy,
changes include description of
considered are migratory birds,
soil removal and aquifers, recharge
emissions, noise, indicator species,
pollution, wetlands, areas, level of
odour, dust, and various groups
floodplains, use, etc.) Sewage
climate (rainfall, of species are all
mangroves, other discharge (treated,
temperatures, likely to be
subsoils untreated)
radiation, fogs, adversely affected.
(composition, Groundwater
winds, etc.); Air Land and aquatic
depth, etc. ); (location,
quality fauna (identification
surface changes description of
(description of and discussion of
(types, distribution, aquifers, recharge
existing air wildlife species and
characteristics, areas, level of
quality levels); their
uses, etc. ); and use, etc.); Surface
sources of characteristics;);
topographical water (locations
pollution; fragile Vegetation and
changes (altitude, and descriptions
receptors in the terrestrial and
gradients, relief of areas that could
area; and aquatic flora
variations, be affected by the
supervision (identification and
orientation, etc.). project;
programs. discussion of types
identification of
and characteristics
surface water
of local species);
uses; description
Fragile areas
of drainage
(identification and

channels and characteristics).
drainage areas;
discussion of
potential flooding,
sedimentation,
erosion, and
eutrophication of
water sources).
Social Social A description of Community A description of the
issues characteristics the current land impacts: effects community's
(ethnic minorities, use and zoning; A on the poor and physical
habits, special description of low income characteristics; the
interest land-use plans residents; identification of
population); (utilizing or master impacts on the scenic areas; the
Population plans, including heritage and identification of
characteristics the project area culture of the significant
(parameters, and its community; architectural
growth projections, surroundings; an social impacts structures; etc. ;
etc.). analysis of future (access to jobs, Historic and
trends, food, energy), archaeological
development aesthetics. resources (listed
pressures, etc.); historic structures or
Resettlings (if areas, according to
necessary). national or
community
designation;
archaeological sites
that may be of
significance).
Other Preparedness for Increased

disasters vulnerability to
climate change
and adaptation
Impact assessment and mitigation is done by a multidisciplinary team of experts who

have the skills and qualifications to assess diverse environmental and social impacts.
The team begins by systematically assessing the impacts of the planned project and its
alternatives, using one or more assessment methods, such as those described in the
downloadable resource Impact Assessment Methods. Ideally, it would also carry out
a Social Impact Assessment (SIA). The outcomes of these assessments are then
summarized in the form of a matrix.These are the key steps for conducting impact
assessment and related mitigation:
[1] Perform a detailed assessment of impacts of all project phases on the

environment, socioeconomic systems and other areas as requested by the
designated agency‘s guidelines and legislation, taking into consideration regional
and international best practices.
[2] Based on the completed analyses, conduct an assessment of cumulative

impacts.
[3] Compile similar impacts into groups in order to make the impact analyses easier
to understand.
[4] Identify mitigation actions to eliminate and/or reduce the identified impacts.
[5] Identify specific mitigation measures to reduce cumulative impacts.
5) Consideration of Impact prediction- Impact analysis and prediction-Identifying the

magnitude and significance of a development's likely impacts are core components of
environmental assessment. Environmental baselines of the project area should be used
to make predictions. Quantitative and qualitative descriptions are provided for such
predictions.

(a) Magnitude of Impact: Each potential impact is indicated by its severity and its
irreversibility or reversibility as well as the potential rate of recovery. If a major adverse
impact can be mitigated, the magnitude of the impact cannot be considered high.
(b) Extent of Impact: It is always important to determine the spatial extent or zone of
influence of an impact. Impacts can be site-specific or localized to the project area; they
can occur locally within the proposed project area; they can also occur regionally,
beyond the local area, and they can also affect resources on a national scale,
sometimes even trans-boundary, which can be internationally.
(c) Duration of Impact: In an EIA, environmental impacts must be considered from a

temporal perspective. It may be necessary to take into account impacts that arise at
different stages of the project cycle. Short-term impacts are those which last for a period
of three to nine years following the completion of a project. Medium-term impacts may
be defined as those that continue for between 10 and 20 years, and long-term impacts
are those that continue beyond 20 years.
(d) Significance of the Impact:The amount or value of the impact is what is being
discussed. Once an impact has been predicted, its significance must be evaluated using
an appropriate choice of criteria. The most important forms of criterion are:\
(i) Laws, standards, international agreements, policies, etc. related to specific
legal requirements.
(ii) Opinions and complaints of the public
(iii) The threat of extinction of species and depletion of resources is one of the
main causes of conflicts, especially in sensitive ecosystems and resources.
(iv) Having trans-boundary implications, for instance, is the geographical extent
of the impact.
(v) Mitigation costs
(vi) They will last for a certain period of time (duration)
(vii) Probability or likelihood of occurrence (very likely, unlikely, etc.)
(viii) In the case of natural recovery or intervention by humans, reversibility of the
impact can be achieved

(xi) Amount (and characteristics) of people at risk (and where they are located)
(x) Increased impacts due to cumulative effects, e.g. adding to existing impacts.
(xi) The inaccuracy of data or complexity of the system causes uncertainty in
prediction. Precautionary principle is advocated in this scenario.
6) Impact management - The aim of impact management is to establish a set of plans

and protocols to monitor and manage the mitigation measures and risks identified over
the project's lifetime, including natural disasters and technology malfunctions. In most
countries, the Environmental Impact Assessment report must include an environmental
management plan (EMP). Various plans are based on national legislation or context-
specific guidelines. There may be a need for a resettlement plan if the project is located
near a community; if there are no nearby communities, there is no need. During the
project planning phase, impact management is implemented, and it continues after the
project has been finished. During the previous step of analyzing the impacts and
developing mitigation measures, changes in the design, implementation and closure of
the project will likely be identified. A risk management plan and a monitoring plan will
also be needed. In addition to taking into account the natural and social context where
the activity will take place, these plans are necessary depending on the type of project,
impacts, and risks involved in the project.
The first step in this process is to develop an Environmental Management Plan (EMP),
which outlines the activities for continuous monitoring during project construction and
operation. Additionally, it outlines specific actions the project proponent will take to
mitigate the effects of the project. EMPs typically consist of the following elements:
a) The mitigation measures are linked to the impact analyses; a summary is

provided of the mitigation measures and how they will be implemented.
b) Environment impact monitoring and mitigation measures are plans for assessing
the impact of mitigation measures on the environment.
c) Assessing the needs for capacity-building in order to involve stakeholders in the
management and monitoring of environmental and social impacts.

d) Cost estimates and implementation schedule for the outlined mitigation activities,
capacity building, and monitoring; this includes costs for implementing,
monitoring, and following up on the capacity development.
e) An EMP must be integrated with the project and mitigating actions, as well as
other related activities.
In an EMP, a contingency plan is also typically included: An EIA must identify and
determine risks or threats posed to the health of the population and the ecosystem
structure based on the proposed project activities, including external contingencies
(natural events and disasters). In the event of an accident, a contingency plan should
specify the emergency response actions that would be taken if suitable materials or
dangerous substances were used during the project's lifecycle. In an emergency or
contingency plan, lines of action are clearly defined, responsibilities are assigned,
functions are defined, and fast and effective responses are established in response to
an emergency or disaster.
A resettlement or rehabilitation plan is another type of plan. Using these plans, a project
will minimize or reduce the number of people affected and displaced. Developing these
plans requires close collaboration with local authorities, such as municipal leaders and
key agencies that know the local situation, and the establishment of processes for
reaching out to the community and establishing good connections with local leaders is
crucial.
In addition to the EMP, the project proponent usually prepares related plans as part of
the EIA. A typical EMP includes the following steps, as outlined in Honduras and other
Central American countries:
a) An overview of the potential impacts associated with the proposal.
b) Establish environmental commitments thresholds and design mitigation and
monitoring measures based on national and subnational legislation.
c) What mitigation measures are recommended.
d) Certification of compliance with the relevant standards.
e) Responsibility and resource allocation for plan implementation.

f) Timeline of actions that will be taken.
g) A monitoring and auditing program.
h) Contingency plan to address additional risks and emergencies.
Following should be included in the contingency plan:

a) Preventative measures to be taken to reduce the likelihood of accidents when
unloading, storing, and supplying fuel.
b) What needs to be done when emergencies occur.
c) Providing provisions to prevent loss of life, environmental damage, and harm
to people.
d) Operational controls over cash to be implemented in an emergency.
e) Provision of equipment and arrangements to be used during an emergency.
The project proponent should then define the objectives and specific actions that will be
monitored for the progress of the execution of the project's activities, work, or activities.
It is essential to define clearly what variables, factors, or analysis methods are to be
used to determine what environmental variables need to be monitored (frequency,
methods, and type of analysis). A cost component should also be included in the plans
to indicate the total cost of implementing, maintaining, and monitoring the environmental
measures proposed. An environmental benefit analysis should be included, which
summarizes a project's social desirability. In order to decide whether a project is
environmentally viable, an economic feasibility analysis is required. In addition to
determining the direct costs and private benefits of the project, and its feasibility, this
study also includes a financial analysis.
6) EIA Report - EIA Reports include several important project components, including
project descriptions, assessments of their environmental and social impacts, mitigation
measures, and management and monitoring plans. A comprehensive report is produced
during this step, analyzing and synthesizing all the information gathered during the
previous steps.
The following characteristics are characteristic of a quality EIA Report:

a) In addition to its well-structured and nontechnical language, it is well-supported
by data and well-executed analyses.
b) Decisions can be made based on the information it provides.
c) Conventional and customized techniques are used to predict and mitigate the
adverse effects of proposed actions.
Putting together a comprehensive environmental impact assessment is challenging.

Inadequate identification of critical impacts, inadequate description of alternatives and
mitigation measures, and outdated assessment models are some of these problems.
There are several types of shortcomings that can be found in EIA reports, as shown in
the table below.
Table 2: Elements of EIA report
Example EIA Report Shortcoming
Construction of a pipeline and other facilities to transport Key features of the

and handle raw materials and finished products is not proposal are not
included in an EIA report regarding the proposed described in the proposal
construction of an industrial plant. description.
There is a proposed coal-fired power plant that will utilize
surface water as a cooling medium as described in an It is not possible to
environmental impact assessment report. The report does describe the key problems
not disclose that the surface water body is already used for that are affected by the
this purpose by other industrial activities to the point of proposal.
exhausting its cooling capacity.
There is no indication in an EIA report for a pipeline project
Environmentally sensitive
that the proposed alignment will bisect certain ecologically
elements are ignored.
valuable areas.
Various soil types can be found in the area, including sand, Standards and regulations
clay, and peat, according to an EIA report for a sanitary governing the
landfill. Underlining and drainage systems may fail due to environment do not apply
differences in soil compaction and subsidence among to alternatives.

Example EIA Report Shortcoming
these soil types.
EIA reports do not describe systems for collecting methane There is no consideration
gas produced in sanitary landfills, although greenhouse gas of appropriate mitigation
emissions contribute to climate change. measures.
It fails to describe or
There is no mention of underlying sealing or drainage
incorrectly describes
systems failure in the EIA report for a sanitary landfill
serious environmental
located in a variable soil area.
impacts or risks.
While local data is available and may allow a more precise The prediction models
prediction, the EIA report uses a mobility prediction model used are insufficient or
based on national averages. outdated.
EIA reports serve as a means of communicating the assessment's outcomes and

proposed mitigation actions to decision makers, and thus provide information for
planning. Completeness, clarity, objectivity, factual elements, and internal consistency
are all necessary qualities in an EIA report. When there are many contributors, multiple
impacts, mitigation measures, and many specific plans involved, these objectives are
difficult to achieve. In order to ensure that the outcomes of each EIA step are presented
as specified in the Terms of Reference, it is very important to allocate enough time to
write the EIA report. Designated authorities will review the EIA report and decide
whether or not the project should be licensed based on how it will address major
environmental and social impacts.
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CREDIT 01-UNIT 1-4: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES:
Learning objectives
 Methods of EIA Study.
 Merits and Demerits of EIA studies.
1-4 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES - AD - HOC METHOD,

CHECKLIST METHOD, OVERLAY MAPPING METHOD, NETWORK METHOD,
SIMULATION AND MODELING TECHNIQUE, MATRIX METHOD, DIAGRAM
TECHNIQUE, MATRIX METHOD, AND SYSTEM DIAGRAM TECHNIQUE, MERITS
AND DEMERITS OF EIA STUDIES.
1-4 Environmental Impact Assessment Techniques –
1) Ad - hoc method-Environmental parameters (such as plants and animals) likely to

be affected by an activity are compiled in an ad hoc method in order to indicate broad
areas of possible potential impacts. Teams of specialists work together to identify
impacts in their field of expertise using these methods. The parameters are taken into
account separately, as are the impacts (long term or short term, reversible or
irreversible).
In addition to giving a rough estimation of the total impact, these methods also provide a
general description of the nature of the possible impacts and their broad areas. An
intuitive assessment is made with this method, and the assessor relies on a broader
qualitative approach. A preliminary assessment such as this one can serve as a guide
to identify important areas, such as-
(1) Air quality

(2) Economic values and
(3) Endangered species
(4) Exotic vegetation
(5) Grazing
(6) Groundwater
(7) Health and safety
(8) Natural drainage

(9) Natural vegetation
(10) Noise
(11) Open space
(12) Public facilities
(13) Recreation
(14) Social characteristics
(15) Visual description and services
(16) Wildlife
The following are examples of ad hoc methods:
a) Public opinion poll
b) Opinions from experts and
c) Delphi methods
There is no need for any training to perform this method. The relationship between
cause and effect is not based on relative weighting. Despite suggesting broad areas for
potential impact, it provides minimal guidance for impact analysis. In addition, there is
no indication of which parameters will be affected or even what will be affected. These
are the disadvantages of this method:
All relevant impacts have not been evaluated in a comprehensive manner.
(1) Different criteria are evaluated selectively by different groups in this method,
resulting in inconsistent analysis.
(2) For each assessment, a panel needs to be gathered and identified, which is a
clearly inefficient process.
2) Checklist method-This method uses weighted weightings for factors and scaled
impacts for alternative impacts to present environmental factors in a structured manner.
Impact identification is strongly influenced by checklists. Audiences pay attention and
pay attention to them. EIAs are fundamentally concerned with identifying impacts.
Among the possible checklists are:
(1) Simple - The simple checklist consists of a list of parameters without guidelines
on interpretation, measurement, or impact predictions and assessments.

(2) Descriptive- In descriptive checklists, environmental factors are listed, along with
information about measurement, impact prediction and assessment.
(3) Scale - Scaling and weighting checklists assist with decision making. Impact
identification is strong with such checklists. Besides identifying impacts, they also
interpret and evaluate them. Considering the aforementioned factors, these
methods are attractive to decision-making analysis.
(4) Type of weight - Due to the subjective nature of scales and weights, they run the
risk of giving equal weight to every impact. In addition, critics note that impact
values can be derived solely from expert knowledge and judgement.
It is feasible to quantify impacts using checklist techniques by scaling and weighting,
even though subjective estimates are used. The plans, however, do not specify how
they will assess dynamic probabilistic trends or monitor, enhance, or mitigate them. A
higher order effect, impact, or interaction cannot be identified by these methods. There
is no rating regarding the relative magnitude of potential impacts in simple and
descriptive checklists. They simply identify the potential impacts.
When weighing and scaling checklists are used, many inherently different impacts are
assigned one number, and this aspect prevents a decision maker from taking into
account the potential trade-offs. Impacts are tabulated using the checklist method in
cells with information either in descriptive form which gives information regarding
whether an impact is possible or possible to exist, while impacts are scaled or weighed
to indicate their magnitude or importance. This method has the following advantages:
(1) There is no learning curve and it's easy to use
(2) It is useful for selecting sites and setting priorities
The disadvantages of this method are as follows:
(1) There is no distinction between direct and indirect impacts
(2) The relationship between action and impact is not established
(3) The process can sometimes be tedious
3) Matrix Method- In this methodology, the impact of different activities on the

environment is considered in relation to the different activities of the project. It is

possible to create a simple interaction matrix by listing project actions on one axis
(usually vertical) and environmental impacts on the other axis. Originally developed by
Leopold et al. and then this technique is now widely used. This document consists of a
list of about 100 project actions as well as 88 characteristics and conditions related to
the environment. The following is an example of a matrix of this type:

This method has the following disadvantages:
(1) By linking action to impact, the matrix method has the advantage of linking action
to impact
(2) EIA results can be displayed in a very good way using this method

(1) Indirect impacts can be difficult to distinguish using this method
(2) Impacts can be counted twice
(3) It refers to the quality of the impact, not its quantity
3) Overlay mapping method- In this method, physical, social, ecological, and aesthetic
characteristics of a project area are mapped. A site plan allows for the separation of
environmental features critical to the project at the same scale (for example, wetlands,
steep slopes, soils, floodplains, bedrock outcrops, wildlife habitats, vegetative
communities, cultural resources, etc.). Previously, environmental features were mapped
on transparent plastic in various colors using an old technique. It is now possible to
perform the same activity with the aid of computer software, hardware, data, and skilled
personnel using modern techniques. The system is known as GIS (Geographic
Information Systems).
This method has the following advantages:

(1) User-friendly and easy-to-understand
(2) There is a good display on it and
(3) It can be used to select a site

(1) Direct impacts are the only ones addressed
(2) The duration and probability of impacts are not addressed
4) Network method – Matrix analysis is used in this method to consider both primary
and secondary impacts. A tree called an impact tree is used to illustrate it. Diagrams like
this are also called reference diagrams or sequence diagrams. To make an impact tree,
it is important to identify direct, indirect, short-term, and long-term impacts. In order to
identify cause-effect relationships, the impact tree is used. A linkage tree is a visual
representation of the relationships between the links. Network methods have the
following advantages:
(1) A link between action and impact is established

(2) Second order impacts can be checked in a simplified manner
(3) Indirect and direct impacts are handled by it
The disadvantages of this method are:
(1) Using it beyond its simplified version leads to overcomplexity

(2) There is no quantitative component to it.

5) Simulation and modeling technique - Choosing between a range of alternatives is
an essential aspect of environmental impact assessment. It is important to understand
that any decision will have an impact on several heterogeneous elements--physical,
ecological, and social. In addition, these elements are generally interrelated in
complicated ways, and there is a great deal of information available. There may be
small gaps in the mass, and it may initially appear in a completely indigestible state. The
methods for ordering this information, displaying the links between elements, and
evaluating options have been described elsewhere. Is there a time when it will be
valuable, or even essential, to go beyond these techniques and establish a "model" for
the organization?
Merits and Demerits of EIA studies-
Advantages of EIA

(1) EIAs are effective mechanisms that help plan the efficient use of natural and
human resources (mass and material), which are useful to both those who
promote development and those who are responsible for its implementation.
(2) By minimizing subjectivity and duplication of effort, it can reduce the cost and
time required to reach a decision
(3) The pollution control measures could be costly if the primary and secondary
consequences are not identified.
(4) There are a number of benefits to incorporating EIA into decision-making. The
negative impacts of a project can be minimized with a forecast of likely
impacts.
(5) EIA identifies those areas that are most vulnerable to adverse impacts and
guides site selection accordingly.
(6) As a result of EIA, it can assist in determining the most appropriate site in
terms of maximizing benefits and reducing negative impacts.
(7) When a large number of sites are screened for their suitability, the results of
EIA studies can help determine the broad environmental, social or health
critical to use.
Dis-Advantages of EIA
(1) The data are not readily available and reliable

(2) The lack of adequate training or education in EIA methodologies as well as in
establishing appropriate legal and regulatory frameworks and institutional
arrangements
(3) Neglecting beneficial impacts in environmental impact assessments
(4) Not considering alternative sites, technologies, designs, and strategies
(5) All parties affected and interested in the matter are not sufficiently involved
and involved
(6) EIAs are not sufficiently focused on cost effectiveness
(7) Monitoring and evaluation are not followed up
(8) Inappropriate recommendations - mitigation/adaptation plans that cannot be
afforded or are unfeasible in terms of maintenance
(9) A poor presentation of environmental impact assessment results.
C REDIT 02
CREDIT 02 -UNIT 2-1: ABOUT ENERGY:
Learning Objectives
 Present status of energy use patterns in India
 Population and energy demand, energy use pattern in rural and urban area
 Changing life style and energy use.
2-1 ABOUT ENERGY: PRESENT STATUS OF ENERGY USE PATTERNS IN INDIA.

POPULATION AND ENERGY DEMAND, ENERGY USE PATTERN IN RURAL AND
URBAN AREA, IMPACT OF GROWING POPULATION ON ENERGY USE,
CHANGING LIFE STYLE AND ENERGY USE.
2-1 About Energy: For man's sustenance, energy has become increasingly important.
Food provided the majority of man's energy requirements. Plants and animals he
hunted and ate provided him with this energy. Following the discovery of fire, he used
wood and other biomass as a source of energy for cooking and keeping warm,
increasing his energy need. In response to the demand for energy, man began to sail
ships and drive windmills, as well as turn water wheels with the force of falling water. To
this day, it would not be wrong to say that the sun supplies all the energy needs of
mankind either directly or indirectly and that mankind uses only renewable energy
sources.
The discovery of the steam engine initiated the Industrial Revolution, which brought
about a great deal of change. Man began to use coal as an energy source for the first
time. Soon thereafter, the internal combustion engine was invented, which led to the
widespread use of oil and natural gas as fossil fuels. Oil and natural gas were
extensively used as fossil fuels. Energy was now available in a concentrated form due
to the fossil fuel use of nonrenewable resources. As a result of the invention of heat
engines and the use of fossil fuels, energy became portable and man was able to move
with greater flexibility.

The development of any nation depends heavily on energy, regardless of its source.
Among its uses are transport, industrial and commercial activities, construction and
infrastructure, distribution of water, and food production. In terms of Gross Domestic
Product (GDP), cities account for over 75 percent of any country's economy and are
therefore one of the main engines of global economic growth. A continuous supply of
energy is essential for cities to run their activities. Between 50 and 60 percent of the
world's greenhouse gases are released by them. They consume about 75 percent of
global primary energy. Low carbon technologies will be needed on the supply side as
well as efficient distribution infrastructure and lower consumption on the consumer side.
Due to resource depletion and negative externalities such as pollution and greenhouse
gas emissions, cities must transition from fossil fuel energy generation to renewable
energy sources. Efforts must also be made to decrease energy consumption through
the adoption of energy-saving techniques and the change of consumption patterns.
Present status of energy use patterns in India-
It is imminent in India's transformation in energy sector due to the government's recent

developmental ambitions: 175 gigawatts of renewable energy installed by 2022, 24X7
power for all, housing for all, 100 smart cities, 10% reduction of oil import dependence
by 2022, clean cooking fuels, etc. As the current trend toward energy buyers rather than
suppliers is likely to continue for the foreseeable future, India is expected to play a
significant role in the global energy scenario. Global energy demand is expected to
increase by 25% by 2040 because of India (International Energy Agency). India's
energy and electricity needs are expected to grow at CAGRs of 3.7%-4.5% and 5.4%-
5.7% until 2047, respectively, which will put an increasing burden on natural resources
to meet those needs. It is estimated that India consumes only 6% of the world's primary
energy, despite having a share of 18% in the world's population. It is evident from the
fact that India consumes approximately one-third of the global energy per capita (521
kgoe in 2014). There are 800 million people living in India without access to clean
cooking fuels (30% of the global population without access to clean cooking fuels), and
nearly 304 million do not have access to electricity. As the country strives for energy
independence and a sustainable reduction of energy poverty, it is important to keep in

mind the impact of these objectives on economic growth in order to achieve these
targets.
Energy policy in India focuses on increasing energy supply and reducing energy poverty
through the development of alternative energy sources, particularly nuclear, solar and
wind power. The country achieved an overall energy self-sufficiency rate of 63% in
2017. India's primary energy consumption increased by 10.4% in CY2021, making it the
third largest with 6% of global consumption after China and the USA. There was a total
primary energy consumption of 452.2 Mtee of coal (45.88%), 239.1 Mtee of crude oil
(29.55%), 49.9 Mtee of natural gas (6.17%), 8.8 Mtee of nuclear energy (1.09%), 31.6
Mtee of hydroelectric power (31.6 Mtee of 391%) and 27.50 Mtee of renewable energy
(excluding traditional biomass use) of 809.2 Mtee. It is estimated that India imported
nearly 205.3 million tons of crude oil and its products in 2018, 26.3 million tons of LNG,
and 141.7 million tons of coal in 2018, which totaled 373.3 million tons of primary
energy, which is equivalent to 46.13% of the country's total primary energy
consumption. To meet its energy needs, India relies largely on fossil fuel imports - by
2030, it is expected that its import dependence will reach 53% of the country's energy
consumption. In India, fossil fuels are used to generate approximately 80% of its
electricity. During the year 2017, India produced a surplus of electricity and exported a
marginal amount of electricity. Due to a lack of electricity demand, huge power
generation capacity has been idle since the end of calendar year 2015. India ranks
second after China in renewable energy production with 208.7 Mtoe in 2016. India has a
carbon intensity of 0.29 kg of CO2 per kWhe which is higher than the USA, China and
European Union. As a result of energy, process emissions, methane, and flaring, man-
made CO2 emissions totaled 2797.2 million tons in CY2021, which equates to 7.2% of
global emissions.
During 2020-21, India's per capita energy consumption is expected to be 0.6557 Mtoe,
excluding traditional biomass use, and its energy intensity will be 0.2233 Mega Joules
per INR (53.4 kcal/INR). Approximately 41.2 percent of the country's energy will be
imported in 2020-21. Having experienced rapid economic growth, India has one of the
world's fastest growing energy markets, expected to contribute 18% of global energy

demand growth by 2035. As a result of India's growing energy demand and limited
domestic oil and gas resources, the country has ambitious plans to expand its
renewable energy and nuclear energy programs. A total of 100,000 megawatts of solar
power capacity are planned for addition to the Indian power grid by the year 2022,
making India the fourth largest wind power market in the world. In addition, India plans
to increase the contribution of nuclear power to overall electricity generation capacity by
25 years to 9%. By 2025, the country intends to construct 18 additional nuclear
reactors, the second highest number in the world. The country currently has five nuclear
reactors under construction, which is the third highest in the world. A total of US$75
billion was invested by India in the energy sector during the year 2018 out of a total
investment of US$1.85 trillion worldwide.
According to the May 2017 electricity tariff report, the solar power PV tariff in India was
$2.44 (3.1 US) per kWh, which is lower than the solar power tariff for any other form of
power generation. It is estimated that by 2020 the levelized tariff in US dollars for solar
PV electricity will be 1.35 cents/kWh. Furthermore, solar thermal storage power plants
will have an international tariff of US$0.063/kWh, which is significantly cheaper than
fossil-fuel-based power plants. It is less costly and more environmentally friendly to use
hybrid solar power (a mix of solar PV and solar thermal storage power) for the stable
operation of the grid than to use fossil fuels. On the basis of their ultimate use and
advantages, solar electricity prices will be used to determine the prices of other fuels
(petroleum products, natural gas/biogas/LNG, CNG, LPG, coal, lignite, biomass, etc.).
There are four major drivers of Indian energy policy: A rapidly growing economy
requires an adequate supply of electricity, gas, and petroleum products; Growing
household incomes require an adequate supply of electricity and clean cooking fuel.
The country has limited fossil fuel reserves, and it is necessary to import natural gas,
crude oil, and coal, as well as better fuels and technologies to minimize environmental
impacts. Reforms, restructuring, and energy conservation have resulted from these
challenges in recent years.
(1) Oil and gas - In 2020, India will consume 4.669 million barrels of oil per day, ranked
third after the United States and China. The total imports of crude oil and refined

petroleum products of the country during the calendar year 2019 were 221.7 million
tons, and the total exports of refined petroleum products were 60.7 million tons. Aside
from China, India is one of the world's largest net importers of crude oil. As a result of
the import of crude oil, India has developed a large surplus of world-class refining
capacity that is used for export of refined petroleum products. After accounting for
exports and imports of refined petroleum products, the net imports of crude oil are
reduced by one fourth. The production of natural gas was 26.9 billion cubic meters
during the calendar year 2019, while the consumption was 59.7 billion cubic meters.
A total of 37.86 million tons of crude oil and 40,679 million standard cubic meters of
natural gas were produced during the financial year 2012–13. It is estimated that crude
oil and petroleum products worth Rs 5611.40 billion were imported net of 146.70 million
tons. The number of tons of LNG imported amounts to 9.534 million tons, worth a total
of Rs. 282.15 billion. As a consequence, LNG is priced below crude oil prices on an
international scale (One million Btu of LNG equals 0.1724 barrels of crude oil (boe) =
29.52 cubic meters of natural gas = 21 kilograms of natural gas = 29.2 liters of diesel =
21.3 kilograms of LPG). Road and marine transportation are increasingly using LNG as
a fuel without refueling. It is estimated that the LNG price has fallen by nearly 50%
below its oil parity price by the end of June 2016, making LNG a more economically
viable fuel than diesel and gas oil for transportation purposes. There were 15.744
million tons of petroleum products consumed by India in 2012-13, the majority of which
were imported crude oil, which led to a large amount of foreign exchange outflow for the
country. As local natural gas is being converted into LNG for use in transportation
sectors to reduce oil imports, using natural gas for heating, cooking, and electricity
generation is not economically feasible. To meet the widely dispersed demand for LNG,
coal gasification, coal bed methane, coal mine methane, and biogas digesters /
renewable natural gas sources are also being used to produce LNG. In order to reduce
diesel consumption considerably while reducing operating costs and reducing pollution,
most heavy duty vehicles (including diesel-driven rail engines) could be converted to
LNG-fuelled vehicles. A break-even price of US$6 per million British thermal units ($20
per megawatt hour) for switching from imported coal to LNG in electricity generation is

also estimated at user end. In high end transport, LNG will no longer be used to replace
liquid fuels because it is cheaper and easier to transport than liquid fuels, leaving
imports of CNG for other uses. Having fast unloading flexibility without costly unloading
facilities, marine CNG transportation has become an alternative to submarine gas
pipelines for medium-distance transport. Fuel cell vehicles can convert natural
gas/methane into hydrogen gas and carbon black without releasing any greenhouse
gases for use in the transport sector.
As a result of its investments in oil fields in countries such as Sudan, Syria, Iran, and
Nigeria, the state-owned Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) has been in
diplomatic conflict with the United States. Indian authorities are seeking to reduce their
dependence on OPEC for meeting their oil needs and increase their energy security
due to political instability in the Middle East and increasing domestic demand for
energy. ONGC and Reliance Industries are among the several Indian oil companies that
have announced a massive search for oil in several regions of India, such as Rajasthan,
the Krishna Godavari Basin, and the north-eastern Himalayas. If the reserves of shale
gas in India are exploited, they can meet all the country's energy needs for twenty
years. A gas field is being developed by India off the coast of Mozambique. India plans
to meet its increasing energy demands by building the Iran-Pakistan-India pipeline.
According to the Tenth Five-Year Plan, India's demand for petroleum products is
expected to increase from 97.7 million tonnes in 2001-02 to 139.95 million tonnes in
2006-07. It is anticipated that the compound annual growth rate (CAGR) will be 3.6%
during the period of the plan. By the end of the 10th plan period (2006-07), the domestic
crude oil production is likely to increase by a marginal amount from 32.03 million tonnes
in 2001-02 to 33.97 million tonnes. There has been a consistent decline in India's oil
self-sufficiency from 60% in the 1950s to 30% in the present day. It is anticipated that
the same will decrease to 8% by 2020. According to figure 1.8, India will need to import
approximately 92% of its total oil demand by 2020.
(2) Coal- Among the Group of 20 (G20) countries, India is the third most dependent on
coal for its energy economy, with 44% of primary energy coming from coal. With

abundant domestic reserves, India is the world's second-largest coal market. In Odisha,
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Madhya Pradesh, Indian mining companies produce
more than 700 million tonnes of coal every year. Open pit mining accounts for the
majority of production. Today, Coal India Limited (CIL) is the world's largest coal mining
company and supplies over 80% of India's coal domestically since the 1970s. About
70% of the country's electricity is generated domestically from coal. While new oil and
gas plants are planned for India, coal is expected to remain the dominant fuel for power
generation over the next 10-15 years. The gap between electricity supply and demand
continues to widen despite significant increases in installed capacity. Economic growth
and industrial output have been negatively affected by the resulting shortfall. In order to
meet the expected future demand for coal, it will be necessary to expand indigenous
coal production significantly. It is estimated that coal demand will more than double by
2010 from the current production level of 290 million tonnes. Since Indian coal is
typically of poor quality, it must be beneficiated in order to improve its quality, while coal
imports will also have to increase dramatically in order to satisfy the needs of industry
and power generation.
(3) Natural Gas- There has been a significant shift in the demand for natural gas in
specific sectors of the economy in recent years, even though its share of India's primary
energy mix has remained relatively static at around 6% in recent years. Despite an
overall 50% increase in energy consumption in the sector, the use of natural gas has
increased tenfold since 2010. In the past decade, natural gas has gained nearly 10% of
the share of the world's industries. In similar fashion, natural gas consumption in
buildings has tripled over the past decade, although it started at a low level. The
increase in natural gas use for power generation has, however, partially offset these
increases. Since there is no affordable gas available in India, nearly 60% of the
country's natural gas-based power generation capacity is operating at very low
capacities due to severe financial pressure.
Population and energy demand- India consumes the fourth most energy after China, the
United States, and Russia. India's rapid economic growth has made it one of the fastest
growing energy markets in the world and accounted for 16% of the increase in global

energy demand by 2035, making it one of the largest contributors to the rise. By 2035,
India will account for 8% of the world's energy demand, which is expected to rise by
128% from the current 595–1355 Mtoe. Global energy demand will grow by 26% during
the same period. Coal remains the country's largest source of primary energy and the
country has the 4th largest coal reserves in the world. It will, however, be replaced by
cleaner fuels like nuclear and renewable energy by 2035, reducing its share to 50%
from 55% today. Renewable energy now accounts for 6% of total energy consumption,
leading the way without fossil fuels. By 2035, coal will account for 26% of global energy
production. It is expected that oil will be the second most abundant fuel by 2035,
followed by natural gas (5%) and none of the fossil fuels (nuclear, hydroelectric, and
renewables) at 13%. It is projected that oil, gas, and coal consumption will grow at an
average rate of 3–5% per year. Compared to India, which accounts for just 8% of the
world's energy demand, natural gas will account for 26% of it. Insofar as nuclear energy
consumption, it is projected to increase at an average 9% per annum from current 7.5–
35 Mtoe in 2035 (7.2% p.a.). Consumption of renewable energy will increase at an
average 9% per year from current 12–80 Mtoe in 2035 led by solar (27% per annum)
and biofuels (13% per annum).
As of 2035, industrial energy demand is expected to account for 38% of overall energy
demand, and grow at an average rate of 3.9% annually. By 2035, coal will account for
37% of industrial demand followed by oil (21.1%) and gas (13.6%). Averaging 5.1%
growth rate, the transportation sector is expected to meet 17% of overall energy
demand by 2035. Approximately 94% of this sector will be dominated by the oil sector,
which is expected to grow at a rate of 5.1% on average annually. By 2035, 31% of all
energy demand will be accounted for by the power sector. By 2035, coal's market share
will drop from 76% today to 72%, as the energy consumption in power generation
doubles (+124%). India has ambitious plans to expand its renewable and nuclear
energy industries in light of the country's growing energy needs and limited fossil fuel
reserves. By 2035, nuclear energy is expected to account for double the current 2.5–5%
share of power generation. A total of 11% of the energy used for power generation
comes from renewable sources, and another 9% comes from hydroelectricity. Between
now and 2035, India's energy mix is not expected to change significantly. A global

average of 81% of energy demand will be met by fossil fuels in 2035, compared to 87
percent for India. The percentage has fallen from 92% to 88%. About half of the energy
demand is met by coal, which dominates the fuel mix.
In India, coal, oil, and solid biomass provide over 80% of the country's energy needs. As
the largest fuel in the energy mix, coal has contributed to the expansion of electricity
generation and industry. Due to rising vehicle ownership and road transport use, oil
consumption and imports have grown rapidly. However, biomass, primarily fuelwood, is
still widely used as a cooking fuel, despite its declining share in the energy mix. Even
though LPG coverage has recently been expanded in rural areas, 660 million Indians
still do not use modern, clean cooking fuels and technologies.
Energy use pattern in rural and urban area-
A) Energy use in rural areas- As the world's second most populous country, India is
also one of the most ecologically diverse. Over 70% of the population of India,
approximately 700 million individuals, still resides in rural areas. The country continues
to face a significant challenge in meeting its energy requirements in a sustainable
manner. Rural energy consumption is primarily derived from the domestic sector, which
accounts for more than 75% of the total. It is common for rural villagers to burn
inefficient traditional cook stoves in order to meet their cooking energy requirements.
They primarily use biomass fuels such as wood, dung, and agricultural residues to meet
their cooking energy requirements. Kerosene and electricity are the primary fuels for
lighting in rural households. The main source of irrigation energy is electric and diesel
pump sets, while the primary source of energy used in rural industries and the
transportation sector is animal power.
Rural areas tend to lack modern energy access compared to urban areas. First the
electricity grids are built in urban centers, then they expand outward to well-off rural
areas, and finally to the remotest areas of the country. Additionally, retailers are
responsible for the distribution of LPG. Typically, these retailers expand into rural areas
after they have saturated the most densely populated and higher income markets in
urban areas. According to the 2005 census, 94 percent of urban households in India

had electricity, while 57% of rural households had electricity. In rural areas, only 17% of
households use LPG compared to 71% in urban areas. These differences were
influenced both by income and physical access to energy providers. Due to this, we
would expect rural areas to have a higher energy poverty rate than urban areas, where
even the very poor have access to electricity. Even though they cannot afford to
purchase large quantities of energy, at least they can access it. The likelihood of energy
poverty in urban areas is higher than in rural areas, so energy poverty is likely to be
more similar to income poverty in urban areas. The first step in investigating this issue is
to review the different approaches to measuring energy poverty in developing countries.
Biomass energy is available locally to meet the minimum needs of rural households in
terms of cooking. Although biomass sources continue to contribute over 40% of the
energy supply in the country, their contribution is gradually declining. Fuelwood
accounts for 65 percent of the biomass energy used in rural areas, agricultural waste
accounts for 20%, and cow dung accounts for 15%. In recent years, there has been a
significant shift towards the use of commercial sources of energy. In this context, future
projections for energy in India do not indicate that fuelwood consumption will increase
proportionately with population growth.
In 1997, India celebrated its 100th anniversary of hydropower development. During that
period, there were approximately 225 hydroelectric power stations in the country
(excluding mini-hydro), with an installed capacity of approximately 23,500 MW, and
producing approximately 80 billion electrical units annually. Approximately 25,000 MW
of hydropower capacity was installed at the turn of the century. As a percentage of total
installed capacity from all sources, this accounted for about 25 percent.
According to the Eleventh National Power Survey, India will require 212000 MW of
installed power by 2012. A higher estimate of 240000 MW was made earlier. By 2011-
12, the country would consume 755847 Gwh more energy than it consumed in 2003-04,
according to the 17th Power Survey completed in 2007. According to the World Energy
Council, India is the fifth largest country in the world in terms of installed capacity. Being
the home to 31.5 Gwh of captive power plants, 87.55% of installed capacity is non-
renewable and 12.245 are renewables as of February 2013.

B) Energy use in Urban areas- In most urban areas, electricity is definitely available
to most people. There can be a variety of barriers to access in poorer regions, however,
including illegality, high costs, and potential dangers. It is still a concern that power
distribution utilities avoid operating in informal settlements because of the potential for
nonpayment of bills, theft of electricity, and other risks. These settlements often lack a
stable organization for installing infrastructure, requisite documentation, and security of
tenancy. A lack of knowledge and financial resources also prevents them from applying
for legal and safe access to electricity. Many government efforts to increase access are
focused on rural areas due to affordability concerns. Electricity access contributes to
socio-economic improvement and vulnerability reduction in urban spaces. Community-
level studies have shown that street lighting increases residents' actual and perceived
safety within urban communities. As well as creating opportunities for additional income-
generating activities, electricity access allows children to study at home with proper
lighting, which improves academic performance. In urban communities where homes
are often made of makeshift materials, thermal comfort can be an issue: access to
electricity is one way to mitigate this discomfort.
Nearly 75% of global primary energy supply is consumed in urban areas, which house
55% of the world's population. Approximately 68% of the global population will live in
urban areas by 2050 at the present rate of urbanization. As a result of this large
population increase, city infrastructure and services will also expand significantly,
resulting in a significant increase in urban energy consumption. Approximately 19% of
global energy needs are met by electricity, the second largest energy source in the
global energy mix.
Global energy demand is expected to grow by around 40% by 2040 due to increased
electricity consumption. In order to meet future electricity demands in an
environmentally sustainable manner, it is important to ensure that a sufficient supply of
electricity is available. Economic growth is also influenced by the availability of
electricity. In accordance with the latest Sustainable Development Goals of the United
Nations, every person should have access to clean and modern energy by 2030.

As urban areas consume the majority of global energy, the achievement of these
sustainability goals will be highly dependent on present and future urban energy
dynamics. It is important to understand the consumption patterns of electricity in urban
areas in order to clarify the current energy scenarios but also to assist in projecting
future global energy demands. Obtaining such information may be helpful in planning
and building capacity to meet the demands in a sustainable manner.
Last but not least, in order to foster universal development, particularly for the urban
poor, energy distribution needs to become more inclusive and fairer. The main
deterrents to a wider adoption of renewable energy technologies (RET) include
intermittent supply and high upfront costs. While wind, water, solar, and geothermal
already cover some neighborhoods, and even whole cities, they remain expensive.
Long-term benefits, both economic and environmental, will outweigh initial challenges.
Impact of growing population on energy use-
The world is growing at an amazing rate. Currently, the Earth‘s population is growing by
60,000 people every eight hours -- that‘s two children born every second somewhere
around the globe. Experts believe if we continue to grow at this pace, we‘ll need 50
percent more energy to sustain humanity by 2050. And that‘s not all; more people
means we'll need more food water and shelter, putting a strain on our renewable
resources, as well. Does population growth have an impact on energy consumption? It
is unfortunate, but true. In spite of the fact that wealthier nations do not grow at the
same rate as developing nations, they are still growing. With each additional human
being on the planet, resources become more precious, particularly non-renewable
resources like fossil fuels, which provide the majority of the world's energy. By the year
2050, the United States is projected to have 450 million people, which amounts to 20
percent of the world's energy consumption today. As a result of our insatiable appetite
for energy, we are contributing to deforestation, global warming, pollution, and acid rain
among other environmental problems. There are already 40 percent of water resources
in the United States that are too polluted to be fishable or to support aquatic life.The
International Energy Agency (IEA) and the World Energy Council (WEC) estimate that

there will be 9 billion people in 2050. By extrapolating past and current trends in energy
consumption, and forecasting future energy needs. As a result, our forecasts of energy
consumption are based on population growth.
Would it not be interesting if energy consumption, or more precisely, the availability of

energy resources, somehow determined population growth? Is it possible that the
availability of energy resources determines the Earth's carrying capacity, or how many
people it can accommodate? Is it possible that different energy resources have different
effects on the growth of the population? When energy resources are at or near their
peak rates of production, and the Earth's population is ultimately determined by the
availability of energy resources, then population growth rates may be affected. The
Earth may also be at or near its peak in terms of the number of people it can support.
There may be a very large difference between UN forecasts and the actual population in
2050.
Population growth consumes more energy. Populations grow because of energy

availability. Scarcity of energy resources is due to the demand for energy resources
exerted by energy consumption. The process of extracting them becomes more difficult.
Forests in the immediate vicinity are being depleted, coal mines must dig deeper, and
oil drilling must take place in more challenging conditions. As a result, marginal returns
on the extraction of energy resources are declining. Consequently, new energy sources
have been discovered, thereby increasing the carrying capacity of the Earth.

Figure No.3: Population and energy consumption covariance
The importance of coal as an energy source diminished dramatically after World War II,
and it was replaced by crude oil. Off the coast of Louisiana, offshore oil drilling began in
1947. In Saudi Arabia, the world's largest oil field, al-Ghawar, was drilled one year later.
At a time when coal production costs continued to rise, the discovery of large quantities
of oil and gas in Africa and Asia reduced oil and gas prices. Oil was replaced by coal by
diesel locomotives. A cheap oil supply helped accelerate automobile ownership,
highway and motorway development, and passenger jet aircraft –all of which were
aided by and encouraged by cheap oil prices.
Traditionally and bio-energy based cultures would eventually face carrying capacity
limits to population growth as coal emerged as an energy source. Additionally, the
predominance of oil after the middle of the twentieth century increased the carrying
capacity further.

Figure No.4: Dynamics of energy types
Over the course of the Industrial Revolution, the Industrial Revolution spread across the
channel to the rest of Europe between 1800 and 1900. Coal's importance increased as
well. By using steam engines to drive trains, boats and many other engines, as well as
coking to produce steel, the commercialisation of coal in Europe in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries dramatically increased productivity. Compared to dry wood, coal
provides twice the amount of heat - a higher quality energy source. The industrial
nations' population growth was powered by coal by 1900.
During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the population of Europe more than
doubled from 187 million to 400 million. The global population percentage increased
from 21% to roughly 25% during this period (it now stands at approximately 12%). In
spite of the fact that this percentage increase seems to be small, it does not take into
account the approximately 35 million Europeans who have migrated abroad. In addition

to the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, many Latin American
nations and regions have been affected by these European immigrants. Additionally,
they inherited the European habit of consuming coal. By 1865, coal had become the
dominant energy source in the United States. The peak of coal consumption in the
United States occurred in 1910. According to the contribution of each energy source to
total consumption, coal consumption peaked in 1910. The United States experienced
the highest population growth during the twentieth century in 1909. Despite being still
open, frontiers were rapidly shrinking.
Coal production resulted in a significant reduction in land use pressure. Due to coal
replacing wood as a fuel and heat source, the land needed to grow that wood could now
be used for a different purpose. Large quantities of fodder for draught animals and
horse transportation became obsolete as a result of coal and machinery powered by
coal. Besides reducing land use pressure, a large amount of land was made available
for agricultural production.
Coal also played an important role in the development of electricity. A number of

inventors, including Edison, Parsons, Stanley, Tesla, Westinghouse, and their
collaborators, created the electricity industry during the 1880s, and this industry quickly
spread to power households, businesses, and railroads. A coal-fired power plant was
used to generate electricity. There are still 50 percent of the United States' electricity
needs to be generated by coal-fired power plants.
Changing life style and energy use-
Increasingly, environmental policy and popular commentary on environmental issues

are focusing on the idea that people's 'lifestyles' need to move in a more sustainable
direction. Several people are speculating that there may be a 'cultural shift' affecting
consumption patterns and scale that may result in a lower energy intensive, less
impactful, and potentially more community-oriented society. By shifting from the
discourse of sustainable consumption to a discourse of sustainable lifestyle, meaning is

no longer primarily derived from consumption but rather from specific values, rules, and
social practices that are shared by a group of individuals and constitute a way of life for
them.
Our individual energy consumption is determined by two factors: our needs for energy
services (such as comfort, mobility, and entertainment) and the efficiency of the energy
conversion devices that perform these services. There are therefore different ways in
which lifestyle affects direct energy consumption. Energy services are influenced
primarily by our lifestyles. Large homes require more energy to maintain a comfortable
temperature than smaller homes. The laws of thermodynamics determine the minimum
amounts of energy required for some energy services, including those that involve
heating, cooling, or accelerating large amounts of matter. A person's lifestyle also
affects the efficiency with which they consume energy. The better we understand
environmental impacts and ecological limits, the more different conversion technologies
become integrated with lifestyle choices. The effects of lifestyle changes on energy use
and carbon emissions can be both positive and negative. New energy services, higher
consumption levels, and greater wealth all contribute to increased energy use. Affluence
has generally led to a rise in energy consumption because of these trends, which have
more than offset technological advances in energy efficiency.
Further, lifestyle changes as a driving force for social change are more than a shift in
attitude or behavior, and are not easily quantified. The understanding of modern
lifestyles must be informed by a sophisticated understanding of how they operate on a
psychological, social, and cultural level, as well as a material level.

Figure No.5: Dimensions of Life style with energy demand
xxxxxxxxxxxx---------------xxxxxxxxxxxx

CREDIT 02 -UNIT 2-2: ENERGY PROFILE OF OIL AND NATURAL GAS:
Learning Objectives
 Indian production and reserves,
 Nuclear option, role of IRDA and MEDA in energy generation.
2-2 ENERGY PROFILE OF OIL AND NATURAL GAS, INDIAN PRODUCTION AND
RESERVES, NUCLEAR OPTION, ROLE OF IRDA AND MEDA IN ENERGY
GENERATION
2-2 Energy profile of oil and natural gas in India-
A tentative global economic environment in 2015-16 demonstrated signs of recovery for

the Indian economy. It is estimated that Gross Domestic Product (GDP) grew by 7.6%
in 2015-16 at constant prices (2011-12) as compared to 7.2% in 2014-15. As compared
to 2014-15, the Gross Value Added for the Manufacturing sector grew by 9.3% and
7.4% at constant basic prices, respectively, while the Mining and quarrying sector grew
by 5.5% and 10.8%. Increasing industrial growth and a decline in crude oil prices led to
an increase in consumption. From April to March, 2015-16, petroleum product demand
increased by 10.86%. Over 75% of the country's domestic requirements are imported
due to the limited domestic availability of crude oil and natural gas.
There was a decrease of 1.36% in the crude oil production during 2015-16 from 37.461
Million Metric Tonnes (MMT) in 2014-15. There was a production shortfall in the
Mumbai asset due to natural decline of mature fields and a lower production from new
and marginal fields than anticipated. A number of factors also affected production,
including delayed/lower gains from some fields (Ahmedabad assets), power outages
due to cyclones (Ahmedabad and Mehsana assets), lower air injection (Mehsana
asset), increased water cuts (Mehsana and Cambay assets) and closure of wells for rig-
less jobs (Assam assets).

Figure No.6: Production of Oil and Natural gas during 2015-2016 in India.
In 2015-16, 202.851 MMT of crude oil were imported worth Rs 4,16,361 crore,
compared with 189.435 MMT imported worth Rs 6,87,416 crore in 2014. Although oil
imports increased by 7.08% in quantity terms, in value terms they decreased by 39.43%
over the same period last year due primarily to a steep decline in crude oil prices. With
effect from September 2014, crude oil prices, which had remained above US $100 a
barrel since February 2010, began to fall sharply. The price of oil has plummeted from
US $ 111.66/bbl in June 2014 to US $ 28.08/bbl in January 2016. A combination of
weaker demand in Asia, especially China, and Europe as well as a production glut can
be attributed to this sharp decline. Oil demand has also decreased due to a reduction in
dependence on oil imports due to the exploration of shale gas by countries such as the
United States and Canada.
Figure No.7: Importing of Oil and Natural gas during 2015-2016 within India.

Indian production and reserves:
1) Oil and Natural gas production in India-
(A) Petroleum production-There were 34.20 Million Metric Tonnes (MMT) of crude oil
production in FY 2018-19 (P). It is estimated that 71.15 percent of crude oil production
is by ONGC and oil companies under nomination regimes, while the remaining 28.85
percent is by private/JV oil companies under PSC regimes.
Table No.3: Production of petroleum State-wise (Thousand Metric Tonnes)
State 2014- 2015- 2016- 2017- 2018- 2020-

2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2021
Andhra Pradesh 254 295 276 322 296 182
Arunachal Pradesh 69 57 55 50 43 41
Assam 4,473 4,185 4,203 4,345 4,309 3,090
Gujarat 4,653 4,461 4,605 4,591 4,626 3,527
Rajasthan 8,848 8,602 8,165 7,887 7,667 5,205
Tamil Nadu 241 261 284 345 395 310
Total Onshore 18,538 17,861 17,588 17,540 17,336 12,355
Share of PSUs 9,482 9,051 9,192 9,386 9,367 6,913
(excluding JV
share)
Share of Private/JV 9,056 8,810 8,396 8,154 7,969 5,442
Offshore
Share of PSUs 16,194 16,543 16,284 16,240 14,969 10,829
(excluding JV
share)
Total Offshore 18,923 19,089 18,421 18,145 16,868 12,021
Grand Total 37,461 36,950 36,009 35,684 34,203 24,376
Share of PSUs 25,676 25,594 25,476 25,625 24,335 17,747

(excluding JV
share)
Source- https://mopng.gov.in/en/exp-and-prod/production
A total of 50.01% of crude oil production was derived from offshore sources in FY 2018-
19. In addition to Andhra Pradesh (0.87 percent), Arunachal Pradesh (0.13 percent),
Assam (12.50 percent), Gujarat (13.53%), Rajasthan (21.82%) and Tamil Nadu (1.15
percent), the State produced crude oil in six states. As shown in table number 3, the
crude oil production for FY 2018-19 from last five year.
(B) Natural Gas-There were 90.1 million metric standard cubic meters of natural gas
produced in 2018-19. ONGC and OIL produce 83.3% of natural gas under the
nomination regime, while the remaining 16.7% is produced by private and joint venture
companies under the PSC regime.There was a 67.3% increase in offshore natural gas
production in FY 2018-19. The next most populous states were Andhra Pradesh, 0.1%
Arunachal Pradesh, 10% Assam, 4% Gujarat, 5% Rajasthan, and 5% Tripura, followed
by 2% West Bengal. Below are details on natural gas production in 2018-19 and the last
five years.
Table No.4: Production of natural gas State-wise (Thousand Metric Tonnes)
State 2014- 2015- 2016- 2017- 2018- 2020-

2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2021
Andhra Pradesh 541 619 868 959.16 1081.31 688.84
Arunachal Pradesh 34 30 28 29.51 27.81 31.75
Assam 2958 3025 3128 3219.02 3289.06 2462.51
Gujarat 1527 1490 1580 1606.66 1402.22 1011.78
Rajasthan 1178 1338 1277 1441.93 1483.25 1343.8

Tamil Nadu 1192 1011 983 1207.22 1207.85 824.18
Tripura 1140 1332 1430 1440.37 1554.3 1173.64
CBM-WB, MP, Jharkhand 228 392 564 734.8 710.46 485.07
Total Onshore 8797 9237 9858 10638.69 10756.27 8021.58
Share of PSUs 7474 7608 8141 8519.8 8354.77 6044.64
(excluding JV share)
Share of Private/JV 1323 1629 1717 2118.89 2401.5 1976.94

Offshore Share of PSUs 17272 16406 16883 17791.16 19041.8 13951.43
(excluding JV share)

Total Offshore 24861 23012 22038 22010.62 22117.12 15828.77
Grand Total 33658 32249 31897 32649.32 32873.37 23850.35
Share of PSUs (excluding 24746 24014 25024 26311 27396.57 19996.07
JV share)
2) Oil and Natural gas reserve in India- There are approximately 28.1 billion tonnes of
conventional hydrocarbons estimated in 15 sedimentary basins and deep-water areas
of the country (oil and oil equivalent of gas).
Table No.5: Inventories of hydrocarbons in India

Basin Off Shore On Total
(MMT) Land (MMT)
(MMT)
Mumbai 9190 9190
Assam- - 1860 1860
ArakanFoldBelt
Cambay - 2050 2050
UpperAssam - 3180 3180

Krishna-Godavari 555 575 1130
Cauvery 270 430 700
Rajasthan - 380 380
Kutch 550 210 760
Andaman-Nicobar 18 - 180
Kerala-Konkan 660 - 660
SaurashtraOffshor 280 - 280
e
GangaValley - 230 230
Baengal 30 160 190
HimalayanForelan 150 150
d
Mahanadi 100 45 145
DeepWater 7000 - 7000
TOTAL 1881S 9270 28085
On 1.4.2013, ONGC, OIL, and private/JV companies were able to establish an In-place
hydrocarbon volume of 11,146 million tonnes. As a result, approximately 60% of the
resources are categorized as "yet to be found". In addition to 11,146 MMT of oil and oil
equivalent gas of in-place volumes, there are approximately 4070 MMT of oil and oil
equivalent gas that can be produced from those reserves. It is estimated that the
remaining recoverable reserves are approximately 2110 MMT of oil equivalent
gas. According to the 01.04.2013 report, ONGC, OIL, and private/JV companies have
explored hydrocarbon reserves in the country.
Table No.6: Reserve position for crude oil and natural gas (2013-2014)
Initial In-Place UltimateReserves BalanceRecoverable

(MMT) (MMT) Reserves (MMT)
Oil Gas 0+OEG Oil Gas 0+OE Oil Gas 0+OEG
G*

ONGC 5242 2643 7885 1465 1299 2764 570 720 1291
OIL 796 342 1139 241 188 429 84 104 188
Pvt/JV 830 1292 2122 197 680 877 104 527 631
Total 6868 4277 11146 1903 2167 4070 758 1352 2110
*0+OEG:OilandOilEquivalentofGas
A total of 2600 billion cubic meters (BCM) or 91.8 trillion cubic feet (TCF) of coal bed
methane is estimated to exist in 11 states throughout the country. Following are the
details of CBM resources in different states.
Table No.7: CoalBedMethaneResourcesinIndia
Estimated CB
State
Resources (BCM)
Jharkhand 722.08
Rajasthan 359.62
Gujarat 351.13
Orissa 243.52
Chattisgarh 240.69
Madhya pradesh 218.04
Westbengal 218.04
Tamilnadu 104.77
Andhrapradesh 99.11
Maharashtra 33.98
North east 8.50
Total 2599.48
In India, a number of sedimentary basins (such as the Ganges plain, Gujarat,

Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, and others on the coast) have large shale deposits,
including those that are hydrocarbon-bearing - Cambay, Assam-Arakan, and Damodar.

Indian sedimentary basins and subbasins have been assessed with respect to their
potential for shale gas and oil resources by various agencies.
Nuclear option in India
The nuclear power capacity target for 2020 was 20 GWe (gigawatts electric). By signing
the 123 nuclear agreements with the United States in 2008, the government stated it
would be possible to double this target. The Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited
(NPCIL) projected that it would be able to develop 60 megawatts of power by 2032. This
includes 40 megawatts of pressurized water reactors (PWRs) and 7 megawatts of
pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWRs). All of these reactors will be powered by
imported uranium. It is anticipated that 12 gigawatts of nuclear power will be available in
2022 and 34 gigawatts will be available in 2040 under the 'ambitious' scenario in the
draft energy policy of 2011. During the 2021 Parliamentary session, the government
announced that the generation capacity of nuclear power would increase to 22,480
MWe (megawatts electric) by 2031. It is estimated that nuclear power capacity will
reach 6,885 megawatts by 2022. Due to the persistent underperformance of the
nuclear industry in meeting capacity targets, experts from the Department of Atomic
Energy (DAE) have referred to them as aspirational.
The share of nuclear energy in global electricity generation is expected to decrease to

10 percent by 2020. In 1996, nuclear energy accounted for over 17.45 percent of global
electricity generation. From the beginning of nuclear generation in the early 1970s, the
share of nuclear generation in India has not exceeded 4 percent. A peak of 3.7
percent of India's total electricity generation was reached in 2002, a significant
increase from 1.8 percent in the early 1990s. Even with ambitious targets, strong
protection, and generous budgetary allocations, nuclear power has the slowest growth
rate among fuels. A number of factors have been cited by commentators to explain the
slow pace of capacity addition in the nuclear sector, including huge upfront capital
investments, cost escalation, technological difficulties and opposition from local
populations.

During the period 2002 to 2006, nuclear capacity increased by over 23 percent, and
between 2006 and 2017, it increased by over 9 percent, but since 2017, capacity has
not increased. A stark contrast is apparent between the amount of renewable energy
generated in 1992 and the amount produced in 2021, which has increased from 32
MWp (megawatt peak) to over 100,000 MWp. Since renewable energy is supported by
both the global investment community as well as domestic policy makers, it is an easy
argument to make since it receives financial and non-financial incentives along the
value chain, unlike nuclear energy. As a result of the modular nature of renewable
energy, particularly solar energy, even small private sector players have been
attracted to RE projects with investments ranging from INR 40-50 million, which has
contributed to a growth of capacity in the RE sector. Therefore, it is not surprising that
the issue of reactor size has become increasingly prominent in the debate surrounding
the future of nuclear power in India, specifically whether small modular reactors
(SMRs) with substantially smaller power outputs would be a better option for
increasing capacity addition.
Role of IREDA and MEDA in energy generation
1) IREDA-In 1987, the IREDA names as Indian Renewable Energy Development

Authority was incorporated as a public limited government company under the
Companies Act, 1956 with the objective of promoting, developing and facilitating
the development of financial assistance for renewable energy and energy
efficiency and conservation projects.
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has registered IREDA as a Non -Banking
Financial Company (NFBC) under section 4 "A" of the Companies Act, 1956. The
Mission of IREDA is to ―Be a pioneering, participant-friendly and competitive
institution for financing and promoting sustainable investment in renewable
energy, energy efficiency and environmental technologies.‖ IREDA‘s motto is
―Energy Forever.‖ IREDA has the following primary objectives:
(1) Financing energy efficiency and renewable energy projects to generate

electricity.

(2) Its mission is to remain a leading organization in the field of renewable
energy and energy efficiency.
(3) Increasing IREDA's participation in the renewable energy sector through

innovative financing.
(4) Continuous improvement of systems, processes, and resources to improve

the efficiency of services provided to customers.
(5) In order to be a competitive institution, we strive to satisfy our customers.
In order to expand renewable energy and energy efficiency businesses, IREDA will
consider sanctioning a loan against securitization of future cash flows.In addition to
existing IREDA borrowers, the loan scheme will be extended to applicants who are not
existing IREDA borrowers in order to expand their businesses in the renewable energy
and energy efficiency sectors. Using the maximum lending rate of the sector, a net
present value calculation will be performed over a period of ten years. Due to the fact
that the loan amount has been determined based on the future cumulative cash flow
surpluses, the date of disbursement is of paramount importance and, therefore, the
extension of the validity period will not be considered.
2) MEDA- To coordinate, regulate, and enforce the provisions of the Energy

Conservation Act and to implement schemes under the said Act within the State, the
Maharashtra Energy Development Agency (MEDA) has been appointed by the
Maharashtra Government. MEDA now has the additional responsibility besides
facilitating renewable energy development to promote and develop energy efficiency, as
specified in Notification No. ESA 1002/CR-8192-NRG-5 dated 12 March 2003.
Following are the objectives for establishing of MEDA.
(1) It is the responsibility of the department to promote, develop, and implement

non-conventional, renewable, and alternate energy devices and technologies.
(2) Taking concrete steps to conserve conventional energy in industries,

commercial establishments and residential areas.

(3) Provide assistance in implementing renewable energy programmes for the
Government of India and the Government of Maharashtra.
(4) Develop alternative energy sources to meet the burgeoning demand for
energy.
(5) To inspire confidence in private investors and new entrants, install

demonstration power projects with own investment.
(6) By creating an enabling policy environment, pursue renewable energy-based

power projects with large-scale private investment.
(7) Through training programmes, publications, exhibitions, seminars and

conferences, information is disseminated and public awareness is raised.
(8) By participating in field viability and commercialization exercises through

innovative financing mechanisms and developing investment opportunities,
support large-scale distribution and marketing of stand-alone renewable
energy devices.
Throughout the IRDEA and MEDA projects, the knowledge is promoted, developed, and
diffused in various fields of renewable energy and energy efficiency. Furthermore,
IREDA and MEDA assists the Maharashtra and Indian governments in developing and
promoting renewable energy and alternative technologies, as well as energy
conservation policies. The MEDA has promoted energy conservation in the state since
its inception as part of its energy conservation program. Since the 1990s, IREDA and
MEDA has promoted new technology such as LEDs and Electronic Ballasts, as well as
improved Kerosene Lanterns, Kerosene Stoves, Chulhas, and Crematoria. IREDA and
MEDA has previously implemented shared savings energy efficiency projects in
industries when these concepts were new. A number of energy efficiency programs
were implemented by IREDA and MEDA in agriculture in 2000, including replacing foot
valves, pipes, capacitors in agriculture pump sets, etc.
xxxxxxxxxx-----------------xxxxxxxxxxxxxx

CREDIT 02 -UNIT 2-3: ENERGY RESOURCES AND THEIR EXPLOITATION:
Learning Objectives
 Source of energy - nature of its radiation,
 Conventional energy sources: coal, oil, and nature gas,
 Non-conventional energy sources: hydroelectric power, tidal, wind, geothermal

energy, solar collectors, photovoltaic‘s, solar ponds, nuclear-fission and fusion,
magneto-hydrodynamic power (MHD).
2-3 ENERGY RESOURCES AND THEIR EXPLOITATION: SUN AS SOURCE OF

ENERGY - NATURE OF ITS RADIATION, CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES:
COAL, OIL, AND NATURE GAS, NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES:
HYDROELECTRIC POWER, TIDAL, WIND, GEOTHERMAL ENERGY, SOLAR
COLLECTORS, PHOTOVOLTAIC‘S, SOLAR PONDS, NUCLEAR-FISSION AND
FUSION, MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMIC POWER (MHD).
2-3 Energy resources and their exploitation: There are majorly conventional and non
conventional energy resources. They are as follows-
A) Conventional energy sources: Conventional energy sources include the following:
i. There are three types of fossil fuels: solid fuels, liquid fuels, and gaseous
fuels, including petroleum and its derivatives.
ii. Alternatively, water can be used to store energy or power.
iii. Fusion energy is the result of nuclear fusion.
Below is a table 8 indicating the percentage of energy consumed by various energy

sources.
Table No.8: Percentagewise Energy Consumption World Wide

Coal 32.5%
Oil 1. 38.3%
Gas 19.0%
Uranium 0.13%
Hydro 2.0%
Wood 6.6%
Dung 1. 1.2%
Waste 1. 1.3%
Fossil fuels: Based on the percentage distribution, one can conclude that the world's
energy supply is primarily derived from fossil fuels.
a) Coal : The coal has beena major source of energy since the advent of
industrialization. During the last few decades, coal has been replaced by oil as a major
source of energy, since oil is easier and cleaner to obtain.There is an abundance of
coal, according to estimates. This amount of fuel will last for 200 years. Although it has
a high calorific value, its shipping is expensive and its calorific value is low. Whenever
coal is burned, it produces both carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. Since plants are
not able to absorb large proportions of carbon dioxide produced by burning coal,
extensive use of coal as a source of energy is likely to disrupt the ecological balance of
the planet.
b) Oil : Oil is a major source of energy in the world, providing almost 40% of it. As a
result of the rising price of oil, the economy of the world has been placed under
considerable strain. The current rate of consumption and a reserve amount of 250,000
million tons of oil would suffice for approximately 100 years assuming no further oil
discoveries are made. There has to be a change in the world economy from one
dominated by oil to one where there is an alternative to oil.
c) Gas: Gas is currently underutilized and huge quantities are burned in the oil
production process as a result of the lack of ready markets. There may be a reason for
this, which is the high cost of transportation of the gas. The cost of transporting gas is

higher than that of transporting oil. Inaccessible areas are estimated to contain a large
amount of reserves.The following categories can be applied to gaseous fuels:
i. Acetylene, ethylene, and methane are examples of gases with fixed composition.
ii. Gases used in coal kilns, coke ovens, water furnaces, and blast furnaces are
considered composite industrial gases.
d) Water Power: In order to generate water power, water must be allowed to fall under
the force of gravity. The majority of its energy is used for the generation of electricity.
Around the turn of the twentieth century, the development of electrical power
transmission made it possible to generate large quantities of water power. In the past,
hydroelectric plants (water power plants) were generally of small capacity, with a
capacity of less than 100 kilowatts.
By using prime moves known as hydraulic turbines, the potential energy of

water can be converted into mechanical energy. In areas where water is abundant,
water power can be quite inexpensive. Solar energy can be indirectly used through
hydroelectric power. Thus, the main advantage of this source of energy is that it is the
only renewable and non-depleting source of energy currently available commercially.
Additionally, it does not contribute to pollution. In spite of the following problems,
hydropower development is still at a low level.
i. Planning, investing, and construction will take approximately 6-10 years in a

developing project.
ii. There is a need for a significant amount of capital investment, some of which
must be sourced from outside the country.
iii. In recent years, there has been an increase in concerns regarding the relocation
of villages involved, the compensation of damages, the selection of suitable
resettlement areas, and the impact on the environment.
e) Nuclear Power : Matter is made up of minute particles known as atoms, according to

modern theories of atomic structure. The binding energy contained within these atoms
is enormous. In the case of heavier unstable atoms such as U235, Th232 controlled

fission allows the release of a large amount of heat energy. As a result of this enormous
energy release from a relatively small amount of nuclear fuel, nuclear energy is a very
valuable source of energy. An energy equivalent to the heat energy produced by
burning 4500 tons of high-quality coal or 2200 tons of oil is released by a complete
fission of one kilogram of U235. The heat produced from the fissioning of the atoms of
fissionable materials is used in heat exchangers to produce steam that drives turbo
generators, as in conventional power plants.
As a result of these limitations, nuclear energy cannot be fully utilized because

the capital costs of nuclear power plants are high, raw materials are limited, disposal of
radioactive waste is difficult, and there is a shortage of well-trained personnel to operate
nuclear power plants.
B) Non – conventional Energy Sources- There is a concern that fossil fuels will
eventually run out in coming years as the main source of thermal power. Consequently,
many countries are exploring alternative systems based on non-conventional and
renewable energy sources. These include solar energy, wind energy, sea energy,
geothermal energy, and biomass energy.
a) Solar Energy: The sun can provide a significant amount of power. As a result, it has a
potential capacity of 178 billion MW, which is 20,000 times the world's demand.
However, large-scale development has been impossible so far. Energy from the sun
can be converted into thermal and photovoltaic forms. Steam and hot water are
currently produced using the former. The sun provides the earth with energy. The
energy generated by this process creates the current in the atmosphere and the ocean,
which causes the water cycle and provides the energy for plants to produce
photosynthesis.
There is 107 watts of solar power when the sun hits the atmosphere, while
there is 106 watts of solar power on the surface of the earth. There are 1013 watts of
power required worldwide to meet all the needs of civilization. Our needs for energy are
1000 times greater than the power provided by the sun. Even if we were to utilize 5% of

this energy, we would be able to meet the world's energy needs by 50 times. On a
bright sunny day, the sun radiates approximately 1 kW per square meter of surface
area. There have been attempts to use this energy in the generation of steam which can
be used to produce electricity.Today, solar energy is most commonly used for the
following applications:
a. Heating and cooling of residential building.

b. Solar water heating.
c. Solar drying of agricultural and animal products.
d. Solar distillation on a small community scale.
e. Salt production by evaporation of seawater or inland brines.
f. Solar cookers.
g. Solar engines for water pumping.
h. Food refrigeration.
i. Bio conversion and wind energy, which are indirect sources of solar
energy.
j. Solar furnaces.
k. Solar electric power generation by-Solar ponds, Steam generators heated
by rotating reflectors (heliostant mirrors), Cylindrical parabolic reflectors.
b) Wind energy: Certain parts of the world have high wind velocity that can be used for
wind energy. Water is pumped by wind energy or electricity is generated by wind
energy. The number of wind pumps operating in various countries is approximately 1
million. There must be a minimum wind speed of three meters per second. The process
is suitable for coastal areas, hilly areas, and valleys. Approximately 20,000 to 25,000
megawatts are estimated to be available in India. There are favorable coastal areas in
Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu. Energy of wind can be economically
used for the generation of electrical energy. Winds are caused from two main factors :
a. Heating and cooling of the atmosphere which generates convection

currents. Heating is caused by the absorption of solar energy on the
earth‘s surface and in the atmosphere.

b. The rotation of the earth with respect to the atmosphere, and its motion
around the sun.
c) Energy from Biomass and Bio-gas :Biomass is another renewable source of

energy in the form of wood, agricultural residues, etc. The potential for application of
bio-mass as an alternate source of energy in India is very great. We have plenty of
agricultural and forest resources for production of bio-mass. Bio-mass is produced in
nature through photosynthesis achieved by solar energy conversion. As the word
clearly signifies, Bio-mass means organic matter.
d) Bio-gas :The main source for production of bio-gas is wet cow dung or wet
livestock (and even human) waste. To produce bio-gas. The bio-gas production is of
particular significance for India because of its large cattle population. The total cattle
population in country is about 250 million. Some of the other sources of bio-gas are:
i. sewage, ii.crop residue, iii. vegetable wastes,

iv. water hyacinth, v. poultry droppings, vi. pig-manures,
vii. algae, . viii. ocean-kelp
In the rural sector, bio-gas finds great applications in cooking, lighting, mechanical
power and generation of small electricity. The gas can also be used with advantage to
improve sanitary conditions and also to check environmental pollution. Bio-gas can be
used solely or with diesel in I.C. engines, for production of power.
e) Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion :This is also an indirect method of utilizing solar
energy. A large amount of solar energy. A large amount of solar energy is collected
and stored in tropical oceans. The surface of water acts as the collector for solar heat,
while the upper layer of the sea constitutes infinite heat storage reservoir. Thus the heat
contained in the oceans could be converted into electricity by utilizing fact that the
temperature difference between warm surface water of the tropical oceans and the
colder water in he depth about 20 to 250 K. Utilization of this energy, with its associated
temperature difference and its conversion into work, forms the basis of ocean thermal
energy conversation (OTEC) systems. The surface water which is at higher temperature

could be used to heat some low boiling organic fluid, the vapours of which would run a
heat engine. The exit vapour would be condensed by pumping cold water from the
deeper regions. The amount of energy available for ocean thermal power generation is
enormous, and is replenished continuously.
f) Tidal energy: The tides in the sea are the result of the universal gravitational effect of
heavenly bodies like sun and moon on the earth. Due to fluidity own water mass, the
effect of this force becomes apparent in the motion of water, which shows periodic rise
and fall in level which is in rhythms with daily cycle of rising and setting of sun and
moon. This periodic rise and fall of the water level of sea is called tide. These tides can
be used to produce electrical power which is known as tidal power. When water is
above the mean sea level, it is called flood tide and when the level is below the mean
sea level, it is called flood tide and when the level is below the mean sea level, it is
called ebb tide.
g) Geothermal Energy: This is the energy which lies embedded within the
earth. According to various theories the earth has a molten core. The fact that volcanic
action take place in many places on the surface of the earth, support these theories.
The steam and hot water comes naturally to the surface of the earth in some locations
of the earth. For large scale use bore holes are normally sunk with depth up to 1000 m,
releasing steam and water at temperatures upto 200 or 300 °C and pressures upto
3000 Kg N/ m2. Two ways of electric power production from geothermal energy has
been suggested. In one of this heat energy is transferred to a working fluid which
operates the power cycle. This may be particularly useful at places of fresh volcanic
activity. Where the molten interior mass of earth vents to the surface through fissures
and substantially high temperatures, such as between 450 to 550 °C can be found. By
embedding coil of pipes and sending water though tem can be raised. In the other, the
hot geothermal water and / or steam is used to operate the turbines directly. From the
wellhead the steam is transmitted by pipe lines up to 1 meter in diameter over distances
up to about 3 km to the power station. Water separators are usually required to
separate moisture and solid particles from steam.

At present only steam coming out of the ground is used to generate electricity, the hot
water is discarded because it contains as much as 30% dissolved salts and minerals,
and these cause serious rust damage to the turbine. The water however contains more
than 1/3 of the available thermal energy.
h) Hydrogen Energy : Hydrogen as an energy can play an important role as an

alternative to conversation fuels, for that technical problem of production, storage and
transportation can be resolved satisfactorily and the cost could be brought down to
acceptable limits. One of he most attractive features of hydrogen an energy carrier is
that it can be produced from water which is abundantly available in nature. Hydrogen
has the highest energy content per unit of mass than any chemical fuel and can be
substituted for hydrocarbons in a broad range of applications. Its burning process id
non-polluting and it can be used in fuel cells to produce both electricity and useful heat.
i) Fuel Cells: It may be defined as an electrochemical device for the continuous

conversation of the free energy change in a chemical reaction to electrical energy. It is
distinguished from a battery in that it operates with continuous replenishment of the fuel
and the oxidant at active electrode area and does not require recharging.
Sun as source of energy - nature of its radiation-
There are two types of solar radiation received from the sun: terrestrial solar radiation
and extraterrestrial solar radiation. Those radiations that are received outside the earth's
atmosphere are known as extraterrestrial radiations, while those that are received on
the earth's surface are known as terrestrial radiations. A direct solar radiation is a solar
radiation that does not change direction when it hits the earth's surface. The radiation
received on the surface of the earth that has been affected by scattering phenomena is
known as diffuse radiation. On earth's surface, solar radiation is found to be not
uniformly intense.
Day-night patterns are caused by the earth's rotation around its own axis and by its
motion around the sun in an elliptical orbit, which results in seasons such as summer,
winter, and rain. The earth is closest to the sun during the summer, and farthest from it

during the winter. Consequently, the intensity of solar radiation varies from season to
season on earth. Radiation intensity refers to the amount of radiation received per unit
time per unit area on the earth's surface.
Conventional energy sources:
1) Coal- In the deep crust of the earth, ancient forests and other living organisms are
buried and form coal. Globally, coal deposits can be found in many places. It has a
calorific value of 5000 kcal/m' based on its average carbon content of 49%. Three
thousand million tonnes of coal are used annually out of the 75,000 billion tonnes of
coal reservoir in the earth crust. The United States, Russia, and China produce 15%
of the total coal. West Bengal and Bihar have a large coal deposit, from which the
majority of electricity is generated through thermal power stations.
2) Oil, and nature gas-The process of the formation of the oil reservoir takes
hundreds of years. Oil reservoirs are found in deep earth crust in sediments. Crude oil
is the world's major energy source. Crude oil contains high carbon, i.e. up to 83-87%.
The oil also has 10250 -10920 kcal/kg of calorific value. Some of the by-products of
crude oil are LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas), Gasoline„ Kerosine, Naptha, Diesel,
Lubricant Oil, Grease, Paraffin etc. India's first reservoir of crude oil was found in
Assam in 1867 and crude oil extraction started in 1890 at Lakhimpur, Digboie. In 1974
Bombay High crude oil reservoir was found in the Arabian sea. The annual production
of crude oil in India is 80 lakh tonnes. The transportation industry largely utilizes 22
lakh barrels of petrol and diesel annually.
Reservoirs of natural gase lying in the deep earth crust have gases like methane,
butane, hydrogen and the calorific value of them is in between 3000-4000 kcal/m'.
Natural gas is popular for its easy use and high efficiency. Two-third of the natural gas
reservoir of the world is located in Russia, the Middle East while America and Canada
are leading in the production and utilization of natural gas.
Non-conventional energy sources:
1) Hydroelectric power-In India, presently 10,000 MW capacity hydro-power projects

are working. For producing hydroelectric power, the water flowing down a natural

gradient is used to turn turbines which generate electricity. Hydro-power is a famous
source of generating electricity and it gives many benefits. In India 271 hydroelectric
projects are operated. Koyana Dam power project produces 4000 MW electricity daily.
2) Tidal power- Tide is a periodic rise and fall of the water levelof the sea, which is
carried by the action of the attractive gravitational force exerted by of the sun and moon
on the water on the surface of earth. The first attempt to utilize energy of the ocean was
made in the form of the tidal ―mills‖ in the eleventh century in Grate Britain and latter in
France and Spain. The large scale up and down movement of the seawater represents
an unlimited source of energy. If some part of this vast energy is converted in to
electrical energy it would be an important source of hydropower. The main feature of the
tidal cycle is the difference in water surface elevations at the high tide and at the low
tide. At the time of the high tide water surface is elevated to high level and this elevated
can be allowed to store in the basin. During low tide ocean water level is low and hence
water stored in the basin at high level is allowed to flow through the turbine to the
ocean. This flowing water rotates the turbine. Rotational motion of the turbine is given to
the generator to produce electricity as shown in the following figure.
Figure No.8: Principle of Tidal Power
3) Wind energy-After the fuel crisis in 1973, a search has been started for a clean, safe
and renewable energy source. Out of the available source wind energy is found to be
one of the better options. In the past centuries wind energy was used in many
applications. One of the most popular uses of the wind energy was for transportation in

sailing ships. Other uses of wind energy were in agricultural as well as in rural
applications, such as grinding flour mills, wood cutting saw, stone crushers, mixers,
water pumps, irrigation facilities etc.
Apart from these applications wind energy is used for driving wind mills. In the last few
decades conversion of wind energy into useful electrical energy has attracted the
attention of people. Some small windmills were used for electricity production ahead of
rural electrification program but the development of the internal combustion engines and
steam engine for electricity production led to rapid decline in the use of the wind of
power in most part of the world.
In India by 1990 wind energy to electrical energy has become economically competitive
in areas of favorable wind [e.g. Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu] and wind electric
energy systems are now on the forefront of renewable energy utilization. Several wind
turbine generators have been installed throughout the world. In this way wind energy is
supposed to a best resource of future energy.
Windmills convert wind power into electricity. The average wind speed of particular
areas defines the production capacity of electricity. Technological progress is
providing' windmills of high capacity. Wind speed increase with the increase in
altitude. Today Denmark and California, USA, have large privately operated wind
turbines which, sell electricity to the government grids. At present wind farms of
Tamilnadu are producing 850 megawatts (MW) of electricity
4) Geothermal energy-The thermal energy contained in the interior of the earth is

called the geothermal energy. Geothermal energy is also one of the renewable energy
sources. Geothermal energy has practically no intermittency, has highest energy
density, and is economically not far removed from conventional technologies. The
geothermal energy is enormous and will last for several millions of years. The evidence
of enormous geothermal energy stored deep inside the earth is in the form of
(1) Hot water springs.

(2) The geysers. Hot water and steam released periodically from small vents in the
grounds in volcanic region or geothermal fields.

(3) Fumaroles. Hot steam and gases released from small vents in the ground in
volcanic regions or geothermal fields.
(4) Volcanic eruptions. Eruptions of geothermal energy in large quantities releasing
hot lava, rocks, ash, mud, forming a typical conical hill or mountain.
Geothermal energy is a proven resource for direct heat and power generation. In over
30 countries geothermal resources provide directly used heat capacity of 12000 mw
and electric power generation capacity of 8,000 mw. It meets a significant portion of the
electrical power demand in several developing countries. For example, in the
Philippines geothermal provides 27% of that country‘s total electrical generation, from
power plant complexes as large as 700 mw.
Individual geothermal power plants can be as small as 100kw or as large as 100 mw
depending on the energy resource and power demand. The technology is suitable for
rural electrification and mini- grid application in addition to national grid application.
Direct use of geothermal heat can boost agriculture and aquaculture production in
colder climates and supply heat for industrial processes that can add value to local
primary products. Geothermal resources may be especially important and significant in
developing nations where no indigenous fossil fuel resources such as oil, coal or natural
gas exist. For example in Tibet, where no readily available fossil fuels exist, the nagqu
geothermal field provides a useful energy source for the local population.
Costs of geothermal electric power are very much dependent on the character of the
resource and project size. The unit costs of power currently range from 2.5 to over 10
us cents per kilowatt-hour while steams costs may be as low as us $3.5 per ton. Major
factors affecting cost are the depth and temperature of the resource, well productivity,
environmental compliance, project infrastructure and economic factors such as the
scale of development, and project financing costs.
Geothermal energy is an important resource in volcanically active places such as
Iceland and New Zealand. How useful it is depends on how hot the water gets. This
depends on how hot the rocks were to start with, and how much water we pump down
to them. Water is pumped down an ―injection well‖, filters through the cracks in the
rocks in the hot region, and comes back up the ―recovery well‖ under pressure. It
―flashes‖ into steam when it reaches the surface. The steam may be used to drive turbo

generator, or passed through a heat exchanger to heat water to warm houses. A town
in Iceland is heated this way. The steam must be purified before it is used to drive a
turbine.
The temperature of earth increases with depth. The average increase in temperature
with depth is about 25 to 300C per kilometre. This is called as average temperature
gradient. Therefore, it is necessary to drill 10 km deep production wells to obtain
geothermal fluids at significant temperature of the order of 300 0C.the planet earth
originated from the sun several years ago and is cooling slowly. The earth was
originally a mass of hot liquids, gases and steam. As the fields cooled by loosing heat to
the atmosphere, the outer solid crust; oceans and lakes were formed. The average
thickness of cooler outer crust is about 30 km. Hot dry rocks, hot gases and liquids are
deposited in the region below average depth of 2800 km. The magma is in the
temperature range of 1250 to15000C. The centre of the earth is at temperature of
45000C. The inner core of the earth has several minerals including iron, nickel, silicon
and magnesium.
The geothermal fields are the regions in which energy deposits are available at a
depthless than 1500 to 30000C. The hot magma near the surface solidifies into igneous
rock. Igneous rock found at the surface is called volcanic rock. The heat of magma is
conducted upward to this igneous rock. Ground water finds its way down to this rock
through cracks in it. This cold water will be heated by the heat of the rock or by mixing
with hot gases and steam originating from the magma. The heated water will then rise
convectively upward and into porous and permeable reservoir above the igneous rock.
A layer of impermeable solid rock, which traps the hot water in the reservoir, caps this
reservoir. However the solid rock has fissures that act as vents of the giant
underground boiler. The vents show up at surface as geysers, fumaroles or hot springs.
A well taps steam from the fissure for use in a geothermal power plant.

Figure No.9: Geothermal Field
5) Solar collectors-
a) Photovoltaic’s-Solar cell is the semiconductor device which converts the radiant

energy into the form of electrical energy. The radiant energy is given by the relation E =
h ν. The electrical energy device consists of the source of electrons and the sink of
electrons. When source and sink are connected through external circuit, there flows the
current. So the requirement is to produce the sources of electrons and holes at the
consumption of the radiant energy. This can be done with a semiconductor. When a
photon of energy h ν, greater than the band gap energy Eg of a semiconductor, is

absorbed, a pair of electron and hole is generated. However, the electron with negative
and hole with positive charge attract and annihilate immediately. As a result, though the
electrons and holes are generated within a single piece of a semiconductor by the
absorption of radiant energy one cannot get externally the electrons to flow. However,
one creates a situation wherein the electrons and holes are immediately separated
produces electricity. This is done with junction device.
Types of Solar Cells: The key parameter involved in the principle operation of solar
cell is the existence of the local field or the built in potential needed to separate the
electrons and holes generated due to incidence of photons on a semiconductor. This
built in potential can be generated by making the junctions and by the virtue of the
nature of the junction, the solar cells can be grouped into the following four categories
namely: 1) Semiconductor - semiconductor junction cells, 2) Semiconductor-metal
junction cells, 3) Semiconductor-liquid junction cells and 4) MIS SIS cells
(a) Semiconductor - Semiconductor Junction Cells:There are two types of S-S junction
cells namely homo junction and hetero junction cells. The homo junction cell normally
consists of a shallow p-n junction formed either by diffusion of dopant into a mono-
crystalline semiconductor substrate or by growth of an epitaxial layer onto the substrate.
Silicon and gallium arsenide are two common materials used with the diffused silicon
cell, being the most popular.
A hetero junction consists of the interface between two dissimilar semiconductors.

Depending on the nature of the interface the hetero junction cells can further be
classified as abrupt or graded according to the distances during which the transition
from one semiconductor to other is completed near the interface. For example in the
former case the transition occurs within a few atomic distances (≤ 1 μm) while in latter it
takes place over distances of the order of several diffusion lengths. Hetero junctions are
fabricated by growth or diffusion of one semiconductor onto the other.
(b) Semiconductor- Metal junction Cells (Schottky Barrier cells):Semiconductor –metal

junction cells which can be modeled, in first order approximation, as Schottky barrier
cells, are probably the simplest of all types to fabricate, requiring only an ohmic contact

at the back and a semitransparent metal at the front, along with usual contact grid
pattern to lower the series resistance. The transparent metal film is normally
evaporated onto the carefully prepared semiconductor surface and films of about 100 A0
thickness yield transmission of about 5-50 ohms/square cm. The thin semi-transparent
metal layer permits passage of solar photons and forms the transition region in the
semiconductor for collection of generated carriers. Because of the presence of the built
in field, the collection efficiency for carriers excited in the barrier transition region will be
100%. A major loss of photons is due to incomplete transmission of barrier metal layer
which is required to be thick enough for low series resistance.
(c) Semiconductor-Liquid Junction Cells:In recent years semiconductor-liquid junction

cells have been attracting a great deal of interest in the field of solar energy conversion
as the photo-voltaic behavior of a semiconductor liquid electrolyte interface can be
utilized either to affect photo electrolysis, where light energy is converted into chemical
energy in the form of the free energy of resultant products or to convert light energy
onto electrical energy through the use of electrochemical photo-voltaic (ECPV) cells. It
essentially consists of a semiconductor photo electrode and metallic counter electrode
dipped into an electrolyte. Charge transfer at the semiconductor electrolyte interface
produces a band bending VB as a result of formation of space charge region,
establishing a potential barrier. The direction of the field is such that for n-type
semiconductor, holes generated in the space charge region move towards the interface
and excess electrons move towards the bulk.
Though the semiconductor-liquid junction cells are superior to the p-n junction
cells in many respects, there are two major problems associated with semiconductor –
liquid junction cells namely i) the photo corrosion that occurs when the semiconductor is
immersed in an electrolyte is subjected to illumination and ii) the over voltage.
(d) MIS and SIS Solar Cells:The most common way of forming a solar cell is to create a
p-n junction by high temperature diffusion (800-1100 0C), where the conductivity type of
the base semiconductor is changed to the positive type. Since this process is
complicated and costly one, there has been a steady search for alternate and potentially
lower cost methods of forming a photovoltaic barrier or junction at low temperature. One

of these techniques consists of inducing conductivity type change at the surface of
semiconductor by the application of an ultra thin metal or a relatively thick transparent
(wide band) conducting semiconductor.
b) Solar ponds-The solar pond is a simple device for collecting and storing solar heat.
Natural ponds convert solar radiation into heat, but the heat is quickly lost through
convection in the pond and evaporation from its surface. A solar pond, on the other
hand, is designed to reduce convective and evaporative heat losses so that useful
amounts of heat can be collected and stored.
An artificially constructed pond in which significant temperatures rises are caused to

occur in the lower regions by preventing convection is called a ―Solar pond‖. The solar
pond combines solar energy collection and sensible heat storage. Temperature
inversions have been observed in natural lakes having high concentration gradients of
dissolved salts (i.e., concentrated solution at the bottom and dilute solution at the top).
This phenomenon suggested the possibility of constructing large-scale horizontal solar
collectors as ponds. Non-convective solar ponds have been proposed as a simple
relatively inexpensive method of collecting and storing solar energy on a large scale.
The two fundamental characteristics of solar energy, namely its diluteness and
intermittent nature, are also the reasons why it is not being harnessed on a large
scale at present. First of all, collectors fabricated using materials such as glass,
metals, wood etc. have size limitations and therefore a large number of them with
suitable interconnections are needed to collect large amount of solar energy.
Secondly, to supply energy ‗on demand‘ requires some sort of energy storage and
reconversion system to smooth out the variation in the isolation due to cloud cover,
seasonal and diurnal effects.
Solar ponds promise an economical way around these two problems by employing
a mass of water for both collection and storage of energy. The energy is stored in
low grade (60 to 100°), thermal for that, in it, might be suitable for a variety of
applications such as space heating and industrial process heat.

Figure No.11: Typical Solar Pond
Solar ponds can also be classified as shallow solar pond, partitioned solar
pond, viscosity stabilized solar pond, membrane stratified solar pond and
saturated solar pond. A brief discussion is given below.
a) Shallow solar pond (SSP): A shallow solar pond is a body of water with
shallow depth acting as large collector and storage of solar radiation. It is
large area, low cost collector where water is directly exposed to solar
radiation and enclosed in a thermal insulating base material and one or two
sheets of glazing.
b) Partitioned Solar ponds: In a partitioned solar pond, the low convective zone
non-convective zone is separated by a transparent portion and the process
of operation remains the same as the convectional salt gradient solar pond.
The idea of partitioned solar pond was given by Rabl and Nielson, so that
lower convective zone can be used for seasonal storage of heat for house
heating.
c) Viscosity stabilized solar ponds: In the viscosity stabilized solar pond a kind
of gel is used in water, making it non-convective. The idea of viscosity

stabilized solar pond was first given by Shafer and the phenomenon can be
described as static rather than stable.
6) Nuclear-fission and fusion- This form of energy is associated with the fusion and
fission reactions. In case of fission reaction, heavy element when bombarded with a
neutrino it breaks into two small elements. In such cases the mass of basic ingredient is
different than of the total mass of the final products. Hence here is loss of mass m. this
loss of mass in nuclear reaction is converted into the tremendous amount of energy.
E = m c2
For example, when uranium 235(u235) is bombard by neutron gives rise to fission
onreaction producing tremendous amount of nuclear energy. Nuclear
fusion is combining of two nuclei accompanied by release of heat. Nuclear fusion is
likely to solve energy problem of the world during the 21st century.
(1) Fission - As a result of nuclear fission, a heavy nucleus is split into two lighter nuclei.
Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner, and Fritz Strassmann discovered fission in 1938 by
bombarding uranium with neutrons in an effort to create new elements with Z > 92. It
was observed that lighter elements such as barium (Z = 56) were formed during this
reaction, which prompted them to conclude that neutron-induced fission of uranium-235
must be the cause of these products. Each dividing nucleus releases more than one
neutron during a nuclear fission reaction. This self-sustaining series of nuclear fission
reactions is known as a nuclear chain reaction when neutrons collide with neighboring
nuclei and induce fission (Figure 12). Two to three neutrons are released during the
fission of 235U, for example. The rate of the fission reaction increases geometrically if
those neutrons are absorbed by other 235U nuclei. An event series is referred to as a
generation. In experiments, it has been found that there is a minimum mass of a fissile
isotope required to sustain a nuclear chain reaction; if the mass is too low, too many
neutrons are able to escape without being captured. Critical mass refers to the minimum
mass that can sustain sustained fission. The amount of neutrons emitted depends on
the purity of the material and the shape of the mass, which corresponds to the amount
of surface area available from which neutrons can escape. Under the right conditions, a

fissile isotope with a mass greater than its critical mass can release explosive energy.
As a result of nuclear chain reactions, enormous amounts of energy are released and
are responsible for the destruction caused by nuclear weapons such as fission bombs,
as well as forming the basis of the nuclear power industry.
Figure No.12: Fission Nuclear reaction
(2) Fusion -In contrast to nuclear fission, nuclear fusion occurs when two light nuclei
combine to form a heavier, more stable nucleus. Due to the positive charge on both
nuclei, there is a large electrostatic energy barrier to fusion, as in nuclear transmutation

reactions discussed in Section 20.2. It is possible to overcome this barrier by allowing
the two nuclei to approach close enough for fusion to occur if one or both particles
possess sufficient kinetic energy to overcome electrostatic repulsions. Adding heat to a
chemical reaction increases its rate in a similar manner. In Figure 13, nuclear binding
energy per nucleon is plotted against atomic number, and it can be seen that fusion
reactions are most exothermic for light elements. Deuterium-deuterium fusion (D-D
fusion) is a process by which two deuterium atoms combine to form helium-3 in a typical
fusion reaction.
Figure No.13: Fusion Nuclear reaction

7) Magneto-hydrodynamic power (MHD)-The principle of Magneto Hydrodynamics
(MHD) power generation enables direct conversation of thermal energy to electrical
energy. MHD power generation works on the principle that described by Faraday: When
an electric conductor moves across a magnetic field, a voltage is induced in it, which
produces an electric current. In MHD generators, the solid conductors are replaced by a
fluid, which is electrically conducting. The working fluid may be either ionized gas or
liquid metal. The hot, partially ionized and compressed gas is expanded in a duct, and
forced through a strong magnetic field; electrical potential is generated in the gas.
Electrodes placed on the side of the duct pick up potential generated in the gas. In this
manner, direct current is obtained which can be converted into AC with the aid of an
inverter.
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CREDIT 02 -UNIT 2-4: ENERGY USE PATTERN:
Learning Objectives
 Energy use pattern in different parts of the world and its impact on the
environment.
 CO2 emission in atmosphere.
 Conventional energy sources: coal, oil, and nature gas.
2-4 ENERGY USE PATTERN IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD AND ITS
IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT. CO2 EMISSION IN ATMOSPHERE.
2-4 Energy use pattern in different parts of the world and its impact on the
environment- Energy and environment are two sides of a coin. One thing to be noted
is that, while man‘s large-scale use of commercial energy has lead to a better quality of
life, it has also created many problems. The most serious of these is the harmful effect
on the environment. The combustion of fossil fuels has caused serious air pollution
problems. It has also resulted in the phenomenon of the global warming which now a
matter of great concern. Similarly, the release of large amount of heat from power
plants has caused thermal pollution in lakes and rivers leading to the destruction of
many forms of plants and animal life. In the case of nuclear power plants, there is also
concern over the possibility of radioactivity being released into the atmospheres. The
gravity of a man embarks on the search for alternative sources of energy, it is clear that
he would do well to keep the environment clean.
Air, water, and land are all impacted by electricity generation, but they do so differently.
Each person's environmental footprint includes the energy used to generate electricity,
which accounts for about 40% of total energy consumption in the United States. As a
result of producing and using electricity more efficiently, greenhouse gases and other air
pollutants are reduced as well. Renewable sources of energy such as solar,
geothermal, and wind produce electric power without burning fuel, which is beneficial for
the environment.

The number of family units on the planet will reach 2.8 billion by 2040, representing a
growth of almost 50% from 2010. In addition to powering appliances such as computers
and ventilation systems, these families will require vitality for lighting, cooking, boiling
water, and refrigeration. Through 2040, each district will experience an increase in
family units; however, Africa, China, India, and Latin America will see the strongest
growth. There will be approximately 60 percent of all families on earth in these four
districts by the year 2040. Family unit development will more than counterbalance
anticipated improvements in private vitality productivity by 2040, resulting in a rise in
interest in this market segment. Technology is responsible for energy consumption,
while society is responsible for energy conservation. There are 72% of people living in
developing nations, but they account for only 23% of the world's total energy
consumption. Nevertheless, considering that they earn around $300 per capita every
year, it becomes apparent that, despite their low energy consumption, they are very
wasteful in the use of energy. The preservation of energy is also vital due to the fact that
using non-inexhaustible resources has a negative impact on the environment. As a
direct result of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere, the Earth's temperature is
raised. A fundamental change in our climate may result from this warming pattern.
Potential effects include a risk to human health, ecological effects, such as rising sea
levels that may damage beach front regions, and changes in vegetation development
designs that could result in the extinction of some plants and creatures. There is a
substantial dependence on built-up meanings of energy effectiveness in the current
arrangement attempts to decrease a global temperature change. As a result, these
definitions largely miss the natural goal of reducing CO2 emissions, since they do not
take into account total levels of energy use or the unpredictable relationship between
efficiency and emissions.
Energy consumption and CO2 emission in atmosphere- Man extracts energy from
the nature in the form of raw energy (primary energy sources). The primary energy
sources are processed and transformed to intermediate and finally useable energy
forms. The energy conversion processes are accompanied with pollution problems.

A major portion of energy is transformed to electrical form by power such as plants.
Coal fired power plants emit solid particles. So x, NOx, CO, CO2 and waster heat and
chemicals etc. into the environment. Pollution of the environment disturbs the
ecological balance, which leads to global warming and climate change. The world‘s
annual energy consumption rate is increasing at a rate of 2 to 4 percent. Nuclear power
plants, thermal power plants, chemical conversion plants etc. are emitting solid, liquid
and gaseous pollutants in the environment. Gaseous pollution is causing greenhouse
effect and global warming.
Figure
No.14 Global carbon emissions from fossil fuel use, from 1850-1990 and as
projected to 2100 – in billions of tones of carbon (GtC)
Various energy-consuming devices require corresponding emission factors to calculate

CO2 emissions. A kilogram of CO2 is released for every kilowatt hour of
electricity. Refrigerators contribute significantly to CO2 emissions in the residential

sector. Residential refrigerators are used round-the-clock. There is a consequent
increase in CO2 emissions due to this. A tube light, a television, fans, and an air
conditioner follow. The CO2 emissions caused by other energy carriers in the residential
sector are caused by LPG. Approximately 76% of all residential CO2 emissions come
from electricity, while 24% come from gas. Compared to electricity (46%), LPG
consumes more energy (54%) but emits less CO2 (24%). According to the World Bank,
India consumes 0.606 tons of energy per person per year. Based on data collected from
the Davangere city survey, the same conclusion can be drawn. Both results are also
calculated for CO2 emissions. Davangerecity alone consumes 12.8% of India's energy
annually, while CO2 emissions stand at around 33%.
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C REDIT 03
CREDIT 03 -UNIT 3-1: BIO CATALYSIS AND NONCONVENTIONAL ENERGY:

Learning Objectives
 Biocatalysts, green chemistry in industries, fuel cell and electric vehicles, solar
energy and hydrogen production, energy from alternate sources;
 Solar photovoltaic technology.
3-1 BIO CATALYSIS AND NONCONVENTIONAL ENERGY: BIOCATALYSTS, GREEN

CHEMISTRY IN INDUSTRIES, FUEL CELL AND ELECTRIC VEHICLES, SOLAR
ENERGY AND HYDROGEN PRODUCTION, ENERGY FROM ALTERNATE
SOURCES; SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC TECHNOLOGY.
3-1: Bio catalysis and nonconventional energy:
1) Biocatalysts-The term catalysis was coined by Berzelius in 1836 (Greek: to

dissolve). It was in 1878 that Kuhne first used the term enzyme to describe the
catalysis that occurs in biological systems (Greek: in yeast). During the course of 1883,
Buchner succeeded in the isolation of the enzyme system from an extract of yeast that
was cell-free. This enzyme can convert sugar into alcohol, which he named zymase
(later found to contain a mixture of enzymes). Identifying urease as a protein was
achieved in 1926 by James Sumner by isolating and crystallizing it from jack bean.
Global challenges require the use of biocatalysis, such as climate change, fossil fuel
replacement, and feeding a growing population-basically because bioprocessing in
food, feed, and nonfood industries optimizes resource efficiency. Biocatalysis is carried
out by microbial enzymes. In addition to being specific and efficient, enzymes are also
reusable (they do not have to be consumed). Through the use of enzyme molecules,
industrial processes can become more sustainable by switching from chemical to
enzymatic (biocatalytic) processes, using less energy, and producing less waste. In the
new bioeconomy era, enzymes and biocatalysis play a key role in producing biobased
products sustainably.
Millions of years of evolution have produced excellent catalysts. Proteins (enzymes or

catalytic antibodies) are the most common, but deoxynucleic acids with similar catalytic

properties are also found. Applied biocatalysis has used only enzymes of these
naturally occurring catalysts until now. A cell or an entire organism cannot survive or
reproduce without enzymes, which catalyze chemical reactions (and energetic
transformations). There are several kinds of biocatalysts, including cells in a viable or
non-viable state, plants in a growing or non-growing state, and enzymes in individual
states. The alternative reaction path they provide has a lower activation energy than the
corresponding uncatalyzed reaction, so they increase equilibrium rate without altering
equilibrium constant.
Advantages of Biocatalysis- Despite being completely degradable in the environment,

enzymes are harmless to the environment. There are usually no undesirable side-
effects of enzymes when they are run under mild to biological conditions, as opposed to
traditional methods, which are prone to decomposition, isomerization, racemization, and
rearrangement. A solid support can be used to immobilize enzymes selected for
chemoenzymatic synthesis. Stability and reusability of these immobilized enzymes have
been improved.
A non-natural reactivity of enzymes can be achieved through site-directed mutagenesis

and directed evolution, which are components of protein engineering. A modification
may also enable a wider substrate range, an increase in reaction rate, or a quicker
turnover of the catalyst. A wide range of substrates can be selected by enzymes. The
three major types of selectivity displayed by enzymes are:
(1) As enzymes are intended to act on a single type of functional group, other sensitive
functionalities, which must be reacted under chemical catalysis to a certain degree,
survive. Consequently, biocatalytic reactions are generally "cleaner" and do not require
extensive purification of products to remove impurities arising from side reactions.
(2) Isoselectivity and diastereoselectivity: Because enzymes possess complex three-

dimensional structures, they are capable of discriminating between functional groups
that lie in different chemical regions of the substrate molecule.
(3) Enzymes are chiral catalysts due to their composition, which is almost entirely L-
amino acids. Therefore, upon the formation of the enzyme-substrate complex, any type

of chirality present in the substrate molecule will be "recognized." For example, a
prochiral substrate could be transformed into an optically active product, whereas both
enantiomers of a racemic substrate could undergo different reactions.
Synthetic chemists are increasingly interested in biocatalysis for these reasons, and
particularly for the latter. Pharmaceutical drugs and agrochemicals require chiral
building blocks to synthesize enantiopure compounds.
2. Green chemistry in industries- An innovative research forum on green and

sustainable technologies is provided by Green Chemistry. Green Chemistry is defined
in accordance with Anastas and Warner (Green Chemistry: Theory and Practice, P T
Anastas and J C Warner, Oxford University Press, Oxford 1998). In the design,
manufacture, and application of chemical products, green chemistry refers to the use of
principles that reduce or eliminate the use of hazardous substances.
As a leading interdisciplinary science, Green Chemistry publishes research that

attempts to reduce the environmental impact of chemical enterprises through the
development of technology that is intrinsically non-toxic to living things and the
environment, and is at the forefront of this constantly changing interdisciplinary
science. We welcome submissions on any aspect of research relating to this endeavor.
Figure No.15: Principles of Green Chemistry

(1) Green chemistry in Textile industry-The traditional process of separating starch from
textiles consisted of treating them with acid, alkali, or oxidizing agents or soaking them
in water for several days, without taking into account the role played by microorganisms
in this process. The material was often damaged or discolored as a result of this
practice, which was difficult to control. Enzymes from other sources were first used,
followed by crude enzyme extracts in the form of malt extract, and later in the form of
pancreas extract. In a wide range of processes, microorganisms produce biocatalysts.
Chemical processing in the textile industry has always been a major source of global
pollution. In these alternative processes, biocatalysts play a crucial role. As far back as
a century ago, biocatalysts were used in textiles. In 1917, Boidin and Effront used
bacterial amylase derived from Bacillus subtilis for the first time for desizing.
(2) Green chemistry in Detergents- A breakthrough in detergent manufacturing

occurred in 1959 when Dr. Jaag developed Bio 40, a product containing bacterial
proteases instead of trypsin. Bacillus subtilis or Bacillus licheniformis are common soil
bacteria used to produce large quantities of these biocatalysts commercially. Rapid
advancements in enzymology and fermentation technology have made this possible
over the last two decades. In spite of the fact that many other microorganisms produce
proteases and amylases, the types secreted by the above strains are superior because
they function best in the warm, alkaline conditions present in washing liquids.
Additionally, laundry detergents must not lose their activity in environments which
contain a variety of potentially inhibitory chemicals routinely incorporated into the
formulation, including surface active agents, magnesium or calcium ions, builders
(sodium tripolyphosphate), perfumes, and other additives.
(3) Green Chemistry in Starch industry- The use of fungal amylase came about
because it was necessary for the manufacture of some types of syrup. These syrups
contained a range of sugars that were inaccessible to conventional acid hydrolysis.
Glucoamylase, which breaks down starch into glucose, was introduced for the first time
in the 1960s, changing this practice. This process was further improved when heat
stable alpha amylase was developed. In addition to sugarcane, sweet sorghum, and
nipa palms, which are candidates for alcohol fuel production, high-yield sugar cane,

sweet sorghum, and sugar beets can all be processed to produce sugars and alcohols.
Additionally, starch-containing crops like cassava, sweet potatoes, yams, taro, and
tannia are suitable candidates, however, starch needs to be broken down to sugar
before it is used to produce glucose and alcohols. Since most biomass contains
cellulose, it requires special treatment before it can be used. As a result of years of
research in biochemistry and biotechnology, knowledge of biocatalyst has gained
popularity in industry and research, and new techniques have been developed to modify
enzymes and discover new uses for them in medicine, research, and industry.
Therefore, it has become necessary to devise efficient extraction and production
methods for enzymes.
(4) Green Chemistry in Biodiesel production- It is not a new concept to use biodiesel
as an energy source, but it has become increasingly popular due to the escalating price
of petroleum and, more importantly, the depletion of fossil fuels (oil and gas) within 35
years, as well as the concern that burning fossil fuels is contributing to global warming.
To the extent that governments are moving toward biofuel production, biodiesel is much
more environmentally friendly than burning fossil fuels. Biodiesel production has
increased significantly in recent years based on the global market survey. In order to
produce biodiesel, natural oils and fats are chemically combined with an alcohol such as
methanol and a catalyst (e.g., lipases) for the transesterification process. During
transesterification, acids, alkalis, and lipase enzymes perform the catalysis. A significant
advantage of using lipases is that they are more efficient, highly selective, require less
energy (reactions can be carried out under mild conditions), and produce fewer side
products or waste (which is environmentally friendly). The cost of the catalyst, however,
makes it currently not feasible. It is most commonly lipase B from Candida antarctica
that is used for the production of biodiesel. An acrylic resin immobilizes Novozym 435
(previously known as SP435), a product supplied by Novozymes.
(5) Green chemistry in Bioremediation- A microorganism or plant cleans the

environment. When pollutants are fully biodegraded, they are mineralized to carbon
dioxide, water, and harmless inorganic salts. Biodegradation that is incomplete will
result in breakdown products that are less toxic than the original pollutants. The process

is believed to involve the use of a number of microbial groups. Crude oil can be
degraded by Bacillus subtillis. Heavy metals contained in soil or water can also be
degraded by Vibrio cholera. As cellulose and lignin decompose, fungi play an important
role. Several plants, such as Brassica juncea, tomato, and alpine pennycress, are also
capable of accumulating contaminants (arsenic) in their roots and leaves. A number of
plants are capable of evaporating/transpiring selenium, mercury, and other volatile
hydrocarbons found in soil and water.
(6) Green Chemistry in Food Industry- Microorganisms can produce enzymes that can
be used in food industries. Many of the products we use every day, such as cheese,
curd, beer, and bread, are biotechnologically made. The traditional method of preparing
cheese uses calf rennet, a protease. Microorganisms containing the calf rennet gene
have been developed in recent years (E. coli, A. niger). Saccahromycescerevisae
strains are used to make soft bread and brew beer in the baking and brewing industries.
Milk products like curd are made with Lactobacillus bacteria (Lactobacillus species).
Pectinases make canned juices clear when they are added to different species of
Penicillium. A grain fermentation process (old technology) is currently used to produce
ethanol. In the process of converting crop residues (stems, leaves, and hulls) to ethanol,
cellulose enzymes are used. The reduced CO2 emissions (compared to oil) amount to
more than 90%. Uses a renewable feedstock to increase domestic energy production.
Yeast can ferment sugarcane molasses (dark syrup), which contains fructose and
glucose, into alcohol in Brazil. Fuel for motor vehicles is produced by distilling alcohol,
mixing it with petrol and burning it. Gasohol is the name given to it. Microorganisms like
Methanobacterium spp. can ferment domestic wastes or biodegradable wastes. to
convert it into biogas.
3. Fuel cell and electric vehicles-It may be defined as an electrochemical device for
the continuous conversation of the free energy change in a chemical reaction to
electrical energy. It is distinguished from a battery in that it operates with continuous
replenishment of the fuel and the oxidant at active electrode area and does not require
recharging. Main components of fuel cell are (i) a fuel electrode, (ii) an oxidant or
electrode and (iii) an electrolyte. Some of the advantages of fuel cells are :

(1) It is a direct conversation process and does not involve a thermal process, so it
has high operating efficiency.
(2) The unit is lighter, smaller and needs less maintenance.
(3) Fuel power plants may further cut generation cots by reducing transmission
losses.
(4) Little pollution, little noise, so that at can be readily acceptable in residential
areas.
(5) The primary drawbacks of fuel cells are, then low voltage, high initial costs and
low service life.
Scientist Humphry Davy presented the concept of the fuel cell in 1801, however William
Grove, a chemist, lawyer, and physicist, was the first to demonstrate a working fuel cell.
An electrochemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen over a platinum catalyst
was demonstrated in 1842 by Grove's experiments with a "gas voltaic battery." From
1939 to 1959, Francis Thomas Bacon developed and demonstrated several Alkaline
fuel cells based on Grove's work.
Around 1959, an Allis-Chalmers farm tractor fitted with a 15 kilowatt fuel cell became
the first modern fuel cell vehicle. Fuel cell technology was further developed during the
Cold War Space Race. During the Project Gemini program, fuel cells were tested to
provide electrical power to crewed space missions. In the course of the Apollo Program,
fuel cell development continued. During the Apollo program, alkali fuel cells were used
as the power sources for the electrical systems in the capsules and lunar modules. In
1966, General Motors introduced the Chevrolet Electrovan, the first road vehicle to use
fuel cells. With a PEM fuel cell, the vehicle had a range of 120 miles and a top speed of
70 mph. In order to accommodate the fuel cell stack and the large hydrogen and oxygen
tanks located in the rear of the van, there were only two seats. As the project proved to
be too costly, only one was built.
There was continued work on PEM fuel cells in the 1970s by General Electric and
others. In the 1980s, fuel cell stacks were primarily used in space applications, such as
the Space Shuttle. Despite this, many industry experts were transferred to private
companies following the closure of the Apollo Program. A demonstration vehicle was

prepared in the 1990s to demonstrate the potential of fuel cell applications in
automobiles. In 2001, hydrogen tanks with a pressure of 700 Bar (10000 PSI) were
demonstrated. This resulted in a reduction in the size and range of fuel tanks that could
be used inside vehicles.
In FCEVs (Fuel Cell Electrical Vehicles), hydrogen is converted into electricity by the
fuel cell, in a manner similar to that of electric vehicles. These vehicles do not emit
harmful emissions from their tailpipes, as opposed to conventional vehicles powered by
internal combustion engines. The U.S. economy will also be strengthened by
diversifying its energy sources. A hydrogen gas tank is provided on the vehicle for the
purpose of fueling FCEVs. Their driving range is over 300 miles and they can be fueled
in less than four minutes, similar to conventional internal combustion engines. In
addition to regenerative braking systems, FCEVs are equipped with advanced
technologies to enhance their efficiency, including batteries that capture and store
energy lost during braking. A limited number of FCEVs are being offered in certain
markets by major automobile manufacturers, in accordance with the capabilities of the
developing infrastructure in those markets.
In 2008, Honda introduced the FCX Clarity concept car for lease by Japanese and
Southern Californian customers, but it was discontinued by 2015. A total of 45 FCX
units were leased by Honda in the US between 2008 and 2014. The GM HydroGen4
and Mercedes-Benz F-Cell were among the over 20 FCEV prototypes and
demonstration cars released during that period. In the period from 2014 to 2018, 54
Hyundai ix35 FCEV Fuel Cell vehicles were leased. The Nexo was introduced by
Hyundai in 2018. The Toyota Mirai was first sold to government agencies and corporate
clients in December 2014. Before taxes and a government incentive of $2,000
(US$19,600), the price of the car started at $6,700,000 (US$57,400). Initially, it is
estimated that Toyota will lose about $100,000 on each Mirai that is sold, according to
former European Parliament President Pat Cox. Global sales of Mirais reached 5,300
as of December 2017. There were 2,900 units sold in the U.S., 2,100 in Japan, and 200
in Europe.

Between 2016 and 2021, Honda produced the Clarity Fuel Cell. With a combined
city/highway rating of 67 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPGe), and 68 MPGe in
city driving, the 2017 Clarity achieved the highest fuel economy ratings among all
hydrogen fuel cell cars rated by the EPA that year. A spokesperson for Honda Europe
stated in 2019 that "our current focus is on hybrids and electric vehicles. Maybe
hydrogen fuel cell cars will emerge in the future, but that‘s a technology for the next
era." As a result of falling battery costs and increasing ranges of electric vehicles,
Daimler discontinued its development of FCEVs by 2017, and the majority of automobile
companies developing hydrogen vehicles shifted their focus to battery electric vehicles.
It is estimated that only three automobile manufacturers will still manufacture hydrogen
cars by 2020, or will have active manufacturing programs for them.
Hydrogen production-Hydrogen as an energy can play an important role as an

alternative to conversation fuels, for that technical problem of production, storage and
transportation can be resolved satisfactorily and the cost could be brought down to
acceptable limits. One of the most attractive features of hydrogen an energy carrier is
that it can be produced from water which is abundantly available in nature. Hydrogen
has the highest energy content per unit of mass than any chemical fuel and can be
substituted for hydrocarbons in a broad range of applications. Its burning process id
non-polluting and it can be used in fuel cells to produce both electricity and useful heat.
Hydrogen is the simplest element, composed of one proton and one electron. It makes
up more than 90% of the composition of the universe. More than 30% of the mass of the sun
is atomic hydrogen. It is the third most abundant element in the earth's surface, and is
found mostly in water under ordinary(earthly) conditions, hydrogen is colorless, odorless,
tasteless and non-poisonous gas composed of diatomic molecules.In recent years hydrogen
has been receiving worldwide, attention as a clean and efficient energy carrier with
potential to replace liquid fossil fuels. Significant progress has been reported by several
countries including India in the development of hydrogen energy as an energy carrier and an
alternative to fossil fuels.Serious concerns to energy security, depleting fossil fuel reserves,
green house gas emissions and air quality are driving this global transformation effort
towards a hydrogen - based economy.

(a) Properties of Hydrogen
i. Hydrogen at ordinary temperature and pressure is a light-gas with a density only

1/14th that of air and l/9th that of natural gas under the same conditions. By
cooling to the extremely low temperature of -253°C atatmospheric pressure,
the gas is condensed to a liquid with a specific gravity of 0.07, roughly 1/10th that
of gasoline.
ii. The standard heating value of hydrogen gas is 12.1 MJ/cu.m compared with an
average of 38.3 MJ/cu.m for natural gas. Hence for producing a specific amount
of energy, liquid hydrogen is superior to gasoline on a weight basis but inferior
on a volume basis.
iii. The flame speed of hydrogen burning in-air— is-much-greater than for natural
gas, and the energy required to initiate combustion (i.e. the ignition energy) is
less.
iv. Mixture of hydrogen and air are combustible over an exceptionally wide range of
compositions, thus, the flammability limits at ordinary temperatures extended from
4-74% by volume of hydrogen in air.
(b) Some attractive features of hydrogen are as follows
i. It can be produced from water, which is abundantly available in nature.

ii. Hydrogen has the highest energy content per unit mass of any chemical fuel
and
iii. can be substituted for hydrocarbons in a broad range of applications.
iv. Its burning process is non-polluting and
v. It can be used in fuel cells to produce both electricity and heat.
(c) Sources of Hydrogen -The hydrogen can be used as a fuel directly or it might
be used as a raw material. To produce methanol, ammonia or hydrocarbons by
using either carbon dioxide or nitrogen from the atmosphere. Hydrogen is
chemically very reactive and hence it is not found in free states on the earth.
However, combined chemically with other elements; it is present in H2O, fossil
hydrocarbons, biological materials such as cellulose, and starch etc. and

minerals such as bicarbonate rocks. Energy must be supplied to these
compounds to break the chemical bonds to release hydrogen. The hydrogen is a
secondary fuel that is produced by using primary source.
(d) Methods of Energy production –
I) Electrolysis or the electrolytic production of hydrogen - In this process water is spitted

into hydrogen and oxygen by means of direct electric current. This is the simplest method
of hydrogen production.
Figure No.16: Typical Electrolytic cell
In principle, an electrolytic cell consist of two electrodes immersed in an aqueous

conducting solution called as electrolyte. A source of direct current voltage is
connected to the electrodes so that an electric current can flows through the electrolyte
from the positive electrode (or anode) to the negative electrode (or cathode) as a
result, the water in the electrolyte solution is decomposed into hydrogen gas (H2) which is
released at the cathode, and oxygen gas (O2),released at the anode. Although only water is
split, an electrolyte (e.gKOH solution) is required because water itself is a very poor
conductor of electricity. Ideally, a voltage of 1.23 V should be sufficient for the electrolysis of
water at normal temperature and pressure. For, various reasons especially the slowness
of the electrode processes that lead to the liberation to hydrogen and oxygen gases, higher
voltages are required to decompose water.

The electrolysis efficiency can be increased by decreasing the decomposition voltage for
a given current density. To achieve this, the electrode surface must be able to catalyze
the electrode processes. One of the best catalysts is platinum in a finely divided form,
deposited on a metal base. However, because of the high cost of the platinum, other
electrode surface materials are used commercially. For practical water electrolysis, the
electrodes are generally of nickel- plated steel.
In some electrolytic ceils the diaphragm is present in between anode and cathode. It
prevents electronic contact between adjacent electrodes and passage of dissolved gas
or gas bubble, from one electrode compartment to another (leading to a decrease in current
efficiency and possible to explosions), without themselves offering an appreciable
resistance to the passage of current within the electrolyte.
II) Thermochemically production of hydrogen – In electrolysis of water, the electricity is

used for hydrogen production. Soconversion efficiency is less. Higher conversion efficiency
might be possible if the heat produced by the primary fuel could be used directly to
decompose water, without the intermediary of electrical energy. Such direct
decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen is possible, but it requires
temperature of at least 2500°C. Because of the temperature limitations and the conversion
process equipment, direct single step water conversion cannot be achieved.
However a sequential chemical reaction series can be devised in which hydrogen and
oxygen are produced, water is consumed and all other chemical intermediates are
recycled. This sequence of reactions is called a thermo-chemical cycle, because
energy is supplied as heat at one or more of thechemical stages. In reaction series,
water is taken up at one stage, and hydrogen and oxygen are produced separately in
different stages. The net result is the decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen.
Numerous candidate cycles have been suggested during past few years. Following are
the few cyclic processes, for which demonstration models are already available,
constructed mainly of glass/ quartz and giving a continuous production of about 100 liter
hydrogen per hour. These are the Westinghouse sulfur cycle, the Ispara mark 13 bromine
sulfur cycle and the general Atomic Co. iodine sulfur cycle.

Energy from alternate sources-Historically, fossil fuels have served as the primary
source of energy due to their relatively low price. We cannot continue to rely on finite
and polluting energy sources in the future, as our energy needs are expected to
increase. The last decade has seen an increase in our ability to generate renewable
energy, both locally and globally.
Our future energy needs will be met by alternative energy technologies such as solar
panels, wind turbines situated on and offshore, and hydroelectricity. A large part of the
environmental damage caused by our dependence on natural gas and oil can be
attributed to the use of these fossil fuels, which alone are responsible for an increase of
1.7% in carbon dioxide emissions in the atmosphere. To prevent further effects of
climate change on our planet, alternative energy sources will be a main focus. The
global renewable generation capacity reached 2,351 GW in 2019, according to IRENA's
annual Renewable Capacity Statistics. According to the percentage of alternative
energy sources, the following three sources are at the top:About half of the total amount
is derived from hydropower, which is 1,172 GW.
i. A total of 564 GW is generated by onshore and offshore wind energy.

ii. Photovoltaic and thermal solar power account for approximately 480 GW of
solar power.
There is a forecast that alternative energy sources will expand in every sector by 2023.
Electrification will become the main energy carrier on the path of decarbonisation, with
renewable energy generating the majority of the energy. In the heating sector,
alternative energy sources account for 12 percent, and in the transportation sector, they
account for only 3.8%.
Solar photovoltaic technology- Solar energy constant (also called solar power
density) is 1.373kW/m2 at the outer atmosphere. The earth's atmosphere absorbs and
scatters some of this energy. Sunlight incident on the surface of the earth at noon has a
peak density of 1kW/m2 in the tropics. Solar energy is converted into electrical energy
through the use of photovoltaics (PV). Solar cells are the fundamental component of a
PV system. Direct conversion of sunlight into electricity is possible with solar cells.

Photovoltaic electricity can be used to power consumer appliances such as lighting,
water pumping, refrigeration, telecommunications, and television. Electricity is
generated by solar cells through a quantum-mechanical process known as the
''photovoltaic effect''. Similar to a diode, most solar cells consist of a p-n junction in a
semiconductor material. A schematic diagram of the cross section through a crystalline
solar cell is shown in Figure 17. It consists of a 0.2-0.3mm thick monocrystalline or
polycrystalline silicon wafer which is doped (e.g., with boron and phosphorus) with two
layers with different electrical properties. When two silicon layers are negatively doped
(with phosphorus atoms) and positively doped (with boron atoms), an electric field is
established. A solar cell produces free charge carriers when light is incident on it
(photons). The electrical field separates the charge carriers. When a load is connected
to the external contacts, an electrical voltage is generated, enabling current to flow.
Radiation intensity determines the photocurrent (Iph), which is internally generated
within the solar cell.
Figure No.17:Working mechanism of Solar Photovoltaic Cell.
There are several types of photovoltaic power systems:

(1) Stand-alone
(2) Hybrid
(3) Grid connected

Figure 18a shows an example of a stand-alone PV system used in remote areas without
access to a utility grid. In remote areas, conventional power systems are often based on
diesel generators that operate continuously or for short periods of time. Maintenance
costs and the useful life of diesel generators are significantly increased when they are
operated at low load levels for an extended period of time. The addition of renewable
energy sources such as solar panels can enhance the efficiency and economics of
remote area power systems that depend on diesel and other fossil fuel-powered
generators to provide 24-hour power. In this case, the system is referred to as a hybrid
energy system. Figure 18a illustrates a schematic of a PV-diesel hybrid power plant.
Grid-connected PV systems use inverters instead of batteries to connect PV panels to a
grid. See Fig.18c for a diagram illustrating this. There are two types of systems: small
systems, such as rooftop systems, and large systems, which are connected to the
power grid. There must be synchronization between the grid interactive inverters and
the utility grid in terms of voltage and frequency.

Figure No.18: Schematic diagrams ofStand alone Photovoltaic cells.
(1) Stand-Alone PV Systems: The two main stand-alone PV applications are- i) Battery
charging and ii) Solar water pumping.
i) Battery charging- Depending on the depth-of-discharge (DOD), battery manufacturers
specify the nominal number of complete charging and discharging cycles. As a result,
the battery bank is usually overestimated in renewable energy systems, even though
this information can be used reliably to predict the lifespan in conventional applications,
such as uninterruptable power supplies and electric vehicles. The inability to charge
fully and the prolonged operation at a low state of charge (SOC) of batteries have been
identified as the two main factors that limit the cycle life of photovoltaic batteries. Lead-
acid batteries are designed with the objective of extending their lifetime by improving
battery control strategies. This will enable an optimal solution to be found for both the
required storage capacity and the maximum depth-of-discharge of the battery,
according to the manufacturer's information. Increasing the capacity will result in a
reduction in the depth of discharge, thereby extending the battery's life expectancy. A
smaller battery bank may, however, be more economical to replace more frequently.
ii) Solar water pumping - Water is provided by hand pumps or diesel-powered pumps in
many remote and rural areas. In addition to consuming fossil fuels, diesel pumps are
harmful to the environment, require more maintenance, and are less reliable. The
development of new solar-cell materials and power electronics systems technology has
generated considerable interest in photovoltaic (PV)-powered water pumps. Positive
displacement and centrifugal pumps are commonly used for water pumping
applications. A centrifugal pump, as well as a positive displacement pump, can be
further classified into pumps with motors that are mounted on the surface, and pumps
whose motors are submerged in the water (submersible pumps). There is a direct
correlation between the output of displacement pumps and the speed of the pumps, but
the output is almost independent of the head. In solar water pumping, these pumps are
used to pump water from deep wells or boreholes. Piston pumps or diaphragm pumps
are examples of these types of pumps. They may be driven by cams, rotary screws, or

progressive cavity pumps. It is desirable to maintain a constant torque for these pumps,
since the pumping rate is directly related to the speed.
(2) Grid connected- An example grid-connected PV power system circuit diagram can
be found in figure 19. Inverters are connected to local utility lines at their outputs, as
shown in the illustration below. Short-term load peaks are often met with the addition of
a battery. A grid-connected PV program is sponsored by the Environmental Protection
Agency in urban areas where wind towers are not practical. As a result of adding grid
connections to the system design, large building-integrated solar energy installations
have made significant advancements in recent years. Figure 19 illustrates the building-
integrated photovoltaic system on the roof of the Northeastern University Student
Center in Boston. As part of the PV DSP program of the Environmental Protection
Agency, the project was undertaken. In addition to producing 18 kW of power, the
system is also connected to the electrical grid. A number of instruments, including
computer data loggers, are used to collect sufficient research data. Every 10 seconds,
vital data are collected, and they are averaged and stored every 10 minutes. Air
temperature and wind speed are included in the incoming data. There are two types of
performance parameters: direct current (DC) voltage and current generated by the PV
roof, and alternating current (AC) power at the output of the inverter.
Figure No.19: Schematic diagrams of Grid Connected Photovoltaic cells.

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CREDIT 03 -UNIT 3-2: BIOFUEL PRODUCTION (BIO-ETHANOL AND BIODIESEL):
Learning Objectives
 Biofuel production i.e. bio-ethanol and biodiesel, Biomass,
 prevention/minimization of hazardous/toxic products.
 Agricultural related practices and food processing.
3-2 BIOFUEL PRODUCTION (BIO-ETHANOL AND BIODIESEL), BIOMASS,

PREVENTION/MINIMIZATION OF HAZARDOUS/TOXIC PRODUCTS.
AGRICULTURAL RELATED PRACTICES AND FOOD PROCESSING.
3-2 Biofuel production (bio-ethanol and biodiesel)- Fuels derived by using biomass
are known as biofuels. Biomass can be converted into transportation fuels such as
ethanol, methanol, biodiesel and additive for reformulated gasoline. with gasoline.

Petroleum resources are finite and therefore search for their alternative is continuing all
over the world. Moreover gases emitted by petrol and diesel driven vehicles have an
adverse effect on the environment and human health. There is universal acceptance of the
need to reduce such emissions.
In India, domestic supply of crude oil meets only about 22% of the demand and the
rest is being met from imported crude. Biofuels has been considered as one of the most
preferred alternative fuel for petrol and diesel, particularly in the transport sector. Biofuels
are fuels generated from biomass which renewable energy sources. There are different
routes to use biomass as energy source such as directly burning it, controlled
combustion to generate producer gas, anaerobic digestion to generate methane and
fermentation process to produce alcohol.Oil extraction from oil seeds plants, trans-
esterification of oil with alcohol to produce Biodiesel is another way of using biomass as a
fuel. While all above processes/ methods generate biofuels, internationally alcohols and
Biodiesel have been named as biofuels. Brazil, USA, Canada, Australia, China are some of
the countries using alcohol in transport sector.
(1) Bio-Ethanol- It is ethyl alcohol (grain alcohol, ETOH) is a clear, colorless liquid with a
characteristic, agreeable odor. Ethanol, CH3CH2OH is an alcohol a group of chemical
compounds whose molecules contain a hydroxyl group, -OH, blended to a carbon
atom."Mix ethanol with petrol and derive away with low carbon di oxide emissions", this
green message is resounding in the petroleum corridors nowadays. Its very octane rating
makes it an effective knock suppressor with an additional advantage of being a fuel in
itself. Its higher heat of evaporation, uniform composition, stoichiometric airrequirement,
higher flash point etc. helpto improves not only engine performance but also to reduce
harmful engine emissions. The existing petrol-driven engines can run without any
modification by blending ethanol with petrol up to 20% an 80-20 petro-alcohol mix is
called gasohol.
A variety of sugars can be extracted from plants using different pretreatments, such as
thermal treatment, chemical treatment, and irradiation to produce bio-ethanol from the
fermentation of sugar or lignocellulose materials. Several sugars can be extracted from
plants by using different pretreatments, such as thermal treatment, chemical treatment,

or irradiation process. Compared with sugar or starch as feedstocks, lignocellulosic
residues from plant or food products have greater economic advantages, since corn
and sugarcane have high levels of sugar or starch that can easily be fermented into
bioethanol. As pre-treatment has a significant impact on the production of ethanol from
biomass when converting lignocellulose materials to biofuels, pre-treatment is required
before digestion. It is still necessary to conduct intensive research to develop new and
more efficient processes for the conversion of lignocellulose biomass into
ethanol. Various pretreatment methods have been used in order to determine how they
affect lignocellulose hydrolysis. By pre-treating lignocellulose with 0.25M NaOH, we
were able to enhance the hydrolysis capability of lignocellulose with (2N
H2SO4). Anaerobic digestion of wheat straw pretreated at 180°C produces 53% more
biofuel than wheat straw that has not been pretreated. In order to increase the
production of bioethanol, lignocelluloses were treated with 3.5%H2SO4 at 121° for 30
minutes, followed by enzymatic hydrolysis. Sugars were 230.16, 160 and 166,
respectively, from cattle, pig and poultry manure. Accordingly, the dry matter content
was 40 mg/g and 98.40 mg/g respectively.
The following facts stand in favor of ethanol addition:
(i) Ethanol contains 35% oxygen that can help complete combustion of the fuel
thereby reducing harmful tailpipe emissions by 30%.
(ii) Ethanol is non-toxic, soluble in H2O and biodegradable.
(iii) Ethanol is renewable resource because of its photosynthetic origin.
(iv)Ethanol helps to reduce particulate emissions; especially fine particulates that

pose a health treat to children, senior citizens and those with respiratory elements.
This fuel has some limitations such as:

(i) Its low calorific value, higher surface tension, greater solvent power etc.
restrict its use
(ii) As a complete motor vehicle fuel.

(iii) There is a view that the methanol addition increases aldehyde emission and
when
(iv) Aldehyde reacts with nitrogen in the air, it forms proxy acetyl nitrate, a
carcinogen.
(v) Wide spread use of ethanol in fuel is said to be not viable because molasses
(starting material to prepare ethanol) would not be abundantly available
(vi) About 15 liters of H2O are required to manufacture one liter of ethanol from
molasses.
(2) Bio-diesel- Biodiesel is an alternative fuel, which is actually a monoalkyal ester of long
chain fatty acids derived from renewable lipid feed stocks, such as renewable oils and
animal fats. It is made by the trans-esterification process, which help to remove glycerin
from factor vegetable oil. Biodiesel can be used as a transportation fuel in compression —
ignition diesel engines with little or no modifications. Bio diesel is an efficient, clean, non-
toxic, 100% biodegradable natural energy alternative to petroleum fuels. It is virtually free
of sulfur and / aromatics and contains about 11 % oxygen. Again its high cetane number,
good- lubricating properties together with its built-in oxygen contain makes it an excellent fuel.
Studies conducted with biodiesel engines have shown substantial reduction in particulate
matter (25-50 %) however a marginal increase in NO (1-6%) is also reported. Pure Biodiesel
requires special treatment in cold weather because of its relatively high pour point. But it can
be handled easily, has a high energy density comparable to that of mineral oils and
substantially higher that natural gas or hydrogen. Biodiesel is currently used as 20 % blends
(B-20) with petroleum diesel. Since Biodiesel blends dramatically changed the distillation
qualities of diesel, the cetane number equation cannot be used for calculating it ignition
quality.
As a highly environmentally friendly fuel which can be produced from various types of
biomass, biodiesel can be used individually or in combination with petrol to reduce gas
emissions and other impurities. By comparing the physical properties of the petroleum,
such as cetane number, flashpoint, specific gravity, and sulfur content with petro-diesel,
which has an average temperature of 53oC, 70oC, 0.85oC and 0.1oC, respectively, it has
an enhanced effect on these properties. The process of producing biodiesel involves
trans esterifying and esterifying vegetable or animal oils. During this process, the

triglycerides are converted into diglycerides, resulting in monoglycerides, which are then
converted into esters (biodiesel) and glycerol by reacting with alcohols. There are
various types of catalysts used in the transesterification reaction, including acid
catalysts, enzyme catalysts, and base catalysts (KOH, NaOH).
Biomass- The term "biomass" refers to any organic material that can be used as a
source of energy, such as trees, crops, seaweed, and animal waste. It is believed that
biomass is one of the oldest sources of energy after the sun. Wood has been burned for
thousands of years for the purpose of heating homes and cooking food. As a result of
the sun's energy, biomass is able to produce energy. Energy from the sun is stored in
all organic matter. Light provides plants with the energy they need to convert water and
carbon dioxide into sugars and oxygen during a process known as photosynthesis.
Plants and animals that eat plants receive energy from these sugars, which are known
as carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are one of the most important sources of energy for
the human body. Unlike other energy sources, biomass does not have a limited supply.
It is impossible to grow trees and crops forever, and it is impossible to eliminate waste.
Types of Biomass- Following are the different types of biomass used for energy
generation.
(1) Wood and Agriculture products- Biomass energy is mostly produced at home today.
Approximately 44 percent of biomass energy is derived from wood - logs, chips, bark,
and sawdust. However, biomass energy can be produced from any organic matter.
Agricultural waste products such as fruit pits and corncobs can also be used as biomass
sources. In order to generate electricity, wood and wood waste are used. Cogeneration
is a process in which electricity is produced by the industries that produce waste rather
than distributed by utilities. Paper mills and saw mills generate steam and electricity
from much of their waste products. Due to their high energy consumption, they must
purchase additional electricity from the utility.
(2) Solid Waste- The burning of trash produces energy that can be used for a variety of
purposes. The amount of heat energy contained in one ton of garbage (2,000 pounds)

is approximately equal to that contained in 500 pounds of coal. It is important to note
that garbage does not consist entirely of biomass; perhaps half of its energy content is
derived from plastics, which are manufactured from petroleum and natural gas. Waste-
to-energy plants generate electricity by burning garbage. Unlike coal-fired power plants,
these plants generate electricity by burning combustible waste instead of coal.
(3)Biogas from Landfill – There is no such thing as a picky eater when it comes to
bacteria and fungi. Plants and animals that have died are eaten by them, causing them
to decay or rot. Fungi on rotting wood convert cellulose into sugars to feed themselves.
Despite the slowed rate of decay in landfills, a gas called methane is still produced as
waste decomposes. In order to ensure the safety and environmental protection of
landfills, new regulations require them to collect methane gas. Despite its colorlessness
and odor lessness, methane gas is not harmless. In the event that the gas leaks into
nearby homes and is ignited, it can cause fires or explosions. Methane gas can be
collected, purified, and used as fuel by landfills. It is also possible to produce methane
by burning agricultural and human wastes as a source of energy. It is possible to
construct an airtight biogas digester by lining it with steel or bricks or by placing it in a
pit. A methane-rich gas is produced by fermenting waste in the containers without
oxygen. In addition to producing electricity, this gas can also be used for cooking and
lighting.
Biomass in India- In India, biomass power plants are mostly based on agricultural
wastes. In several Indian states, gasifier-based power plants provide a great solution for
off-grid decentralized power. Although 8-15 MW thermal biomass power plants are
suitable for providing grid-based power in Indian conditions, they pale in comparison to
power plants being constructed in Europe that are at least 20 times larger. As opposed
to wind power, biomass energy is reliable since it is free of fluctuations and does not
require storage in case of unavailability, as is the case with solar power. It is still not the
most preferred renewable energy source till now, and the primary reason may be
attributed to the difficulties associated with the biomass supply chain. It is not possible
to predict the availability of biomass throughout the year. After harvesting occurs, which
usually lasts for a few months in a year, agricultural biomass becomes available.

Therefore, biomass must be procured and stored within this period. Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, and Maharashtra are among the Indian states that are leading the way in the
development of biomass-based energy sources. In spite of this, states with agricultural-
based economies have not been able to fully take advantage of the biomass energy
opportunity, resulting in relatively low biomass energy utilization. The sugarcane
industry and co-generation power plants have played an important role in utilizing a
large part of the biomass potential in north Indian states. Despite tariff rates exceeding
Rs. 5 per unit, Punjab and Haryana do not have much installed capacity compared to
their potential, despite having higher tariff rates than most of their counterparts. These
tariffs were implemented very recently, so it will take some time for the utilization of
capacities to be reflected in the tariffs.

Figure No.20: Conversion of Biomass in to energy and heat through various
ways.
Prevent hazardous/ toxic waste production through green chemistry-Various

synthetic chemicals release a variety of environmental hazards, the nature of which is
constantly being debated. It is unlikely that this debate will conclude until science has
unambiguously resolved all uncertainties in toxicological data (exposure, fate, and
transport) and risk assessments. Traditionally, industry and society have focused on
reducing exposure in order to reduce these risks. In the case of a fixed hazard and a

reduced exposure, the risk should decrease in accordance with the changes. Risk can
be controlled until it has been reduced to some identifiable ―acceptable‖ level,
determined arbitrarily by each society in its laws and regulations, by utilizing well-
characterized hazards (i.e., toxicity data) and an awareness of the effectiveness of the
exposure control methods being used. The risk of pollution can be reduced by utilizing
processes, practices, materials, or products that prevent or reduce pollution at the
source. If this is not possible, pollution control can be achieved by utilizing
environmentally friendly processes. There are many ways to prevent pollution, including
recycling, process changes, environmentally safe control mechanisms, efficient
resource use, and substitution of materials.
It is important to design chemical syntheses so that no waste will be generated or need

to be cleaned up. To put it another way, it is better to prevent waste from arising rather
than to treat or clean it up once it has occurred. The cost of treating and disposing of
hazardous chemical substances has increased significantly over the past 20 years - the
more hazardous the substance, the higher the cost. In general, this is true regardless of
whether one is discussing a large chemical manufacturer or a small academic
laboratory. Increasingly, universities and small colleges are reducing the number of
laboratories or the size of the experiments to reduce the cost of waste disposal from
chemistry labs, both educational and research labs.
Only green chemistry design techniques can minimize or eliminate the costs associated
with engineering controls, personal protective equipment, regulatory compliance, and
the like. The most common type of waste is unconverted starting materials (and they
are often the most inevitable). In order to dispose of hazardous materials properly, it is
necessary to separate, treat, and dispose of the waste generated by a process.
Minimize toxic/hazardous waste through green chemistry- As a result of catalytic

reactions, catalysts can carry out thousands, if not millions, of transformations before
exhaustion, so they are used in small quantities. The use of these reagents is preferable

to the use of stoichiometric reagents, which generate one mole of product per mole of
reagent that is used. There are some reactions in which reactants X and Y form product
Z, after which all of the atoms from X and Y reside in Z and no additional reagents are
required. When viewed from the perspective of material usage, stoichiometric reactions
are as environmentally benign as any other type of reaction.
When it comes to stoichiometric reactions, it is more likely that:
(a) Assuming X or Y are limiting reagents, unreacted starting materials will be left over
even in a reaction with a 100% yield.
(b) If one or both of the starting materials are only partially required for the end product,
then the remaining molecules are discarded in the waste stream.
(c) The reaction requires additional reagents, and when the reaction is complete, these
reagents must be discarded into the waste stream.
In contrast to catalysts, which are consumed or incorporated in the product, catalysts

facilitate a desired transformation. The following are some characteristics of catalysts
associated with green chemistry:
a) Enhance selectivity- Several factors can be controlled, such as the degree of

reaction, the site of reaction (e.g., C-methylation versus O-methylation), and the
stereochemistry (e.g., R versus S enantiomers). By enhancing the utilization of starting
materials and minimizing waste production, advances in catalytic selectivity can yield
multiple benefits for green chemistry.
b) Reduce quantities of reagents- Chemists have discovered ways of eliminating the

use of large quantities of reagents necessary in order to carry out transformations
through the use of new catalysts, which would otherwise have contributed to waste
streams (especially in the case of heavy metal catalysts).
c) Minimize the use of energy- Additionally, catalysts are advantageous because they
reduce the activation energy of a reaction pathway, as well as the temperatures that are

required to effect the reaction. From the standpoint of environmental and economic
impact assessments, the energy balance issue can be the most significant factor when
it comes to large-scale commodity chemical processes.
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CREDIT 03 -UNIT 3-3: PRODUCTION OF BIODEGRADABLE MATERIALS:
Learning Objectives
 Production of biodegradable materials.
 Concept of green building and pollution free engineering processes.
 Prevention/minimization of hazardous/toxic products.
3-3 PRODUCTION OF BIODEGRADABLE MATERIALS, CONCEPT OF GREEN

BUILDING AND POLLUTION FREE ENGINEERING PROCESSES.
3-3 Production of biodegradable materials- There is a need to manage

environmental wastes and preserve non-renewable resources (such as fossil fuels).
There are many reasons why the industry has developed an appetite for biodegradable
plastics made from renewable resources, as outlined in this report. It was an important
lesson learned that there is still a great deal of work to be done on achieving a nearly
perfect biodegradable material when the first generation polyolefin starch based plastics
introduced in the early 1990s failed to achieve their claim of degradability, or even break
down faster than non-biodegradables. Consequently, experts and industry players are
working together to develop more breakthrough materials that meet degradability
specifications, allowing consumers to choose sustainable products.
(1) Cups and capsules are made from green TPE - Hexpol TPE offers biobased TPE in
Scandinavian and Nordic countries, and now Wildo Sweden is using it in its Fold-A-Cup
camping cup. As part of its ongoing research and development, Hexpol TPE continues
to test new and emerging raw material combinations and further develop its Dryflex
Green TPE compounds. It said highly customised formulations are needed because
requirements vary for each application. It developed a Dryflex Green TPE compound
jointly with Wildo for the Fold-A-Cup that has to be able to withstand repeated foldings
and openings, while remaining flexible, yet rigid enough to handle hot and cold drinks.
In addition to haptics, food contact compliance was also considered. Since 1982, Wildo
has been developing reusable outdoor equipment, such as the Fold-A-Cup and Camp-

A-Box. It was a pioneer alternative to buy-and-throw-away thinking and heavy options at
the time. It has also preserved to keep production in Sweden, and recycled and re-used
boxes and easy-to-open packaging. In a similar vein, Italian TPE maker API, which was
acquired by materials company Trinseo in July 2017, has launched a wider portfolio of
its Apinat bioplastics for single-serve coffee capsules, in response to an estimated 17
billion non-recyclable capsules being produced by 2020, an increase from the current
number.
In addition to TPE-E and TPC for compostable coffee capsules, API has launched new
grades of biodegradable and compostable bioplastics. According to the company,
Apinat exhibits mechanical and thermal properties during the brewing process and can
easily replace conventional plastics. Injection moulding as well as continuous
compression moulding are possible with the new grades. In accordance with API, food
contact-compliant grades of plastic are derived from 60% to more than 90% renewable
resources. Additionally, it complies with biodegradability standards set by the European
Bioplastics Association as well as standards such as EU13432/EN14995 and ASTM
D6400.
(2 ) Plastic laminates containing crustacean biomaterials A team of researchers at Penn

State University has developed an inexpensive biomaterial that can be used in
packaging and have many other applications in place of plastic barrier coatings. Using
chitosan, made from the protein chitin, which is the primary ingredient in the
exoskeletons of arthropods and crustaceans, the fully compostable material is a
complex polysaccharide polyelectrolyte. The chitin used for the biomaterial can be
obtained from lobster, crab and shrimp shells that have been consumed by humans.
Various applications for the environmentally friendly barrier coatings have been
identified by the university, including the coating of water-resistant paper, ceiling tiles
and wallboard, and food coatings to preserve freshness. In addition to packaging, it can
also be used in other applications such as construction, flooring, and natural wood-fibre
composites.
The key is the strong and durable bond between chitosan and carboxymethyl cellulose.
These are two inexpensive polysaccharides already used in the food industry and in
other industries. They have different molecular charges and lock together to form an
impervious film, coating, adhesive, and other complexes with different molecular
charges.
A recent publication in Green Chemistry reported the success of polysaccharide

polyelectrolyte complex coatings in research. Researchers have concluded that their
findings demonstrate that the materials have the potential to be competitive barrier
alternatives to synthetic polymers. They are working to develop commercialization
partners in a variety of industries for a range of product applications. College of
Agricultural Sciences Research Applications for Innovation grant funds this research.
(3) Bioplastics made from fluorine derived from living cells - Using genetic engineering,
US scientists have created a microbe that can produce fluoridated intermediates known
as diketides using organofluoride metabolism. The diketide could then be used to create
fluorinated bioplastics in vivo, as reported in AngewandteChemie. Natural organic
compounds containing fluorine are rare because living organisms do not produce them,
apart from a few exceptions. The element fluorine is used in many agrochemicals as
well as about 20-30% of modern pharmaceuticals, including anesthetics, blood
substitutes, and liquid ventilation agents. Molecular fluorines are also used as
refrigerants and propellants that are ozone-friendly, as well as in liquid crystal displays.
Researchers from the University of California, Berkeley, investigated the ability of living
systems to produce highly complex chemical compounds by manipulating the
biosynthetic machinery within cells. They were able to create new organofluoride target
molecules by using simple fluorinated building blocks. The researchers introduced
genes coding for three enzymes from a variety of microorganisms into Escherichia coli
in order to construct the diketide biosynthesis pathway. In addition to using their normal
substrates, these enzymes can utilize derivatives containing fluorine. Furthermore, it
was also necessary to introduce a gene for a transport protein that transports the fluor
malonate, which contains fluorine, into the cell. The enzymes facilitated the biosynthesis
pathway of fluor malonyl coenzyme A and its conversion to 2-fluoro-3-hydroxybutyrate
dikes tide in a high yield.

Moreover, the researchers introduced another gene that encodes an enzyme used by a
variety of bacteria in the production of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), which are
polyesters that are used for the storage of carbon and energy. Food packaging and
medical implants are made from biodegradable e PHAs. A new, genetically engineered
microorganism incorporates fluorinated dike tides into the PHAs it produces, resulting in
polymers containing 5% to 15% fluorinated monomers. Fluorine-containing bioplastics
are less brittle than those without. Bioplastics' properties could be targeted by
controlling the incorporation of fluorinated monomers, the researchers explained.
(4) Recycling waste into eco-friendly products- Murdoch University researchers have
developed a method for converting industrial waste into biodegradable plastic. One of
the major waste products of the alumina industry, oxalate, is being investigated for its
use in an environmentally friendly manner. Bioplastics are produced from food waste
and applied to toxic byproducts of the alumina industry.
In order to understand the conditions allowing bacteria to convert the oxalate waste
product into the biodegradable plastic, the team created synthetic wastewater after
sourcing an initial bacterial culture from a local wastewater treatment plant. Currently,
the research team is investigating ways to increase the amount of oxalate that is
converted and identifying the suite of bacteria that can contribute to the process. As a
result, a biodegradable, biocompatible plastic will be produced. According to the
company, one of its goals is to 3D print medical products such as stents and sutures.
Concept of green building - In the construction and operation of a building structure,

green building refers to the use of environmentally friendly construction methods. The
popularity of green building is increasing for a number of good reasons. The Real Estate
industry has taken a leading role in promoting sustainability and green building concepts
as a result of the shift in mind-sets today. Diverse stakeholders are seeking
opportunities to participate in promoting these concepts, and a number of green building
technologies have been developed to facilitate long-term practices in green and
sustainable construction. However, what exactly is green building technology?

Green buildings are simply buildings that are constructed with reusable materials and
other materials that are environmentally friendly and efficient. Green building technology
encompasses a wide range of technologies, including geothermal heating and energy-
efficient appliances.
The unsustainable growth is, of course, a major problem that can be addressed through
Green Building Construction. Green buildings are those structures that are designed,
built, renovated, operated, or repurposed in an environmentally friendly and resource-
efficient manner. As well as fulfilling certain critical objectives, these buildings are
designed to:
a) Providing health protection to the occupants
b) Improving the productivity of employees
c) Efforts to conserve energy, water, and other rapidly depleting resources
d) Efforts should be made to reduce energy consumption, water consumption, and
other fast depleting resources
e) Reduce the carbon footprint
f) Efforts to reduce the environmental impact
g) A healthier indoor environment
Different technologies in Green Building- In order to achieve these objectives efficiently,
green building technology can be of assistance.There is a perfect balance in the
following list between the use of eco-friendly building materials for creating sustainable
structures and the use of more advanced green technologies, such as solar, that can
help to reduce energy consumption. Builders and developers across the globe are
actively utilizing these materials and technologies. Here is a brief description of them:
(1) Concepts related to net zero energy - A net zero, or zero energy, building is one that
is designed to operate independently of the standard electric grid. Their use of
renewable energy sources allows them to generate their own power. As far as carbon
emissions and energy consumption are concerned, "zero" here refers to both. Due to
their reliance on renewable energy sources such as solar and wind power, such building
structures consume no net energy annually and emit no carbon dioxide
emissions.Furthermore, there are some buildings that produce more energy than they

consume, in addition to net zero concepts. The term "Energy-Plus Building" refers to a
building that produces a surplus of energy.
It is also possible to construct a building that produces less energy than it requires,
which is referred to as a "near-zero energy building".Passive solar designs and
excellent insulation are used in zero energy homes to ensure they are extremely energy
efficient. The design of a building is only one part of the equation. The building uses
active solar panels and wind collectors to power itself, and some buildings also use
biofuels to heat their interiors.Additionally, we cannot ignore the fact that the
construction of a zero-energy home is neither an easy nor an inexpensive undertaking.
The concept of zero energy construction is still considered a niche form of construction
with high up-front costs. It is important to note, however, that the benefits of building
these homes are a perfect combination of technology that leaves little environmental
impact compared to the typical construction project of today.
(2) HVAC (Heating, Ventilation And Air Conditioning)-HVAC systems are an integral
part of all modern constructions; in fact, this is one of the functions that distinguishes
them from older structures. Household air is circulated throughout a home through ducts
to provide warmth, cooling, and dehumidification. Cooling an entire house with a central
HVAC system is one of the most convenient and silent methods of doing so.
i. The HVAC system is equipped with water-cooled screw chillers that are highly
efficient and use an environmentally friendly refrigerant.
ii. With the installation of variable air volumes inside the designated areas, AHU's,
cooling towers, pumps, and jet fans with adjustable frequency drives are
modulated by centralized IBMS.
iii. There is an interconnection between AHUs and Heat Recovery Units for the
purpose of reducing the cooling load placed on the chiller.
iv. Using a Demand Control Ventilation system with CO2 sensors is necessary for
better indoor air quality.
HVAC systems are designed to reduce the energy consumption of buildings from the
power grid.
(3) Materials with low emissions -The selection of low emitting products and materials
does not only benefit human health, but also contributes to the protection of the

environment in general. It is also an important consideration in today's design and
construction world as it helps to achieve Green building credits from agencies such as
LEED, IGBC, and GRIHA. There is a wide range of building products that qualify for
low-emission materials credit, including:
i. The application of interior paints and coatings on-site

ii. On-site application of adhesives and sealants
iii. The flooring type should be considered
iv. A composite wood product
v. This category includes ceilings
vi. It includes the walls.
vii. The insulation of thermal and acoustic systems
Besides the above, it also applies to the furnishings that later fill the living areas of the
home. Reducing or eliminating the use of low emitting materials is better for the
environment, for indoor air quality, and for people with environmental allergies. The
specialized clay bricks are an excellent example of low emission building materials.
Having a very high level of automation, the product has been designed with
sustainability in mind and utilizes natural resources and energy efficiently to cater to the
increasing demand from this segment.
(4) Climate-controlled roofs - Roofs have a significant impact on energy consumption,
which is often overlooked, but can have a huge impact on the environment. Roofs with
inadequate or damaged insulation allow heat to escape easily in the winter, and in the
summer, heat gained through the roof increases both cooling loads and energy
consumption. Cool roofs are sustainable green building technologies that reflect heat
and sunlight away from the building. By reducing heat absorption and thermal
emissivity, it largely assists in maintaining standard room temperatures in buildings. The
main benefit of their use is that they reflect a greater percentage of the sun's rays than
average shingle roofs, preventing warm/cold air from escaping through the roof of a
structure.
A cool roof is typically designed with special tiles and reflective paint that absorb
minimal heat and reflect the majority of solar radiation. Summer temperatures are

typically reduced by more than 50 degrees Celsius by cool roofs. The installation of cool
roofs reduces the need for air conditioning systems, which subsequently reduces the
consumption of energy and the emission of greenhouse gases that result from heating
and cooling our homes. There are a variety of materials available for the construction of
a cool roof, including special reflective paint and cool roof shingles and tiles.
(5)Eco- friendly Insulation- A building cannot be kept warm by energy-efficient heating
unless there is sufficient thermal insulation. In addition, it is interesting to note that
insulation is one of the greatest concerns when it comes to the construction of houses
and buildings. In reality, most people are unaware of the fact that these insulators are
simply wall filters that do not necessarily require the use of expensive and highly
finished materials. There are some prerequisites that one should consider when
choosing the best possible insulating materials. SThe following is a brief discussion of
some of them.
i. Inflation-adjusted insulation costs

ii. ·Obtaining measurements of the area to be insulated
iii. Insulate to the required degree
iv. Calculation of the cost of energy consumed by the heating and cooling
systems
v. Fire-resistance that is reasonable
vi. The product is non-absorbent to moisture
vii. A non-deformable material
viii. It is insusceptible to insects' attacks
It is essential that one has a basic knowledge of insulating materials. A list of basic
insulation materials includes wool insulation, slag slabs, natural fibre insulation,
porotherm bricks, cementitious foam insulation, gasket cork sheets, insulation facings,
gypsum board, vermiculite, and perlite insulation, etc. A number of other sustainable
construction technologies have been proven to include the use of green insulation,
which eliminates the need for high-end finishes made of non-renewable materials, such
as denim insulation, cellulose insulation, glass insulation, and cotton insulation. One
great option is to use Porotherm Bricks as they contain natural insulation properties.

(6) Water Conservation-Green building is based on the principle of water conservation.
During the construction and operation of buildings and landscaping projects, it is
imperative that materials and systems that are used in building construction are
carefully chosen in order to reduce water consumption during construction and
operation. By utilizing alternative sources of water, where the quality of the water does
not have to be potable, water efficiency and sustainable water management can be
achieved. A residential zone can be supplied with potable water, and a large
commercial zone can be supplied with a mixture of potable and non-potable water. This
is an intelligent step, and should be taken by all urban areas in the country and
abroad. There should be water-efficient fixtures such as taps, toilets, shower heads,
urinals, etc. Sustainable building practices include water conservation, pollution
prevention, reuse of gray water, recycling of treated water, and ensuring that potable
water is used only for potable purposes.
Pollution free engineering processes-It is also referred to as Green Engineering. The

concept is also known as green engineering. By applying financially and technologically
feasible principles to product and process design, green engineering aims to achieve
one or more of the following objectives:
(1) Reduction of pollution generated during construction or operation of a facility,
(2) Reducing exposure to potential hazards among the human population (such
as reducing toxicity),
(3) The efficient use of matter and energy during the product and process
lifecycle;
(4) In addition, the company must maintain economic efficiency and viability. All
disciplines of design can benefit from green engineering as an overarching
framework.
Principles of Pollution free engineering processes- Following are the nine key principles
of pollution free engineering processes.

i. Use systems analysis and environmental impact assessment tools when
designing processes and products.
ii. In order to protect human health and well-being, natural ecosystems must be
conserved and improved.
iii. All engineering activities should be conducted with a life-cycle perspective in
mind.
iv. It is important to ensure that all inputs and outputs of materials and energy
are inherently safe and benign.
v. Ensure that natural resources are not depleted.
vi. Ensure that waste is not generated.
vii. Assist in developing and implementing engineering solutions while taking into
account the local geography, aspirations, and cultures.
viii. Enhance, invent, and improve (technologies) to achieve sustainability by
developing engineering solutions beyond current or dominant technologies.
ix. Develop engineering solutions in consultation with communities and
stakeholders.
Approach of Pollution free engineering processes- The practice of green engineering is
prevalent in many engineering disciplines. Among the topics covered here are
sustainable design, life cycle analysis (LCA), pollution prevention, design for the
environment (DfE), design for disassembly (DfD), and design for recycling (DfR). Thus,
green engineering refers to the process and product improvement associated with
sustainable engineering.
1. The reduction of waste;
2. Administration of materials;
3. Taking steps to prevent pollution; and
4. Enhancements to the product.
The concept of green engineering entails the integration of numerous professional
disciplines into a systematic approach to design. Land use planning, architecture,
landscape architecture, and other design disciplines are included in green engineering,
as are social sciences (e.g., determining how various groups of people use products
and services. The goal of green engineering is to take into account space, place, and

fluxes across the boundary of the site as well as the combination of these systems over
larger regions, such as urban areas. Life cycle analyses provide an overview of the
entire process of making, transporting, distributing, using, maintaining, recycling, and
disposing of a product. It is essential to assess the product's life cycle in order to gain a
complete understanding of the product. During the first step of a life cycle assessment,
information is gathered on how a material moves through a given society. Following the
determination of the quantities of various components in a flow of materials, the key
functions and impacts of each step in the production, manufacturing, use, and
recovery/disposal process are estimated. Optimum performance in sustainable design
is achieved by optimizing variables in time frames.
Value engineering (VE) is similar to the system approach employed in green
engineering. In the context of value engineering, green engineering is considered a form
of value engineering since both systems strive to maximize the value of the project by
considering all elements and interrelationships within it. The entire system must be
challenged at every step and component. In determining a project's overall value, not
only is its cost-effectiveness considered, but also environmental considerations and
public health concerns. It is evident that the broader sense of VE is compatible with and
can be identical to green engineering, as VE aims to accomplish multiple objectives at
the same time without sacrificing any important values. The term efficiency refers to the
ratio between the input and output of energy and mass in a system. A system becomes
more efficient as its ratio approaches 100%. Effectiveness requires that efficiencies be
met for each component, as well as that the integration of components results in an
effective, multiple value-based design with multiple benefits. The practice of green
engineering is also a form of concurrent engineering, since multiple design objectives
must be achieved by parallelizing tasks.
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CREDIT 03 -UNIT 3-4: ENERGY USE:
Learning Objectives
 Energy Use and Relationship among energy, environment and economical level
of development.
 Resources of energy and energy use pattern in different parts of the world.
 Indian energy scenario and its impact on the environment.
3-4 ENERGY USE: RELATIONSHIP AMONG ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT AND

ECONOMICAL LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT. RESOURCES OF ENERGY AND
ENERGY USE PATTERN IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD. INDIAN ENERGY
SCENARIO AND ITS IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT.
3-4 Energy Use:
Relationship among energy, environment and economical level of development-

As viewed from the perspective of economics, the relationship between energy and
economic development has two main aspects: first, energy is a fundamental component
of economic development. This implies that economic development is inextricably linked
to energy. Second, certain economic development conditions determine the degree and
scale of energy opening and utilization. Developing and utilizing energy on a large scale
can be facilitated by economic development.
Increasing energy demand worldwide confirms the assumption that energy is the engine
of growth in the 21st century. Another factor contributing to the high demand for energy
and related services is the urbanization of the population. Economic growth has positive
effects on employment, poverty reduction, and living standards, but it is also regarded
as a contributing factor to the emission of greenhouse gases and the depletion of
natural resources. Economic development is largely fueled by fossil fuels, which emit
CO2 into the atmosphere, negating a sustainable environment.
A wide range of negative externalities are associated with fossil fuel use to power the
world economy. As a result, toxic gas emissions are released, natural resources are

depleted, air pollution is produced, wildlife is endangered, and global warming is
occurring. Energy, Environment, and Economy (3Es) have become three interrelated
problems for humanity. In an economy based on energy-intensive technologies, the
fundamental question is whether it is possible to achieve growth while maintaining
environmental sustainability. A sustainable and environmentally friendly approach to
productivity is critical to conserving the environment. As the UN's Sustainable
Development Goals stress the importance of protecting the environment against the
negative externalities of CO2 emissions, among other things, it underscores the
importance of protecting the natural capital of the world.
Current conversations regarding sustainability include the use of alternative energy
sources to reduce CO2 emissions and satisfy the energy needs of economic growth
while mitigating their environmental impact. Although energy contributes positively to
global economic growth, it also has negative effects on natural resources and the
environment that are too costly to ignore. A solution to this trilemma calls for an
economic blueprint that ensures the health and prosperity of all people.
It should be noted that energy is not only an important factor of production in the
economy, but its consumption can also adversely affect economic growth. Economic
growth and the environment are controversial topics, according to many economists,
and may always remain so. It has been widely believed for many years that the planet's
natural resource base was a constraint on its growth. It has recently become evident,
however, that the limits to growth may not simply be due to the finite supply of raw
materials in nature, but may also be due to the limitation of nature's ability to act as a
sink for human waste. Among its many functions, nature serves as a sink for harmful
air, water, and solid pollutants. It also serves as a final resting place for millions of tons
of garbage and a repository of numerous toxic substances. The reduction in
environmental quality occurs when the environment's ability to dissipate or absorb
wastes is exceeded, which may in turn restrict the growth of the economy. Reductions
in environmental quality can limit growth because they require more intensive cleaning
and abatement efforts, thereby lowering the return on investment. Alternatively, growth
may be limited to the point where humans have caused such damage to the ecosystem

that it deteriorates beyond repair and settles into a new lower, less productive steady
state.
Resources of energy and energy use pattern in different partsof the world-Energy
sources are distributed differently around the world according to their regional
endowment and the pace at which they are developed and distributed. According to
Figure 21, the average annual primary energy consumption per capita varies across
regions of the world. There are other factors contributing to regional differences than
climatic conditions, according to the data. Globally, annual energy consumption is
approximately 1.6 tons per capita; in OECD countries, it is around 5 tons per capita, and
in developing countries, it is less than 1 ton per capita. It has been two centuries since
energy sources have been exploited and developed, and the world has benefited from
this. As a result, energy issues and policies have primarily focused on increasing the
supply of energy, which has become one of the indicators of a country's development
progress. As a result, this approach is now considered to be a vision that needs to be
challenged. Providing quality energy services to support economic development is key
to decoupling energy consumption growth from economic growth.

Figure No.21: Primary energy Consumption in different nation.
Figure No.22: This graph illustrates different sources of primary energy consume
at world level.
With the rebound in global demand in 2021, coal consumption worldwide increased by
5.7%, surpassing its pre-pandemic level by 1%. Because of the economic recovery and
high gas prices, coal consumption increased strongly in Western countries, with a
13.8% increase in North America (United States: 14.5%) and an 11.9% increase in
Europe, including a 17.9% increase in Germany and a 9.9% increase in Turkey. There
was a slower increase in coal consumption in Asia (+4.7%), with India growing at
+6.6%, Japan at +5%, and China at +4.6%. There was no increase in coal consumption
in Indonesia (+0.9%) or South Korea (+0.2%). Approximately 52% of global coal and
lignite consumption will be accounted for by China in 2021, followed by India (13%), the
United States (6%) and the European Union (6%).
There was a decrease of 7.4% in crude oil production in 2020, which was followed by a
rise of less than 1% in 2021. Within an environment of global economic recovery, oil
demand grew more rapidly than supply, while vaccination rates for COVID-19 increased
and restrictions regarding pandemics were relaxed. The price of international oil has

increased by almost 70% (+69% for Brent, at US$71/bbl), despite OPEC+'s
commitment in January to gradually release 2 million barrels per day and its
endorsement of 0.4 million barrels per day for supply adjustments beginning in August
until production cuts of 5.8 million barrels per day are phased out by the end of 2021. As
a percentage of global oil production, U.S. crude oil production increased by 1.3% in
2021 to 17.7%. Russian crude oil production surpassed Saudi Arabia by approximately
1.5%. Iran accounted for 17.6% of Middle East oil production, North America (+2.5%),
CIS (+1.8%), and Asia (+3.3%). Nigeria (-11.4%) drove down output in Africa (-5.3%)
and Latin America (-0.5%).
Despite a steep decline in the demand for oil products in 2020 (-9.2%), it recovered by
5% in 2021 due to the easing of lockdowns worldwide and an increase in mobility as a
result. There was a strong spike in demand for oil products in Africa (+7.8%), including
+9.5% in Egypt, +8.6% in South Africa, and +8.1% in Nigeria, as well as in North
America (+7.1%, including +7.8% in the United States), the CIS (+5.8%), and the Middle
East (+5.3%). Compared with Latin America (+4.5%), Europe (+4%), and Asia (+3.2%),
the rise in oil product consumption was less rapid in Latin America (+4.5%), Europe
(+4%), and Asia (+3.2%). As a result of China's policy of zero COVID-19, the country's
oil product consumption increased only by 2.2% in 2021. China (16%), India (5%), and
the United States accounted for the majority of global oil consumption in 2021.
In 2021, the global consumption of gas increased by 4.8%. The surge in Asian demand
led to a tightening of the global gas balance trade and an unprecedented rise in gas
prices. As the world's largest gas consumer, the United States' gas consumption
remained stable (-0.6%) in the last decade, but has followed a positive trend (+2%/year
over 2010-2021) as coal-to-gas switching has occurred, particularly in power generation
(gas consumption in power plants, however, decreased in 2021). There was an
increase in consumption in the EU (+4%), especially in Italy (+7.3%), and in countries
producing goods such as Russia (+14.6%, a record level), Egypt (+4.6%), and Brazil
(+22.7%). China (+12.5%, primarily driven by industry and residential development),
South Korea (+8.7%) and Taiwan (+8.3%) also observed this upward trend, whereas

gas consumption continued to decline in Japan (-4.4%) as a result of a decrease in
electricity demand and a shift to renewable energy sources.
Figure No.23: Energy consumption in different nations.
The global energy consumption increased by 5% in 2021 after declining by 4.5% in

2020. As a result of a global pandemic, the global energy consumption increased by 5%
in 2021, after declining by 4.5% in 2020. Over the period 2000-2019, this rebound is
three points higher than the average of 2%/year. It is estimated that the global energy
consumption in 2021 will surpass that in 2019. Most countries saw their energy
consumption increase, with China (+5.2%), India (+4.7%), the United States (+4.7%),
Russia (+9%), and the European Union (+4.5%). It should be noted that energy
consumption increased in most regions, including +9% in the CIS, +5% in Latin
America, +7% in Africa, with the exception of the Middle East (-0.4%) and the Pacific (-
2.5%).
Indian energy scenario and its impact on the environment-

Approximately 56% of the total commercial energy consumed by Indian industries in
2007-08 was consumed by the industrial sector, which consists of a number of highly
energy-intensive industries, including aluminium, iron, steel, textiles, chemicals, and
pulp and paper. Compared with China (8360 kcal/USD), India's industrial output
consumes 6416 kcal/USD less energy. In comparison with developed countries, Indian
industries have a higher energy intensity (3 times that of the United States and 4 times
that of the United Kingdom) due to the presence of large energy resources.
Figure No.24: Electricity generation in India as comparison to word.
Results of implications for global outcomes, India's energy future has leading to national
development objectives. According to a global perspective, India's current emissions
and those projected for the future are of sufficient magnitude to affect global mitigation
efforts. There was a 6.6% increase in global emissions from India in 2014. Due to the
fact that India starts with a low base of emissions per capita - 2.5 tons per capita, which
is 37% of the global average - this share will invariably increase. As global emissions
need to decrease, this growth poses a challenge. Nevertheless, India's economic future
cannot be assured without increasing the level of energy use for millions of people,
which is likely to result in a rise in emissions. There is no doubt that these are
interrelated challenges - India's efforts to increase energy usage are influenced by a

climate mitigation context that is driving rapid advancements in energy technology,
which provide opportunities as well as create uncertainties.
In spite of the fact that several studies have attempted to project India's energy future,
there persists the possibility of widely varying conclusions due to two factors. As India
undergoes rapid economic and social transformation, technology and economic growth
rates add to the usual uncertainties. Taking India as an example, the country is
experiencing simultaneous demographic and urbanization transitions and must
overcome the challenge of low levels of access to reliable commercial energy. Thus,
projections regarding India's energy and emission future will depend on whether it will
use a manufacturing or services-based approach to providing jobs, whether its cities will
be compact or sprawling, and how it will provide energy to its citizens. Indian energy
and emissions are impacted by its uncertain development choices. Furthermore, over
the past several years, the policy environment surrounding these issues in India has
changed rapidly, further complicating the task of projection. Our research shows that
individual studies often produce widely divergent results, primarily as a result of
assumptions made by the authors about uncertain futures in terms of policy and
development.

Figure No.25: Generation of Cabon di-oxide by various energy sources.
Modeling studies for India project various CO2 levels for 2030, from 9% to 169%
increases over 2012. The studies estimate an annual GDP growth rate of 6.5% to 8.0%
based on these findings. Moreover, India's projected 2030 emissions are of the same
order of magnitude as its current emissions.
Our interpretation of this range is based on the clustering of the results into four
categories. It is first important to distinguish between 'reference' scenarios, which
provide estimates of India's energy future based on its present policy environment, and
'policy' scenarios, which model aspirational policies. Additionally, we subcategorize
reference scenarios into 'reference 2015' and 'reference pre-2015' to reflect current
policy base years and reflect rapid policy changes. A policy scenario may also be
subcategorized into a policy-national scenario, which represents a policy shaped mainly
by national development objectives, and a policy-hybrid scenario, which represents a
policy shaped primarily by national development and global climate goals. In the case of
studies that include multiple reference or policy scenarios, we select the ones that best
represent the categories described above.
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C REDIT 04
CREDIT 04 -UNIT 4-1: ENERGY CONSERVATION AND ENERGY ECONOMICS:
Learning Objectives
 Energy Conservation and Energy Economics.
 Energy efficiency at national level, improving energy efficiency, energy analysis,

concept of exergy (theoretical treatment), capital recovery factor,
 Levelised annual cost, economic analysis of wind electric generation and thermal
power systems.
4-1 ENERGY CONSERVATION AND ENERGY ECONOMICS: ENERGY EFFICIENCY

AT NATIONAL LEVEL, IMPROVING ENERGY EFFICIENCY, ENERGY ANALYSIS,
CONCEPT OF EXERGY (THEORETICAL TREATMENT), CAPITAL RECOVERY
FACTOR, LEVELISED ANNUAL COST, ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF WIND ELECTRIC
GENERATION AND THERMAL POWER SYSTEMS.
4-1 Energy Conservation and Energy Economics: The concept of energy

conservation refers to reducing energy consumption by using less energy services. In
order to accomplish this, either energy can be used more efficiently (using less energy
for a constant service) or the amount of energy used (such as driving less) can be
reduced. A major part of eco-sustainability is energy conservation. By implementing
energy conservation measures (ECMs) in buildings, you can reduce energy use and
save money as well as benefit the environment, national security, personal financial
security and the environment. Among sustainable energy sources, it ranks first. In
addition, it prevents future resource depletion, thereby lowering energy costs.
Energy efficiency at national level- It aims to promote and support the development
of innovative energy efficient technologies and approaches. In the National Framework
on Energy Efficiency (NFEE), measures already approved by COAG and the Ministerial
Council on Energy are incorporated and built upon.

It is estimated that India's primary energy demand has grown from approximately 450
million tons of oil equivalent (toe) in 2000 to around 770 million toe in 2012.
Approximately 1250 million toe are predicted to be produced by 2030 (estimated by the
International Energy Agency) and 1500 million toe, respectively (estimated in the
Integrated Energy Policy Report). There are a number of factors driving this growth, the
most important of which is the increase in incomes and economic growth, which in turn
increase the need for energy-related services such as lighting, cooking, air conditioning,
mobility, industrial production, and office automation. Additionally, the growth in energy
consumption is reflective of the low level of energy supply in India at present. In 2011,
India had an average annual energy consumption of only 0.6 tons per capita, compared
to 1.88 tons per capita globally. In addition, no country has been able to achieve a
Human Development Index of more than 0.9 without at least four tons of energy per
capita in the past year. Thus, for people to have a reasonable income and a decent
standard of living, there is a large latent demand for energy services.
In order to meet the energy needs of its citizens while ensuring a minimum increase in
carbon dioxide emissions, the Indian government has adopted a two-pronged strategy.
As far as generation is concerned, the government promotes the use of renewable
energy sources, primarily solar and wind, while at the same time moving towards
supercritical technologies for coal-fired power plants. Various innovative policy
measures are being implemented under the overall remit of the Energy Conservation
Act 2001, in order to efficiently use energy on the demand side.
As a result of the Energy Conservation Act (EC Act), the Indian economy has been
reduced in its energy intensity since 2001. As part of the implementation of the EC Act,
the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) was established on 1st March 2002 at the central
level as the statutory body. Among the requirements of the Act are: standards and
labelling for equipment and appliances; energy-efficient building codes for commercial
buildings; and energy consumption standards for industries that consume significant
amounts of energy. The Act also enjoins the Central Government to comply with the
laws. All sectors of the economy must be encouraged to utilize energy efficiently, and
the Bureau should take steps to facilitate and promote this. Furthermore, the Act

requires states to designate agencies responsible for implementing the Act and
promoting energy efficiency. As a result of the 2010 amendments to the EC Act, the
following changes have been made to the Act.
a) Energy savings certificates may be issued by the Central Government to

designated consumers who consume less energy than prescribed norms and
standards based on the procedure prescribed by the Central Government
b) To comply with the prescribed norms and standards, the designated consumer
whose energy consumption exceeds the prescribed norms and standards may
purchase the energy savings certificate.
c) A value for per metric ton of oil equivalent of energy consumed may be set by the
Central Government in consultation with the Bureau
d) EC Act applies to commercial buildings that have connected loads greater than
100 kW or contract demands greater than 120 kVA.
In the areas of household lighting, commercial buildings, appliance standards and

labeling, demand side management, small and medium-sized businesses, and large
industries, the Ministry of Power's Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) has initiated a
number of energy efficiency initiatives. These include establishing energy consumption
norms for industrial subsectors, building capacity for SDAs and so on. It was targeted
that 10,000 MW of avoided generation capacity could be saved through these schemes
during the XI plan period. During the XI plan period, 10836 MW of capacity generation
was avoided through these initiatives.
Promotion Of Energy Conservation and Energy Efficiency
(i) Regulatory and labelling requirements - It was established by the Bureau in 2006
to provide consumers with information about the energy saving potential of the relevant
marketed products, and thereby to enable them to make an informed choice. 19
equipments/appliances are covered by the scheme, such as There are a number of
items you can purchase from our company, including room air conditioners, fluorescent
tube lights, frost-free refrigerators, distribution transformers, motors, direct cool

refrigerators, electric storage geysers, ceiling fans, color televisions, agricultural pump
sets, LPG stoves, washing machines, laptops, ballasts, floor standing air conditioners,
office automation products, diesel gensets and diesel operating pumpsets, of which the
first four have been notified for mandatory labeling since January 7, 2010. A voluntary
labeling program is currently in place for the other appliances. As part of the BEE
program, energy efficiency labels are intended to reduce the energy consumption of
appliances without reducing the quality of service they provide to consumers.
Additionally, refrigerators and air conditioners are periodically subject to more stringent
standards and labels. This results in the removal of the least efficient products from the
market and the introduction of more efficient products. It has been notified on 30th
January, 2014 that corporate average fuel consumption (CAFC) standards have been
established for passenger cars. Diesel Pumpsets and Diesel Generating Sets have
been added to the list of labeled products.
As part of the XII Plan, the Standards and Labeling Programme will target at least three
additional equipments/appliances, as well as the updating of energy performance
standards for devices/appliances covered under the XI Plan.
(ii) Guidelines for Energy Conservation in Buildings (ECBC)- The Energy

Conservation Building Code (ECBC) was developed by Govt. of India for new
commercial buildings on 27th May 2007. ECBC sets minimum energy standards for new
commercial buildings having a connected load of 100kW or contract demand of 120
KVA and above. While the Central Government has powers under the EC Act 2001, the
state governments have the flexibility to modify the code to suit local or regional needs
and notify them. Currently eight States and Union Territories (Rajasthan, Odisha, UT of
Puducherry, Uttrakhand, Punjab, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh & Telangana) notified and
adopted the code for their states. In order to promote a market pull for energy efficient
buildings, Bureau of Energy Efficiency developed a voluntary Star Rating Programme
for buildings which is based on the actual performance of a building, in terms of energy
usage in the building over its area expressed in kWh/sq. m/year. Currently, Voluntary
Star Labelling programme for 4 categories of buildings (day use office

buildings/BPOs/Shopping malls/Hospitals) has been developed and put in public
domain.
(iii) System of demand side management (DSM)
(a) Agriculture demand side management (DSM) - For the purpose of maximizing
energy savings, the Bureau of Energy Efficiency initiated Agriculture Demand Side
Management (AgDSM) program in the XI plan for the purpose of promoting energy
efficiency in the agriculture sector by establishing a market-based framework for pilot
projects, and increasing awareness of the importance of energy efficient pumpsets
(EEPS) among end users and other stakeholders. During the XI plan, the following
major milestones were achieved:
a) There have been 11 Detailed Project Reports (DPRs) prepared for 11 Discoms
covering 20,750 pumpsets connected to 87 feeders in eight states. There is a
potential for energy savings of 40% (96 MU) on average.
b) A pilot project is currently being implemented in Solapur, Maharashtra, which is

projected to save 6.1 MU by upgrading 2209 pumps. Monitoring & verification
methodologies have been prepared and are in the process of implementation for
realizing energy savings in Solapur.
c) The Punjab and Haryana governments have mandated that all new agricultural
connections be installed with BEE star rated pumpsets. The state of Haryana and
Punjab have reported installing 67843 and 1599 pumps under the regulation,
respectively.
Aiming to accelerate the process of sustainable energy efficiency in the XII plan through
the following interventions, BEE intends to realize the vast energy savings potential in
the sector during the XII plan.
a) New connections will be required to use pump sets labeled with the BEE star
b) Establish monitoring and verification protocols for DPRs and facilitate their
implementation

c) All stakeholders will receive technical assistance and capacity building
(b) Municipal demand side management - During the XI plan, BEE initiated Municipal
Demand Side Management (MuDSM) when it identified the enormous potential for
energy savings in the municipal sector. In this project, the primary objective was to
increase the energy efficiency of the ULBs, which would result in substantial savings in
electricity consumption, thereby reducing or saving the ULBs' costs. As a result of the XI
plan, the following major achievements have been achieved.
a) In 175 ULBs throughout the country, a situational survey was conducted.
b) After conducting an Investment Grade Energy Audit (IGEA), Bankable DPRs

were prepared for 134 ULBs. 134 urban local governments have identified 120
MW of potential savings through energy efficiency projects as part of the avoided
generation capacity.
c) The program resulted in the development of a MuDSM web portal. Among the
materials available on the portal are DPRs and knowledge materials developed
as part of the program.
In order to achieve the desired results, the project must be implemented at the ground
level, which will result in a significant change in the market among technology providers,
implementing partners, financial institutions, etc. As a result of these facts, it is
proposed that demo projects will be implemented on a pilot basis in 15 ULBs during the
XII plan. Additionally, selected ULBs will receive technical support through the
appointment of technical experts.
(c) DISCOM capacity building- This program aims to build the capacity of DISCOMs to
carry out load management programs, energy conservation programs, develop DSM
action plans, and implement DSM activities in their respective areas. The purpose of
this program is to assist the DISCOMs in reducing peak electricity demand so that they
will not have to build further capacity in the near future.
(d) Incorporating energy efficiency measures into small and medium enterprises
(SMEs) - As part of its XI plan, BEE has initiated the energy efficiency interventions in

selected 25 SMEs clusters to encourage the use of energy-efficient technologies and
operational practices. To assess the level of energy use and technology gap at the unit
level, to develop cluster-specific energy efficiency manuals, to prepare detailed project
reports (DPRs) about energy efficient technologies, and to enhance the capacity and
knowledge of the human resources involved in SMEs, a study was conducted. As part
of the XII plan, 100 technology demonstration projects will be implemented in five
sectors of the SME sector in order to facilitate the replication of these projects on a
large scale.
(iv) Enhancing state institutions:
(a) Enhancing the effectiveness of State Designated Agencies (SDAs)- According

to the Energy Conservation Act, the state departments of energy are responsible for
implementing and enforcing its provisions. In accordance with section 15 (d) of the
Energy Conservation Act 2001, SDAs have been established in 32 states by
designating one of the existing organizations. There are a variety of energy
development agencies from state to state. These agencies include Renewable Energy
Development Agencies (44%), Electrical Inspectorates (25%), Distribution Companies
(12%), Power Departments (16%), and others (3%). The Ministry of Power has
approved a scheme that provides financial assistance to the State Designated Agencies
for strengthening their institutional capacities and capabilities during the XI plan in order
to kick start energy conservation activities at the state level, with an emphasis on
building institutional capacities of the SDAs. Following were the major achievements:
a) A web platform was developed by 26 SDAs.
b) There have been 47 demonstration projects implemented in the areas of street

lighting and water pumping stations.
c) 28 states have participated in the LED Village Campaign.
d) There are 491 government buildings have been audited for investment grade
energy efficiency in buildings.

Establishing state-level enforcement mechanisms will be a key component of the XII
plan.
(b) Scheme for Contribution to State Energy Conservation Funds (SECF)- In order
to facilitate the implementation of energy efficiency projects, the State Energy
Conservation Fund (SECF) was established. Contributions under the State Energy
Conservation Fund (SECF) were made to the governments of those states. It is the UT
Administration that has created their SECF and finalized the rules and regulations that
will govern its operation. State/UT contributions were provided in two equal instalments
of Rs. 2.00 crore each up to a maximum of Rs. 4.00 crore for any State/UT. A second
instalment of contributions was released to SECF only after matching contributions had
been made by the states to BEE's first installment. Contributions to SECF remain
subject to the same terms and conditions as under the 12th plan, with North Eastern
States being exempt. State governments are now required to make a matching
contribution of 25 lakhs instead of Rs 2.0 crores for North Eastern States. Twenty-six
states have received 82 crores so far. The matching contributions have been provided
by 15 states.
(v) Education Program for Schools - To promote awareness of the efficient use of
energy resources among the next generation, it is necessary to introduce children to
this topic during their schooling. To promote energy efficiency in schools, Energy Clubs
are being established to promote energy efficiency. The Bureau of Energy Efficiency is
implementing the Students Capacity Building Programme under the Energy
Conservation Awareness Scheme for the XII five-year plan. As part of its proposal to
incorporate Energy Efficiency and Conservation into existing science syllabuses and
textbooks of NCERT for grades 6 to 10, the Bureau intends to prepare a text/material on
Energy Efficiency and Conservation. In progress are the following main activities:
a) Assess the existing science curriculum and science text books of NCERT for
classes 6th to 10th and determine the level of information that needs to be
included on energy efficiency and conservation.

b) Provide a separate and exclusive draft text module (English and Hindi). This
module will be included in science syllabuses and science textbooks published
by the National Council for Educational Research (NCERT) for grades 6 to 10.
c) Conducting training of teaching staff and developing training modules (English

and Hindi versions)
Additionally, recommendations will be made to the National Council of Education,

Research and Training (NCERT) for the inclusion of relevant chapters on energy
efficiency in the science textbooks of classes VII to IX as part of this project.
(vi) Human Resource Development (HRD) - Through awareness creation, there is

considerable potential for improving the energy efficiency of processes and equipment.
For the penetration of energy efficient technologies and practices in various sectors, a
sound policy for developing, retaining, and upgrading the skills of Human Resources is
essential. As part of HRD, we provide theory-based as well as practice-oriented training
programs as well as support for energy audit instruments.
(vii) National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE) - As part of the
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), the National Mission for Enhanced
Energy Efficiency (NMEEE) was established. It is the objective of NMEEE to establish a
conducive regulatory and policy framework for the market for energy efficiency, as well
as to foster innovative and sustainable business models in this field.
A meeting of the Cabinet held on 24 June 2010 approved the NMEEE document and
funding for two years of the 11th Plan period (2010-12) with a total outlay of Rs.235.50
crore. Within the approved expenditure of Rs. 235.50 crore, Rs. 15.00 crore was
earmarked to augment the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE)'s corpus to meet
additional establishment expenditures during the 11th Plan. It was approved by Cabinet
on 6th August, 2014 that NMEEE would be continued for the 12th Plan with a total
expenditure of Rs. 775 crores.
As part of the Mission, efforts will be upscaled in order to unlock the market for energy
efficiency estimated at around Rs. 74,000 crore, which will enable the project to add

19,598 MW of avoided capacity, reduce fuel consumption by approximately 23 million
tonnes annually, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions by approximately 98.55 million
tonnes annually.
Institutional and regulatory infrastructure was established during the 11th Plan period.
After extensive stakeholder consultations with the Ministry of Electricity, the Central
Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC), state governments, industry associations
such as FICCI, CII, and the Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC), the
implementation framework for NMEEE was developed. Academic experts from IITs,
research organizations, financial institutions, NGOs, etc., as well as independent
experts from academia. Among the four initiatives outlined by the NMEEE to enhance
energy efficiency in energy intensive industries are as follows:
a) PAT is a market-based scheme that aims to enhance the cost-effectiveness of

improving energy efficiency in energy intensive industries through certification of
energy savings that can be traded.
b) By using innovative measures to make energy-efficient appliances more

affordable, MTEE aims to accelerate the shift to energy-efficient appliances in
selected sectors.
c) To develop mechanisms for capturing future energy savings through the use of
an Energy Efficiency Financing Platform (EEFP).
d) Developing fiscal instruments to promote energy efficiency is the purpose of the

Framework for Energy Efficient Economic Development (FEEED).
Improving energy efficiency- The concept of energy efficiency can be defined as

using less energy to accomplish the same task, thereby eliminating energy waste.
There are several benefits associated with energy efficiency, including a reduction in
greenhouse gas emissions, a reduction in the need for energy imports, and a reduction
in overall household and economic costs.costs. As renewable energy technologies also
contribute to meeting these objectives, improving energy efficiency is the most cost-
effective - and often the most immediate - way to reduce fossil fuel use. Efficiency

improvements are possible in every sector of the economy, including buildings,
transportation, industry, and energy generation.
a) Buildings- Designing zero-energy buildings involves optimizing building efficiency
and incorporating renewable energy technologies. Energy consumption and costs can
also be reduced by making changes to existing buildings. It may be as simple as
switching to LED lights or purchasing energy efficient appliances, or as complex as
upgrading insulation and weatherizing a home.
b) Energy Generation and Distribution- It is possible to capture and utilize the
"waste" heat from power plants for the purpose of providing heat, cooling, and/or hot
water to nearby buildings and facilities. As a result, power generation becomes more
energy efficient, ranging from approximately 33 percent to 80 percent. It is also
important to note that the smart grid is another system that will increase the efficiency of
the generation, distribution, and consumption of electricity.
c) Community Design - To reduce the need for personal vehicles, neighborhoods that
incorporate mixed-use developments and safe, accessible transportation options are
crucial.
d) Vehicles - In order to cover a given distance, more fuel-efficient vehicles use less
fuel. Consequently, fewer emissions are generated and their operating costs are
significantly reduced. It is particularly fuel-efficient to drive a plug-in hybrid or a fully
electric vehicle.
e) Freight - Rail and truck transportation can be made more efficient, and long-distance
freight can be transported by rail instead of trucks.
f) Human Behaviour - The four strategies listed above play a major role in improving
energy efficiency. It should be noted, however, that the manner in which these
technologies are used will have a significant impact on their efficacy. Could a highly
efficient technology have an environmental impact if no one is motivated to buy, install,
and/or use it? In what ways does driving behavior and unnecessary idling influence gas
mileage? If there is a cultural stigma against public transportation, how many people will
use it? Several social, cultural, and economic factors contribute to the loss of 30 percent
of the potential energy savings of high efficiency technologies. Increasing our
economy's energy efficiency requires addressing these factors as well.

Energy analysis- Analyzing energy resources can provide additional information on
which to base decisions regarding the allocation of energy resources. Furthermore,
combining energy analysis with economic evaluation can enable the correction of
implicit errors that can lead to resource misallocation.The purpose of technology
analyses is to estimate and assess the performance and cost of current and future
energy technologies and systems that are the result of successful NETL research and
development. Energy technologies and systems that capture carbon dioxide and store
it in deep geologic formations are examples of energy technologies and systems. These
results are used as inputs to larger scale energy-economic models that place these
technologies within the context of the larger energy portfolio. NETL RD&D impacts and
benefits under a variety of possible future scenarios will also be discussed in the
analyses, including their anticipated competitiveness, environmental impacts, and
energy security implications.
Benefits of Energy analysis - Utilizes economic models to quantify the prospective and
retrospective benefits of energy research and development programs. In both the near
term and over the next few decades, these studies provide insight into the potential
economic competitiveness of NETL's advanced energy technologies.
It is important to note that the extent to which benefits are realized depends on several
factors, including:
a) Achievement of R&D objectives
b) Technologies competing with each other
c) Price of energy in the future
d) Aspects of future regulation
It is necessary to consider alternative scenarios given the uncertainty of the future of
markets and regulations. Economic models are used by NETL analysts to forecast
market penetration of advanced energy systems for a variety of possible futures.
Economic, environmental, and energy security impacts are evaluated and quantified.

Concept of exergy (theoretical treatment)- The concept of energy has been used in
engineering analyses of chemical and mechanical processes and systems for many
years. An official definition of exergy is: The maximum amount of useful work that can
be extracted from a system during its reversible return to equilibrium with its
environment. The capacity of energy to perform physical work can be defined as the
capacity for energy to do work. Four basic principles will be used to explain the concept.
(1)Exergy is a measure of energy quality - Energy comes in many different forms, all of
a different inherent quality. ‗Quality‘ can refer to a number of attributes – ease of
transport, energy density, environmental impact, etc. – but we refer here to its most
fundamental form, which encapsulates the ability to perform physical work, i.e. to
overcome a resistance to make an object move. This is important when considering
thermal energy (heat), which is intrinsically of a lower quality than other forms of energy
(such as electricity or mechanical motion). This is because for a given amount of heat, a
portion – depending upon its temperature – will constitute the low-grade waste heat
which cannot then be recovered and made to do physical work (for example, in a heat
engine).

Figure No.26: Heat energy can theoretically be recovered from a device such as
an electric system.
A Joule (100J) of heat, for instance, corresponds to less effort than a Joule (100J) of
electricity. Depending on the temperature, pressure, chemical composition, etc., of the
system, as well as the environment (see point 3), 100J of heat may contain varying
amounts of exergy. It should be noted that 100J of electrical energy corresponds to
100J of exergy exactly.
(2) Exergy, unlike energy, can and is destroyed when transformed - Whenever energy is
transformed, it is conserved according to the first law of thermodynamics. It is inevitable
that some amount of input energy will be converted into low-temperature waste heat
during any real process. There is always an equal balance between waste heat and
useful energy output (see figure 26).
By contrast, exertion is derived from the second law of thermodynamics, which states
that every transformation process is associated with the loss of some measure of the
system's quality. In a subsequent conversion process, exergy represents the part of an
energy flow that can be used for useful work; using the same units as energy
(e.g.Joules). Every process results in a partial destruction of it. It is sufficient to say that
destruction, in this sense, refers to the generation of low-temperature waste heat
through an irreversible process of entropy creation.
(3) A system's exertion is determined by its environment.
A material's exertion is the result of its chemical composition, temperature, and
electrical potential relative to the external environment. To put it another way, the
amount of exergy available depends on the contrast between a thermodynamic system
and its environment; the greater the difference between the two (in temperature,
gravitational/electrical/chemical potential), the greater the amount of exergy.
In order to illustrate this point, let us take a look at a hydropower plant. Could you
please explain why there is such a large difference in water level between the two
sides? In the absence of a potential difference between the two bodies of water, both
bodies of water have considerable gravitational potential energy. The system has no
exergy when the two levels are equal. Through the use of a dam, the higher body is

lowered relative to the lower body, as a result gaining a significant amount of easily
exploitable energy.
(4) Energy efficiency indicates how far a conversion process is from its theoretical
maximum efficiency-It is possible to measure energy efficiency in a number of ways, but
the most commonly used measurement is first law efficiency, which is measured in
physical terms.
Ratio Efficiency (η) = Useful energy output / Total energy input,
A conversion process is often analyzed as a function of 'benefits' and 'costs' in terms of
energy. The use of this measure of efficiency is widespread, but it has a number of
limitations. There are several applications where first-law efficiencies exceed 100%,
such as heat pumps and refrigerators. In addition, the measure provides no indication of
how a conversion process affects energy quality.
For instance, nearly all the electrical power in an electric heater is converted into heat.
This appliance has a first-law efficiency of close to 100%, making it appear to be one of
the most efficient on the market. The result is low-quality thermal energy from extremely
high-quality electrical energy. To address the confusion here, we employ the so-called
exergy, or second-law efficiency:
Efficiency (ε) = Minimum energy input / Actual energy input.
The use of energy is more accurately described by this measure. Alternatively, it can be
expressed as follows:
ε = Exergy output / exergy input.
This means that in practice, a device's theoretical 'minimum' energy requirement
represents its maximum possible efficiency. An electric heater, as an example, is
capable of achieving the same output with less energy input. As an alternative, a heat
pump is capable of transferring heat to a space at a much lower cost than an electric
heater. As a result, the energy efficiency of a heat pump is much higher than that of an
electric heater.
Capital recovery factor- An annual series of equal cash payments is valued using a
capital recovery factor. Often referred to as annuities, these payments are made
weekly, monthly, quarterly, yearly, or at other regular intervals. An annual series of

equal cash payments is valued based on a capital recovery factor. It is common for
annuities to be paid weekly, monthly, quarterly, annually, or at any other regular interval.
Using this ratio, you can determine the present value of successive payments over a
fixed period of time. In consideration of the time value of money, the present value is the
equivalent value at the present of a set of future cash flows. Capital recovery factor can
be calculated using the following formula:
CRF = i(1+i)n / (1+i)n-1
The number of annuities received in this instance is n. At this point, we have a formula
which corresponds to the annuity formula, which gives the present value of an annuity
based on the type, the interest rate, and the number of annuities received.
Levelised annual cost of electricity- Electricity levelization cost (LCOE), also known
as levelized cost of energy, is a measure of the average net present cost of electricity
generation over the lifetime of a generator. Various methods of electricity generation are
compared on a consistent basis with this method for the purpose of investment
planning. Energy levelized cost (LCOE), also called electricity levelized cost or levelized
energy cost (LEC), is a method of assessing and comparing alternative forms of energy
production. Accordingly, the LCOE of an energy-generating asset is the average total
cost of building and operating the asset over the expected lifespan of the asset. As an
alternative, the levelized cost of energy may be viewed as the lowest price at which
electricity produced by the asset must be sold in order to offset its total costs of
production over its lifespan. A project's net present value is calculated by calculating the
LCOE. To determine whether a project will be worthwhile, the LCOE can be used
similarly to the NPV.
In deciding whether or not to proceed with a project, levelized cost of energy is an
important metric. In order to determine whether a project is profitable or break even, the
LCOE must be calculated. The firm will not proceed with the construction of the power
generation asset if this is the case. An important step in analyzing projects of this nature
is to assess the life cycle cost of the project.

In addition to calculating the levelized cost of energy, LCOE is also used by financial
analysts to compare the cost of energy from different types of energy sources, such as
wind, solar, and nuclear. As a result, these comparisons can be conducted regardless
of the unequal lifespans, the differences in capital costs, the various sizes of the
projects, and the various risks associated with them. Since the LCOE represents a cost
per unit of electricity generated, the risk associated with each project is determined by
the discount rate used to calculate the cost per unit of electricity.
First, the net present value of the total costs associated with building and operating the
power generation asset can be used to calculate the LCOE. Taking this number and
dividing it by the total electricity generated over the lifetime of the facility is the next
step. Generally, the project will incur the following costs:
 Investment expenditures at the beginning (I)
 Expenditures for maintenance and operations (M)
 Expenditures for fuel (if applicable) (F)
Power-generating assets will produce the following outputs:
 Electricity generated as a whole (E)
In addition to these two important factors, it is also important to consider:
 A project's discount rate (r)
 Life expectancy of the system (n)
LCOE = Σ[(It + Mt + Ft) / (1 + r)t] / Σ[(Et/(1 + r)t]
Economicanalysis of wind electric generation and thermal power systems- In spite

of the fact that the dimensions of wind turbines have increased, the costs have steadily
decreased since 1981. It is estimated that a typical wind turbine of 750 kW can generate
an energy of 2.5 million kilowatt-hours per year for a cost of 800 dollars per kilowatt,
while a wind turbine of 25 kW in 1981 produced 45000 kilowatt-hours for a cost of 2600
dollars per kilowatt. In accordance with a report published by the Association of
European Wind Energy, the cost of wind turbines decreased three times between 1981
and 1991. It is estimated that investment costs for wind turbines, which were 1000
dollars per kW in 1997, will reduce to 600 dollars per kW by 2006, according to a
Washington DC study of renewable energy policies. According to a press release
issued by the European Wind Energy Association, there is more than 10000 MW of
wind capacity in the world, and clean energy technology in the next decade is expected
to be widely used throughout the world. In addition to having more than 10000MW of
capacity, they have sold wind turbines valued at more than ten billion dollars. Wind
energy capacities of 40000 MW for 2010 and 100000 MW for 2020 are the objectives of
Association of European Wind Energy. Currently, it is possible to state that this
objective will be achieved.
In comparison to conventional production methods of electrical energy, wind energy has
the greatest environmental advantages in terms of air pollutants and greenhouse gas
emissions. The economic cost of wind energy, which is critical to its marketing success,
is increasing steadily and rapidly. Pacific Gas & Electric and Electric Power Research
Institute predicted at the beginning of the 1990s that wind energy would be the cheapest
source of electricity production for a long period of time. As a matter of fact, this
prediction is not an imagination, and it is now on the verge of becoming a reality. A
study conducted by the Energy Commission of California examined the preparation to
marketing and the cost of various alternative energy sources.
Tabe No. 9: Comparative Cost of Energy Genration by different resources
Fuel Cost in INR/Watt
Coal 4.5-5.5
Gas 3.9-4.4
Hydraulics 5.1-11.3
Biomass 5.8-11.6
Nuclear 11.1-14.5
Wind 4-6
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CREDIT 04 -UNIT 4-2: SOLID WASTES:
Learning Objectives
 Definition, types, sources, characteristics, and impact on environmental health.
 Waste generation rates, Concepts of waste reduction, recycling and reuse. Collection,
segregation and transport of solid wastes.
 Handling and segregation of wastes at source. Collection and storage of municipal solid wastes.
4-2 SOLID WASTES: DEFINITION, TYPES, SOURCES, CHARACTERISTICS, AND IMPACT ON

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. WASTE GENERATION RATES. CONCEPTS OF WASTE REDUCTION, RECYCLING
AND REUSE. COLLECTION, SEGREGATION AND TRANSPORT OF SOLID WASTES. HANDLING AND
SEGREGATION OF WASTES AT SOURCE. COLLECTION AND STORAGE OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTES.
4-2 Solid wastes:
Definition-: Solid Waste is generally termed as ―unwanted or undesired‖ material.

Though the term is universal it has different concern depending upon the location and
living standard of people.
According to Indian Municipal Solid Waste Management and Handling Rules,

2000 ―Municipal Solid Waste‖ includes commercial and residential wastes generated in
a municipal or notified area in either solid or semi-solid form excluding industrial
hazardous wastes but including treated bio-medical wastes.
If we look at the history of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), we will found that in the
early days the disposal of human and other waste did not pose any significant problem
because the population was small and the amount of land available for accumulation of
waste was large. Now, the scenario has changed quite a lot owing to rapid urbanization
and industrialization. This has resulted in tremendous increase in the migration of public
towards urbanized pocket and considerable change in socioeconomic status and the
subsequent infrastructural requirement for their safe, healthy and comfortable living,
which result into generation of large amount of waste in urban area.

In past, MSW have been disposed of mostly by a combination of open dumping
and open burning. For number of reason ―Sanitary Landfill‖ has now replaced these
techniques in many countries. During the flourishing of the Minon civilization on Crete
from 3000 to 1000 BC, solid waste in the Capital of Knossos were placed in the large
pits with layer of earth at interval. However, the Romans had no organized system of
waste removal, disposal and waste accumulated in the street and around the towns and
village. This practice was said to have persisted until the 19th century.
Around 320 BC food scraps and other waste were simply thrown on the unpaved
streets; therefore the first known law for binding the practice was established to remove
the waste in several eastern mediterian cities. In Rome, property owner was responsible
for cleaning streets fronting their property; however disposal methods were very crude
like open pits dumping, just outside city wall. But population-increased efforts were
made to transport the waste further out, and city dump was thus cleaned.
Solid Waste- A World Scenario:The rapid urbanization and industrialization has brought
about many changes in the quantity and quality of the MSW generated. Solid waste
generation, as one would expect, varies between countries, cities and parts of cities.
With continuous economic development and an increase in living standards, the
demand for goods and services is increasing quickly, resulting in an increase in per
capita generation of solid waste. Increasing population levels, booming economy, rapid
urbanization and the rise in community living standards have greatly accelerated the
MSW generation rate in developing countries, especially in China. Because, World
Bank pointed out that no country had ever experienced as large or as fast an increase
in solid waste quantity as China. During 2005, China surpassed the United States the
world‘s largest MSW generator. Furthermore, China‘s annual solid waste generation is
expected to grow from about 190 million tons in 2004 to over 480 million tons by 2030.
This poses enormous challenges for environmental protection and sustainable
development.
The waste generation rate in Kuala Lumpur, the capital city of Malaysia is
continuously rising up every year due to the uncontrollable consumption owing to the
increasing population, the attitude towards shopping and the high living standard. It is

expected that the amount of solid waste generated in KualaLumpur reach double in the
next twenty years; from 3.2 million tons a year during 2000 to 7.7 million tons a year in
2020.
The Latin America was generating about 369,000 tons a day of municipal solid
waste during 2005. 56 % of this total waste was from large urban centers, 21 % from
medium-size ones, and 23 % was from small ones (PAHO, 2005). The total per capita
rate of waste generation was about 0.8 kilogram a day, though it can exceed 2.4
kilograms a day during peak tourism seasons in some municipalities. The United States
is a ‗‗throwaway‘‘ society whose total and per capita waste has been increasing for more
than 40 years. The average American produces about 4.4 lbs of MSW each day,
resulting in roughly 210,000,000 tons/year for the nation. Most of MSW from this goes to
landfills..
Asian Perspective: Solid waste management and disposal is an alarming problem

encountered by many of the urban and industrial areas in developing economies in
Asia. Waste generation has witnessed an increasing trend parallel to the development
of industrialization, urbanization and rapid growth of population. The problem has
become one of the primary urban environmental issues. Enormous amount of waste is
generated daily and its management is a huge task. Final disposal is usually a matter of
transporting the collected waste to the nearest available open space and dumping it.
However, only a fraction of waste were properly collected and transported. Sometimes it
is burnt to reduce its volume and to minimize attraction of animals and vermin and also
to retrieve recyclable items. The trend of solid waste generation in most Asian countries
is increasing. The primary factors affecting waste quantity are population, urbanization,
industrialization and the changing lifestyle. Urban areas in Asia are generating about
760,000 tones of MSW or approximately 2.7 million m 3 per day. In 2025, this figure will
increase to 1.8 million tonnes of waste per day or 5.2 million m 3 of waste.
Indian Context-There has been a significant increase in MSW generation in India in the
last few decades. This is largely because of rapid population growth and economic
development in the country. Solid waste management has become a major
environmental issue in India. The per capita of waste generated daily, in India ranges

from about 100 g in small towns to 500 g in large towns (Singhal and Pandey, 2001)
and this quantity is increasing day by day.
Total quantity of solid waste generated in urban areas of the country is about
1.15 lakh tones per day. Out of this 19643 tonnes of waste is generated in metro cities
per day. The survey conducted by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) puts total
municipal waste generation from Class I and Class II cities to around 18 million tonnes
in 1997. The solid waste generated in Indian cities has increased from 6 million tonnes
in 1947 to 48 million tonnes in 1997 and is expected to increase to 300 million tonnes
per annum by 2047. More than 25% of the municipal solid waste is not collected at all,
70% of the Indian cities lack adequate capacity to transport it and there are no sanitary
landfills to dispose of the waste. The existing landfills are neither well equipped nor well
managed. Also, they are failed to protect against contamination of soil and groundwater.
Increasing population levels, rapid economic growth and rise in community living
standard accelerates the generation rate of municipal solid waste (MSW) in Indian
cities. The management of municipal solid waste is the major problem being faced by
municipalities because it involves a huge expenditure and receives scant attention
(Bhide and Sundersan, 1983). It is not only a technical problem but also is strongly
influenced by political, legal, socio-cultural, environmental and economic factors, as well
as available resources. Moreover, these factors have interrelationships that are usually
complex in waste management systems. Many cities in developing Asian countries face
serious problems in managing their solid waste. The annual waste generation increases
in proportion to the rise in population and urbanization, and issues related to disposal
have become challenging as more land is needed for the ultimate disposal of these
solid wastes. MSW is normally disposed of in an open dump in many Indian cities and
towns, which is not the proper way of disposal because such crude dumps pose
environmental hazards causing ecological imbalances with respect to land, water and
air pollution. Fig. 27 gives clear idea about the generation of solid waste in the class I
cities of different states in India. The solid waste generation and collection gap can also
observe from the figure.

Figure No 27: Showing State wise Solid Waste Generation (in MTD),
Collection (in percent) and number of Class-I Cities.
It can be observed from fig 1.1 that Maharashtra state is leading in the
generation of municipal solid waste with the huge amount of 14061 MTD from around
40 class I cities. In India, the amount of waste generated per capita is estimated to
increase at a rate of 1% - 1.33% annually. For example, the population of Mumbai grew
from around 8.2 million in 1981 to 12.3 million in 1991, registering a growth of around
49%. On the other hand, municipal solid waste generated in the city increased from
3200 tonnes per day to 5355 tonnes per day in the same period registering a growth of
around 67%.
On an average 1000–1200 mt solid waste is generated per day from the Pune
municipal area. This unsegregated solid waste is disposed at a landfill site near Urali-
Devachi village. About 43 ha of land have been allocated for solid waste disposal, of
which 15 ha area is already land-filled and has been sealed-off permanently. The
present practice of solid waste disposal consists of biological decomposition of waste
and land filling. Extra molecular culture is applied over solid waste for decomposing the
organic matter. However, due to the unsegregated waste, complete decomposition is
not possible. Only 150 mt decomposed organic matter is segregated per day and
collected from local farmers, to be used as manure, while the remaining solid waste is
left as it is for land filling. This solid waste disposal and management practice causes
various environmental problems in Urali-Devachi village. The burning of solid waste
creates heavy smoke and dust pollution. On inhalation this results in various respiratory
problems among the habitants. The leachate produced from the landfill site has
changed the characteristics of the ground aquifer. Therefore, various issues have arisen
due to solid waste disposal practices of the Pune municipal authority.
Types of Solid waste- Solid waste can be classified into different types depending on
their source;
a) Household waste is generally classified as municipal waste,
b) Industrial waste as hazardous waste, and

c) Biomedical waste or hospital waste as infectious waste.
a) Municipal solid waste - Municipal solid waste consists of household waste,
construction and demolition debris, sanitation residue, and waste from streets. This
garbage is generated mainly from residential and commercial complexes. With rising
urbanization and change in lifestyle and food habits, the amount of municipal solid
waste has been increasing rapidly and its composition changing. In 1947 cities and
towns in India generated an estimated 6 million tonnes of solid waste, in 1997 it was
about 48 million tonnes. More than 25% of the municipal solid waste is not collected at
all; 70% of the Indian cities lack adequate capacity to transport it and there are no
sanitary landfills to dispose of the waste. The existing landfills are neither well equipped
or well managed and are not lined properly to protect against contamination of soil and
groundwater.

Over the last few years, the consumer market has Garbage: the four broad
grown rapidly leading to products being packed in categories
cans, aluminium foils, plastics, and other such
nonbiodegradable items that cause incalculable Organic waste: kitchen waste,
harm to the environment. In India, some municipal vegetables, flowers, leaves, fruits.
areas have banned the use of plastics and they
Toxic waste: old medicines, paints,
seem to have achieved success. For example,
chemicals, bulbs, spray cans,
today one will not see a single piece of plastic in
fertilizer and pesticide containers,
the entire district of Ladakh where the local
batteries, shoe polish.
authorities imposed a ban on plastics in 1998.
Other states should follow the example of this Recyclable: paper, glass, metals,
region and ban the use of items that cause harm plastics.
to the environment. One positive note is that in
many large cities, shops have begun packing Soiled: hospital waste such as
items in reusable or biodegradable bags. Certain cloth soiled with blood and other
biodegradable items can also be composted and body fluids.
reused. In fact, proper handling of the
biodegradable waste will considerably lessen the burden of solid waste that each city
has to tackle.
There are different categories of waste generated, each take their own time to
degenerate (as illustrated in the table below).
Table No.10: The type of litter we generate and the approximate time it takes to
degenerate
Type of litter Approximate time it takes to

degenerate the litter
Organic waste such as vegetable and fruit a week or two.

peels, leftover foodstuff, etc.

Paper 10–30 days
Cotton cloth 2–5 months
Wood 10–15 years
Woolen items 1 year
Tin, aluminum, and other metal items such as 100–500 years

cans
Plastic bags one million years?
Glass bottles undetermined
b) Hazardous waste- Industrial and hospital waste is considered hazardous as they

may contain toxic substances. Certain types of household waste are also hazardous.
Hazardous wastes could be highly toxic to humans, animals, and plants; are corrosive,
highly inflammable, or explosive; and react when exposed to certain things e.g.
gases. India generates around 7 million tonnes of hazardous wastes every year, most of
which is concentrated in four states: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Tamil
Nadu. Household waste that can be categorized as hazardous waste include old
batteries, shoe polish, paint tins, old medicines, and medicine bottles. Hospital waste
contaminated by chemicals used in hospitals is considered hazardous. These chemicals
include formaldehyde and phenols, which are used as disinfectants, and mercury, which
is used in thermometers or equipment that measure blood pressure. Most hospitals in
India do not have proper disposal facilities for these hazardous wastes. In the industrial
sector, the major generators of hazardous waste are the metal, chemical, paper,
pesticide, dye, refining, and rubber goods industries. Direct exposure to chemicals in
hazardous waste such as mercury and cyanide can be fatal.
c) Hospital waste- Hospital waste is generated during the diagnosis, treatment, or

immunization of human beings or animals or in research activities in these fields or in
the production or testing of biologicals. It may include wastes like sharps, soiled waste,

disposables, anatomical waste, cultures, discarded
medicines, chemical wastes, etc. These are in the form
of disposable syringes, swabs, bandages, body fluids,
human excreta, etc. This waste is highly infectious and
can be a serious threat to human health if not managed
in a scientific and discriminate manner. It has been
roughly estimated that of the 4 kg of waste generated in
a hospital at least 1 kg would be infected.
Table No.11: Sources and types of Solid Wastes.
Typical waste
Source Types of solid wastes
generators
Residential Single and multifamily Food wastes, paper, cardboard,

dwellings plastics, textiles, leather, yard
wastes, wood, glass, metals, ashes,
special wastes (e.g., bulky items,
consumer electronics, white goods,
batteries, oil, tires), and household
hazardous wastes.).
Industrial Light and heavy Housekeeping wastes, packaging,

manufacturing, food wastes, construction and
fabrication, construction demolition materials, hazardous
sites, power and chemical wastes, ashes, special wastes.
plants.
Commercial Stores, hotels, Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood,

restaurants, markets, food wastes, glass, metals, special
office buildings, etc. wastes, hazardous wastes.
Institutional Schools, hospitals, Same as commercial.

prisons, government

centers.
Construction New construction sites, Wood, steel, concrete, dirt, etc.

and demolition road repair, renovation
sites, demolition of
buildings
Municipal Street cleaning, Street sweepings; landscape and

services landscaping, parks, tree trimmings; general wastes from
beaches, other parks, beaches, and other
recreational areas, water recreational areas; sludge.
and wastewater treatment
plants.
Process Heavy and light Industrial process wastes, scrap

(manufacturing, manufacturing, refineries, materials, off-specification products,
etc.) chemical plants, power slay, tailings.
plants, mineral extraction
and processing.
Agriculture Crops, orchards, Spoiled food wastes, agricultural

vineyards, dairies, wastes, hazardous wastes (e.g.,
feedlots, farms. pesticides).
Source: What A Waste: Solid Waste Management in Asia. Hoornweg, Daniel with Laura
Thomas. 1999. Working Paper Series Nr. 1. Urban Development Sector Unit. East Asia
and Pacific Region
The different sources of wastes can be identified by recognizing the types of

wastes. Let us first define the term waste. Waste is any substance which is discarded
after primary use or in other words, there is no further use for the product. We generate
a huge amount of wastes in our day to day life. From the groundnut shells that we throw
after eating, to the food wrappers that we discard after consuming its contents are all
parts of the activities that contribute to the generation of waste. Before discussing

different sources of wastes, let us get a brief idea about various types of wastes that we
generate.
Sources Of Wastes- Generation of waste is a part and parcel of day-to-day human life.
Wastes can be generated from various sources.This includes trash or garbage from
households, schools, offices, marketplaces, restaurants and other public places.
Everyday items like food debris, used plastic bags, soda cans and plastic water bottles,
broken furniture, broken home appliances, clothing, etc. make up the wastes generated
from such sources.
a) Medical or Clinical sources of wastes- Wastes produced from health care facilities,
such as hospitals, clinics, surgical theaters, veterinary hospitals, and labs are referred to
as medical/clinical waste. This includes surgical items, pharmaceuticals, blood, body
parts, wound dressing materials, needles and syringes
b) Agricultural sources of wastes- Waste generated by agricultural activities, including

horticulture, livestock breeding, market gardens and seedling nurseries, are
called agricultural wastes. Wastes generated from this source include empty pesticide
containers, old silage wrap, out of date medicines and wormers, used tires, surplus milk,
cocoa pods and corn husks.
c) Industrial Sources of Wastes- These are the wastes released from manufacturing and
processing industries like chemical plants, cement factories, power plants, textile
industries, food processing industries, petroleum industries. These industries produce
different types of waste products.
d) Wastes from Construction or Demolition- Concrete debris, wood, huge package

boxes and plastics from the building materials comprise construction waste, which is
yielded as a result of the construction of roads and building. Demolition of old buildings
and structures also generate wastes and these are called demolition waste.
e) Commercial Sources - As a result of the advancement of modem cities, industries

and automobiles, wastes are generated daily on a large scale from commercial
enterprises. These may include food items, disposable medical items, textiles and much
more.

f) Mining Sources- Mining activities also generate wastes that have the potential to
disturb the physical, chemical and biological features of the land and atmosphere. The
wastes include the overburden material, mine tailings (the waste left after extracting the
ore from the rock), harmful gases released by blasting etc.
g) Radioactive Sources- Radioactive sources of wastes include nuclear reactors, mining

of radioactive substances and atomic explosions.
h) Electronic sources of waste- The DVD and music players, TV, Telephones,
computers, vacuum cleaners and all the other electrical stuff at your home, which are of
no more use, are electronic wastes. These are also called e-waste, e-scrap, or waste
electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). Some e-waste (like TV) contains lead,
mercury and cadmium, which are harmful to humans and the environment.
There are many different physical characteristics of solid waste. In order to identify the
exact characteristics of municipal wastes, it is necessary that we analyze those using
physical, chemical and biological parameters which are discussed below:
Physical Characteristics of Solid Waste-Information and data on the physical

characteristics of solid wastes are important for the selection and operation of
equipment and for the analysis and design of disposal facilities. The required
information and data include the following:
a) Density
b) Moisture Content
c) Particle size & distribution
d) Field Capacity
e) Permeability of compacted wastes
a)Density- Density of solid waste, i.e., its mass per unit volume (kg/m 3), is a critical
factor in the design of a SWM system, e.g., the design of sanitary landfills, storage,
types of collection and transport vehicles, etc. Usually it refers to un-compacted waste.
To explain, an efficient operation of a landfill demands compaction of wastes to
optimum density. Any normal compaction equipment can achieve reduction in volume of
wastes by 75%, which increases an initial density of 100 kg/m 3 to 400 kg/m3. In other

words, a waste collection vehicle can haul four times the weight of waste in its
compacted state than when it is un-compacted. A high initial density of waste precludes
the achievement of a high compaction ratio and the compaction ratio achieved is no
greater than 1.5:1.Significant changes in density occur spontaneously as the waste
moves from source to disposal, due to scavenging, handling, wetting and drying by the
weather, vibration in the collection vehicle and decomposition. Note that:
i. the effect of increasing the moisture content of the waste is detrimental in the
sense that dry density decreases at higher moisture levels;
ii. soil-cover plays an important role in containing the waste and is one of the
important Physical Characteristics of Solid Waste;
iii. there is an upper limit to the density, and the conservative estimate of in-place
density for waste in a sanitary landfill is about 600 to 1200 kg/m3.
It varies with geographic location, season of the year, and length of time in storage.
Range and typical values of density for various components of solid waste are
presented in table 12 below.
Table 12: Density of various solid waste components.
Components Density Range Typical (kg/m3)

(kg/m3)
Food wastes 130-480 290
Paper 40-130 89
Plastics 40-130 64
Yard waste 65-225 100
Glass 160-480 194
Tin cans 50-160 89
Aluminum 65-240 160
Typical density values during different stages of municipal solid waste (MSW) i.e.
at the point of generation or storage of solid waste, into collection vehicle, transformed
into bales for their final disposal to land fill site are presented in Table 13.

Table No.14: Density of MSW components
Condition Density (kg/m3)

Loose MSW, no processing or compaction 90-150
In compaction truck 355-530
Baled MSW 710-825
MSW in a compacted landfill (without cover) 440-740
b) Moisture Content of Solid Waste- Moisture content is defined as the ratio of the
weight of water (wet weight - dry weight) to the total weight of the wet waste. It is one of
the important physical characteristics of solid waste.
i. Analysis Procedure:
ii. Weigh the aluminum dish
iii. Fill the dish with SW sample and re-weigh
iv. Dry SW + dish in an oven for at least 24 hrs at 105°C.
v. Remove the dish from the oven, allow to cool in a desiccator, and weigh.
vi. Record the weight of the dry SW + dish.
vii. Calculate the moisture content (M) of the SW sample using the equation
given (Eq. 1)
Where;
M= Moisture Content in %
w=Wet Weight of the sample, grams
d=Dry weight of the sample, grams
Typical moisture content of different types of wastes is presented in the Table as
shown below:

Table No.15: Moisture content of various types of Solid waste
Source Types of waste Moisture Content %
Range Typical
Residential Food wastes (mixed) 50 - 80 70
Paper 4 - 10 6
Plastics 1-4 2
Yard Wastes 30 - 80 60
Glass 1-4 2
Commercial Food wastes 50 - 80 70
Rubbish (mixed) 10 - 25 15
Construction & Mixed demolition 4-1 8
demolition combustibles 4 - 15 8
Mixed construction
combustibles
Industrial Chemical sludge (wet) 75 - 99 80
Sawdust 10 - 40 20
Wood (mixed) 30 - 60 35
Agriculture Mixed Agricultural waste 40 - 80 35
Manure (wet) 75 - 96 50
Moisture increases the weight of solid wastes, and thereby, the cost of collection and
transport. In addition, moisture content is a critical determinant in the economic
feasibility of waste treatment by incineration, because wet waste consumes energy for
evaporation of water and in raising the temperature of water vapor. Generally, wastes
should be insulated from rainfall or other extraneous water. A typical range of moisture
content is 20 to 40%, representing the extremes of wastes in an arid climate and in the
wet season of a region of high precipitation. However, values greater than 40% are not
uncommon.

c) Particle Size of Solid Waste- Measurement of size distribution of particles in waste
stream is important characteristic of solid waste because of its significance in the design
of mechanical separators and shredders. Generally, the results of size distribution
analysis are expressed in the manner used for soil particle analysis. That is to say, they
are expressed as a plot of particle size (mm) against percentage, less than a given
value. The size and distribution of the components of wastes are also important for the
recovery of materials, especially when mechanical means are used, such as trammel
screens and magnetic separators. For example, ferrous items which are of a large size
may be too heavy to be separated by a magnetic belt or drum system.The size of waste
components can be determined using the following equations:
Sc = LSc = (L+w)/2Sc = (L+w+h)/3

Where; Sc : size of component, mm
L : length, mm
W : width, mmh : height, mm
d) Field Capacity of Solid Waste- The field capacity of MSW is the total amount of
moisture which can be retained in a waste sample subject to gravitational pull. It is a
critical physical characteristic of solid waste because water in excess of field capacity
will form leachate, and leachate can be a major problem in landfills. Field capacity
varies with the degree of applied pressure and the state of decomposition of the wastes.
The concept of Field capacity is shown in the Figure

Environmental Health/Impact-Environmental health was defined in a 1989 document
by the World Health Organization (WHO) as: Those aspects of human health and
disease that are determined by factors in the environment. It is also referred to as the
theory and practice of accessing and controlling factors in the environment that can
potentially affect health.
A 1990 WHO document states that environmental health, as used by the WHO
Regional Office for Europe, "includes both the direct pathological effects of chemicals,
radiation and some biological agents, and the effects (often indirect) on health and well
being of the broad physical, psychological, social and cultural environment, which
includes housing, urban development, land use and transport.
As of 2016, the WHO website on environmental health states that "Environmental health
addresses all the physical, chemical, and biological factors external to a person, and all
the related factors impacting behaviours. It encompasses the assessment and control of
those environmental factors that can potentially affect health. It is targeted towards
preventing disease and creating health-supportive environments. This definition
excludes behaviour not related to environment, as well as behaviour related to the
social and cultural environment, as well as genetics.
The WHO has also defined environmental health services as "those services which
implement environmental health policies through monitoring and control activities. They
also carry out that role by promoting the improvement of environmental parameters and
by encouraging the use of environmentally friendly and healthy technologies and
behaviors. They also have a leading role in developing and suggesting new policy
areas.
Waste generation rates- Calculated as the total (in tonnes) of Waste Diverted plus
Waste Disposed, Waste Generated represents the amount of waste generated. Based
on Waste Generated divided by population, Waste Generated per capita was
calculated. On average, a person generates 0.74 kilograms of waste per day worldwide,
but the amount varies greatly, ranging from 0.11 kilograms to 4.54 kilograms. The

amount of MSW that was landfilled in 2018 was approximately 146.1 million tons. The
largest component was food, which accounted for approximately 24 percent. There
were over 18 percent of plastics, over 12 percent of paper and paperboard, and over 11
percent of rubber, leather, and textiles. A total of less than 10 percent of materials were
accounted for by other materials. It is not possible to determine the total amount of
waste generated in the country (based on weight measurement exercises conducted by
local authorities). The Ministry of Urban Development, in its manual on solid waste
management (year 2000), estimates that 100,000 tons of waste are generated in the
country annually. The total quantity of waste that is generated in the country is not
reported (based on weighment exercises conducted by local governments). As a result,
the Ministry of Urban Development estimates that 100,000 tons of solid waste are
generated each year in its manual on solid waste management (year 2000).
Concepts of waste reduction-It is a set of processes and practices intended to reduce

the amount of waste produced. By reducing or eliminating the generation of harmful and
persistent wastes, waste minimization supports efforts to promote a
more sustainable society. Waste minimization involves redesigning products and
processes and/or changing societal patterns of consumption and production.
The most environmentally resourceful, economically efficient, and cost

effective way to manage waste often is to not have to address the problem in the first
place. Managers see waste minimization as a primary focus for most waste
management strategies. Proper waste treatment and disposal can require a significant
amount of time and resources; therefore, the benefits of waste minimization can be
considerable if carried out in an effective, safe and sustainable manner.
Traditional waste management focuses on processing waste after it is created,

concentrating on re-use, recycling, and waste-to-energy conversion. Waste
minimisation involves efforts to avoid creating the waste during manufacturing. To
effectively implement waste minimization the manager requires knowledge of the
production process, cradle-to-grave analysis (the tracking of materials from their
extraction to their return to earth) and details of the composition of the waste.

The main sources of waste vary from country to country. In the UK, most waste comes
from the construction and demolition of buildings, followed by mining and quarrying,
industry and commerce. Household waste constitutes a relatively small proportion of all
waste. Industrial waste is often tied to requirements in the supply chain. For example, a
company handling a product may insist that it should be shipped using particular
packing because it fits downstream needs.
Waste minimization can protect the environment and often turns out to have positive
economic benefits. Waste minimization can improve:
i. Efficient production practices – waste minimization can achieve more output of

product per unit of input of raw materials.
ii. Economic returns – more efficient use of products means reduced costs of
purchasing new materials, improving the financial performance of a company.
iii. Public image – the environmental profile of a company is an important part of its
overall reputation and waste minimization reflects a proactive movement
towards environmental protection.
iv. Quality of products produced – new innovation and technological practices can
reduce waste generation and improve the quality of the inputs in the production
phase.
v. Environmental responsibility – minimizing or eliminating waste generation makes
it easier to meet targets of environmental regulations, policies, and standards;
the environmental impact of waste will be reduced.
vi. Reuse of scrap material: Scraps can be immediately re-incorporated at the
beginning of the manufacturing line so that they do not become a waste product.
Many industries routinely do this; for example, paper mills return any damaged
rolls to the beginning of the production line, and in the manufacture of plastic
items, off-cuts and scrap are re-incorporated into new products.
vii. Improved quality control and process monitoring: Steps can be taken to ensure
that the number of reject batches is kept to a minimum. This is achieved by
increasing the frequency of inspection and the number of points of inspection.

For example, installing automated continuous monitoring equipment can help to
identify production problems at an early stage.
viii. Waste exchanges: This is where the waste product of one process becomes the
raw material for a second process. Waste exchanges represent another way of
reducing waste disposal volumes for waste that cannot be eliminated.
ix. Ship to point of use: This involves making deliveries of incoming raw materials or
components direct to the point where they are assembled or used in the
manufacturing process to minimise handling and the use of protective wrappings
or enclosures (example: Fish-booking).
x. Zero waste: This is a whole systems approach that aims to eliminate waste at the
source and at all points down the supply chain, with the intention of producing no
waste. It is a design philosophy which emphasizes waste prevention as opposed
to end of pipe waste management.[4] Since, globally speaking, waste as such,
however minimal, can never be prevented (there will always be an end-of-
life even for recycled products and materials), a related goal is prevention of
pollution.
xi. Minimalism: Minimalism often refers to the concepts of art and music, even
though a minimal lifestyle could make a huge impact for waste management and
producing zero waste, can reduce which courses landfill and environment
pollution. When the endless consumption is reduced to minimum of only
necessary consumption, the careless production towards the demand will be
reduced. A minimal lifestyle can impact the climate justice in a way by reducing
the waste. Joshua Fields Millburn and Ryan Nicodemus directed and produced a
movie called Minimalism: A Documentary that showcased the idea of minimal
living in the modern world.
Recycling and reuse-In every aspect of human life unwanted materials are generated
and then discarded simply because they are considered to be wastes. Think about
preparing a meal; there will be vegetable peelings and fruit cores, there may be skin
and fat trimmed off fish and meat, and, if canned or bottled ingredients are used, there

will be the empty bottles and cans. Households, businesses, industries, the healthcare
system and public organizations all produce wastes that need to be processed.
Previously we learned about the different types of wastes, and now will learn how the
waste hierarchy can be applied to help reduce, reuse or recycle the solid wastes that we
produce.
The waste hierarchy and the ‗3 Rs‘- Many versions of the hierarchy have been
published, but they all present the same message. The version of the hierarchy used in
this module is shown in Figure 28.
Figure 28: The waste hierarchy.
Waste reduction: At the top of the hierarchy is waste reduction. This is the best option
because the most effective way to limit the health effects and environmental impacts of
a waste is not to create waste in the first place. Making any new product requires
materials and energy. Raw materials must be extracted from the Earth and processed,
and the product must be manufactured, packaged and transported to wherever it will be
sold. Each of these stages may produce solid waste as well as liquid wastes and air
pollutants. If we can find ways of making a particular item whilst producing less waste in
the process, this is one of the most effective ways to reduce pollution, save natural
resources, protect the environment and save money. Industry has a major part to play in
waste reduction. If more efficient manufacturing processes were adopted, greater

quantities of products could be made without increasing the use of raw materials.
Industry can also work to incorporate less material into its products – so for example, an
item could be packaged using less cardboard than before.
Waste reduction is also important at household level. In Ethiopia a number of waste

reduction initiatives have been put in place in big cities like Addis Ababa and Mekelle by
informal organisations and private sector enterprises. These initiatives frequently
involve several different stakeholder groups including urban Health Extension Workers
(HEWs), civil society, private sector enterprises and organised women‘s development
groups. The local kebele administration and appropriate experts from the Woreda
Health Office and Greenery and Beautification Office are also likely to be involved. The
Ministry of Health has produced some teaching aids and promotional materials aimed at
educating communities on how to reduce and minimise waste at household level.
Educational campaigns can raise awareness of the individual economic incentives, and
can also be used to reduce the stigma attached to working with waste.
Part of your role as an urban WASH worker may be to help educate householders,
through home visits and at community gatherings, about better ways to manage their
domestic waste. This can result in behavioural change among the community members
and increase their active participation in waste reduction (and reuse) at the household
level.
There are many possible ways of reducing the amount of waste produced at home that
could be suggested to householders. These include educating and encouraging them
to:
i. Buy products that use less packaging. Buying in bulk, for example, can reduce
packaging and save money. Where households cannot afford to pay large sums
of money up front, it may be possible for neighbours to club together and buy a
large quantity of a basic foodstuff between them.
ii. Make use of reusable rather than disposable items. For example, use refillable
containers where possible; washable rather than disposable nappies; cotton

handkerchiefs rather than paper tissues; rechargeable batteries and refillable ink
pens.
iii. Use their own shopping bags, preferably made of cloth or other recycled material
rather than plastic bags.
iv. Minimise food scraps or feed these scraps to animals, if appropriate.
v. Repair and maintain items such as clothing so that they last longer.
Waste reuse: Reuse can be defined as using a waste product without further
transformation and without changing its shape or original nature. This is the second
option in the waste hierarchy. Different types of solid wastes can be reused, such as
bottles, old clothes, books and anything else that is used again for a similar purpose to
that originally intended. Reuse means that less solid waste is produced. It brings other
benefits by taking useful products discarded by those who no longer want them and
passing them to those who do.
Picture No.1 : Collecting and selling reusable plastic bottles.
Benefits of reducing and reusing solid waste- Waste is becoming a bigger problem in
urban areas each year. Households are producing more waste, so disposal sites are
filling up and new sites are further away from residential areas. Where waste is
collected and transported to a disposal site, this is becoming more expensive. Where
householders have to dispose of waste themselves, they have to spend more time

doing this. Anything that reduces the amount of waste that has to be disposed of helps
to reduce these problems. Some other advantages of waste reduction and reuse are
summarized below.
a) Community benefits- Reuse can be very helpful for disadvantaged people who
cannot afford to buy new goods. These could include clothing, building materials, and
business equipment. Reuse centres that collect and distribute reusable goods can also
provide community benefits by engaging in job-training programmes and general
training for the long-term unemployed, disabled people and young people.
b) Economic benefits- By reusing materials rather than creating new products from raw
materials, there are fewer burdens on the economy as a whole – especially if reuse
results in a reduction in raw material and product imports. Reuse is an economical way
for many people to acquire the items they need. It is almost always less expensive to
buy a used item than a new one.
c) Environmental benefits- Reusing something uses little or no water, energy or other

resources and is unlikely to cause pollution. As well as these benefits, reuse eliminates
the environmental damage that would have been caused if the item had been disposed
of, rather than reused. In contrast, manufacturing a product from raw materials (and, to
a lesser extent, recycling) consumes resources, causes pollution and generates wastes.
d) Waste recycling- Recycling waste means that the material is reprocessed before
being used to make new products. The reprocessing activities can have an impact on
people‘s health and the environment, but these impacts are usually lower than those
from making the product from new, raw materials. Recycling means treating the
materials as valuable resources rather than as waste. It has many benefits but it is
important to have a market for the end product, otherwise the process will not be
economically sustainable.
The options for recycling depend on the type of waste. For example, waste paper can
be broken down to its fibres in a process called pulping. The pulp is cleaned and then
formed into new paper to be used for printing or packaging. Waste metals and glass can

also be recycled by melting them down into new raw materials. Sheet metals can be
beaten and reformed into new products (Figure 8.3). Plastic bottles can be ground down
and used to make plastic rope or plastic coating for electric wires. For some wastes,
recycling involves complex technical processes and requires specialised machinery, but
others can be recycled more simply and on a small scale. All types of organic waste can
be recycled by composting, which can be carried out at home or on a larger scale.
Picture No.2:Large metal containers can be cut and reformed into new products
like these sieves and stoves.
Collection, segregation and transport of solid waste-Collection of Solid waste- In

this context, solid waste is collected and transported to the place of final disposal (by
external stakeholders) from its various sources or from communal storage facilities. A
waste management system should take into account all activities related to the loading
of wastes into collection vehicles, as well as the unloading of wastes from collection
vehicles at collection points, waste processing facilities, transfer stations, and final
disposal facilities. The classification is based on
(1) Collection services based on availability,

(2) A description of the mode of operation and
(3) A description of the types of waste materials collected
Primary Collection- In this method, solid waste is collected at the source of generation
and transported to the final disposal site, but most often it is transported to communal
collection bins, processing facilities, or transfer stations.

Secondary Collection- Waste is collected from communal bins, storage areas, or
transfer stations, and transported to the final disposal facility.
Due to the location of the containers/collection points in public places (without public
ownership), this system has the primary disadvantage of allowing waste to be disposed
of in an indiscriminate manner outside the containers. Therefore, the actual economy of
this system depends primarily on public cooperation. To increase public acceptance and
maximize productivity, it is essential to pay more attention to improving the design,
operation, and maintenance of a communal system. In such a collection system,
portable storage containers maximize the productivity of labor and vehicles.
a) Block Collection- It is the responsibility of the waste generators to bring their waste
to the collection vehicles. As a result of this system, there is low to medium labour
productivity and vehicles productivity, but the spread of waste on the streets is
minimized.
b) Kerbside collection- In industrialized countries and in some wealthy communities of
developing countries, this is the most common method of collection. On a specific day
(or specific days), waste generators place waste containers or bags (sacks) for
collection by external agencies. In order for generators to know exactly when to discard
their waste, a regular and well-organized collection service is essential.
c) Door to door collection-This practice is more prevalent in industrialized countries,
however, many developing countries are forming micro-enterprises and/or community-
based organizations to accomplish this task. As with the use of bags for waste, this
system has yet to be recognized by the public, however, it maximizes the productivity of
crew members as it eliminates the need to retrieve containers.
Segregation of Solid waste- It is difficult to recycle materials once different wastes have
been mixed together, so the first stage of the recycling process is to separate the
materials into different categories. This is called waste segregation or separation at
source and should be done by the householder when the waste items are finished with
and discarded. Waste is separated by placing the different categories of waste into
different bags or containers.
The degree of separation required will depend on the recycling opportunities that are
available, but it is important to separate ‗dry‘ and ‗wet‘ materials. The simplest method
of separation is to keep food waste separate from the remaining materials so that the
food waste can be composted or used to make biogas. If korales are active in the area,
they may ask householders to keep all their recyclable materials (paper, metals, plastics
and glass) together, or ask for just one or two materials to be separated.
If waste is not separated at the source, it ends up at a disposal site where all the waste
is mixed up so separating the different types becomes much more difficult and
hazardous. In many developing countries, including Ethiopia, collecting waste for
recycling is often conducted by the informal sector. Such work can be done in a very
labour-intensive, unsafe and polluting way, and for very low income. Often young
children are employed as collectors. Part of a WASH team‘s job is to help put the
recycling industry on a more formal basis. This is another aspect of waste management
that requires collaboration among stakeholders, including the informal sector and other
concerned partners, to help improve the working conditions and provide protective
equipment and training to the korales and other waste collectors.
It is possible to set up a more formal scheme to collect recyclable materials where the
collectors provide separate receptacles for recyclable and non-recyclable wastes.
Although separation has the advantage of promoting recycling, it also has the
disadvantages of higher collection costs and needing special equipment and additional
workers to collect each type of material. Therefore, in most urban and peri-urban areas,
recycling collections are carried out by the informal sector.
Once separated materials have been collected from householders by the korales or by
the more formal sector, they are passed on to merchants and eventually to the industrial
operations that transform the wastes back into useful raw materials or products. Much
of this part of the recycling chain falls outside the work of a local WASH team, but team
members can still help people to become more aware of the importance of waste
recycling and encourage them to separate materials for collection.
The most effective way of separation is manual sorting in households prior to collection.
The municipality generally provides separate, easily identifiable containers into which
the householder deposits segregated recyclable materials such as paper, glass, metals,

etc. Usually, separate collections are carried out for the recyclable material. At curbside,
separate areas are set aside for each of the recyclable materials for householders to
deliver material – when there is no municipal collection system.
In case the separation is not done prior to collection, it could be sorted out through
mechanical techniques such as Mechanical component separation, magnetic
separation, etc., to recover the wastes
a) Mechanical component separation- Component separation is a necessary

operation in the recovery of resources from solid wastes and where energy and
conversion products are to be recovered from processed wastes. For example,
trammels are now used routinely for the separation of unprocessed waste. Along with
trammels, shredders are also used for the separation.
Figure 29: Mechanical component sepration
b) Magnetic separation- The most common method of recovering ferrous scrap from
shredded solid wastes involves the use of magnetic recovery systems. Ferrous
materials are usually recovered either after shredding or before air classification. When
wastes are mass-fired in incinerators, the magnetic separator is used to remove the
ferrous material from the incinerator residue. Magnetic recovery systems have also
been used at landfill disposal sites.The specific locations, where ferrous materials are
recovered will depend on the objectives to be achieved, such as reduction of wear and
tear on processing and separation equipment, degree of product purity achieved and
the required recovery efficiency. Equipment used for magnetic separation Various types

of equipment are in use for the magnetic separation of ferrous materials. The most
common types are the following:
i) Suspended magnet- In this type of separator, a permanent magnet is used to attract

the ferrous metal from the waste stream. When the attracted metal reaches the area,
where there is no magnetism, it falls away freely. This ferrous metal is then collected in
a container. This type of separation device is suitable for processing raw refuse, where
separators can remove large pieces of ferrous metal easily from the waste stream.
Figure No.30: Suspended magnet
ii) Magnetic pulley- This consists of a drum-type device containing permanent magnets
or electromagnets over which a conveyor or a similar transfer mechanism carries the
waste stream. The conveyor belt conforms to the rounded shape of the magnetic drum
and the magnetic force pulls the ferrous material away from the falling stream of solid
waste.

Figure No.31: Magnetic pully
iii) Screening- Screening is the most common form of separating solid wastes,
depending on their size by the use of one or more screening surfaces. Screening has a
number of applications in solid waste resource and energy recovery systems. Screens
can be used before or after shredding and after air separation of wastes in various
applications dealing with both light and heavy fraction materials.
The most commonly used screens are rotary drum screens and various forms of
vibrating screens. Note that rotating wire screens with relatively large openings are used
for separation of cardboard and paper products while vibrating screens and rotating
drum screens are typically used for the removal of glass and related materials from the
shredded solid wastes.

Figure No. 32: Screening of Solid waste
d) Drying and Dewatering- In many solid waste energy recovery and incineration
systems the shredded light fraction is pre-dried to decrease weight. Although the energy
requirements for drying wastes vary with local conditions, the required energy inputs
can be estimated by using a value of about 4300kJ/kg of water evaporated.
Figure No. 33: Drying and Dewatering of Solid Waste
Handling and segregation of wastes at source-Managing wastes and sorting them

involves activities associated with their storage and eventual collection. Moving loaded
containers to the point of collection is also considered part of handling. As part of the
process of handling and storing solid waste at the source, it is important to sort waste
components. Ideally, waste materials should be separated at the source of generation
for reuse and recycling. It is becoming more important for households to separate
newspaper and cardboard, bottles/glass, kitchen waste, as well as ferrous and non-
ferrous materials from each other.
On-site storage is of primary importance because of public health concerns and

aesthetic consideration. Unsightly makeshift containers and even open ground storage,
both of which are undesirable, are often seen at many residential and commercial sites.
The cost of providing storage for solid wastes at the source is normally borne by the
household in the case of individuals, or by the management of commercial and
industrial properties. Processing at the source involves activities such as backyard
waste composting.

Solid waste materials are sorted, processed, and transformed as the fourth functional
element. As part of this functional element, sorted materials are reprocessed, solid
waste is transformed, and recyclable materials are collected. Material recovery facilities,
transfer stations, combustion facilities, and disposal sites typically sort commingled
(mixed) wastes. During sorting, bulky items are often separated, waste components are
separated by size using screens, waste components are manually separated, and
ferrous and non-ferrous metals are separated. In order to recover conversion products
and energy from waste, waste processing is undertaken. A variety of biological and
thermal processes can be used to transform the organic fraction of Municipal Solid
Waste (MSW). Biological transformation is most commonly accomplished through
aerobic composting. It is the incineration process that is most commonly used for
thermal transformation. Transforming waste is the process of reducing its volume,
weight, size, or toxicity without recovering valuable resources from it. Various methods
of transformation may be used, including mechanical (for example, shredding), thermal
(for example, incineration without energy recovery), and chemical (for example,
encapsulation).
Collection and storage of municipal solid wastes- Solid waste management begins
with the storage of waste at the source. Solid waste is generated every day by
households, shops, and businesses. It is generally recommended to store waste at the
source of waste generation until it is collected for disposal. The habit of storing waste at
the source has not been formed in India, and as a result, waste is thrown on the streets,
with the streets being treated as a waste storage facility. There will never be a clean city
if citizens demonstrate such apathy and continue to throw waste on the streets and
expect that municipal sweepers will clean the streets. The city will remain clean for only
two to three hours even if local authorities make arrangements to remove all the waste
discarded on the streets on a daily basis by citizens. This will not change until the habit
of throwing rubbish on the streets is changed. In order to keep the cities clean, it is
imperative that people are educated to store waste at the source, to dispose of waste in
accordance with the directions of the local authorities, and to actively participate in the
activities of the local authorities.

The system for storing waste at the source, wherever it is practiced, generally does not
coordinate with the collection system for primary waste. This results in the waste stored
at homes, shops and establishments in domestic, trade or institutional bins becoming
available on the streets, resulting in unhygienic conditions. In general, buckets, plastic
bins, plastic bags, and metal bins without lids are the main storage containers currently
used for storing goods. As a result of putrefaction, these containers cannot be used to
store food waste for more than 24 hours under Indian conditions.
It is critical to prevent recyclable waste materials from being sent to waste processing
and disposal facilities and taking up valuable landfill space. Recycling such materials at
source could be a profitable method of utilizing such materials. The national resources
will be saved as well as the costs and effort associated with disposing of such wastes.
In order to accomplish this, separate recyclable waste materials from food wastes at the
source of waste generation, into a bag or a bin. It is possible to hand over these
recyclable materials to the waste collectors (rag pickers) at your doorstep.
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CREDIT 04 -UNIT 4-3: SOLID WASTE PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES:
Learning Objectives
 Mechanical and thermal volume reduction.
 Biological and chemical techniques for energy and other resource recovery.
 Composting, vermicomposting and incineration of solid wastes.
4-3 SOLID WASTE PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES: MECHANICAL AND THERMAL VOLUME REDUCTION.
BIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL TECHNIQUES FOR ENERGY AND OTHER RESOURCE RECOVERY.
COMPOSTING, VERMICOMPOSTING AND INCINERATION OF SOLID WASTES.
4-3 Solid waste processing technologies: A waste minimization process involves

reducing the amount of waste created by an individual or group. By reusing an item, we
mean using it more than once. The item is reused conventionally, where it is used again
for the same function, and it is reused for a new purpose. It is possible to crumble solid
waste concrete and use it as a base for roads, or to use inert materials to cover the
waste disposed on landfills at the end of the day. Material waste can be recovered by
recycling and composting. The recycling process consists of obtaining substances from
waste (secondary raw materials) and using them in place of primary raw materials. In
composting, organic wastes are decomposed by biochemical processes. Technology for
energy recovery allows volume reduction and energy recovery to be achieved.
According to local environmental regulations, waste disposal refers to the proper
disposal of discarded or discharged materials.
Mechanical and thermal volume reduction-
A) Mechanical volume reduction- solid waste management system is most successfully

developed and operated when mechanical volume reduction is implemented. Most
municipal solid wastes are collected using vehicles equipped with compaction
mechanisms. The purpose of compacting wastes in landfills is to extend their useful life.
Regardless of the starting density and applied pressure, the final density of a wide

range of municipal solid wastes is essentially the same when compacted. It is important
to keep this fact in mind when evaluating the claims made by manufacturers of
compacting equipment.
a) Stationary equipment:- In this type of equipment, wastes are manually or

mechanically loaded into and transported to. Depending on their application, stationary
compactors can be classified as light duty, industrial or commercial, heavy duty, and
transfer station compactors. If waste is to be compressed into steel containers or
directly transported by vehicle, large stationary compactors are required.
b) Movable equipment- In a sanitary landfill, this is the equipment used for dumping and
compacting solid wastes.
Shredding - The purpose of this procedure is to reduce the size of large waste items (as
they are collected) to smaller ones. It is possible to obtain a reasonably uniform and
significantly reduced size for the final product through size reduction compared to the
original product. There is no guarantee that size reduction will equate to volume
reduction, and this must be taken into account when designing and operating SWM
systems as well as the recovery and conversion of materials for reuse and energy
conversion. Size reduction is implemented at the beginning of the overall process for
treating and disposing of waste:
a) This will result in a more homogenous product after land filling. It may be
necessary to use less cover material and to cover less frequently if shredding is
performed. The availability of cover material or the need to bring it from a
distance to the landfill site can be of economic importance.
b) Recycling waste materials.
c) It is sometimes necessary to bale the wastes prior to long-distance transportation
in order to achieve a higher density.

d) Waste energy recovery facilities can use the waste as a fuel for incineration. A
size reduction technique coupled with a separation technique such as screening
produces a more homogeneous mixture of smaller, more uniformly moist, and
higher heating value, thus improving a process such as incineration and energy
recovery.
e) Using dehydration and drying techniques to reduce moisture in wastes
B)Thermal reduction- A significant amount of municipal waste can be reduced through

incineration by more than 90%. It was common practice in the past to burn waste. In
spite of this, there are currently only a limited number of municipal incinerators in
operation because of the need to use expensive cleaning equipment in order to comply
with air pollution control regulations. There has been a renewed interest in incineration
due to an increase in haul distances to landfill sites and an increase in fuel costs in
recent years.
Biological and chemical techniques for energy and other resource recovery-
Organic and inorganic materials are both present in municipal solid waste (MSW).
Through the adoption of appropriate Waste Processing and Treatment technologies, it
is possible to recover the latent energy present in its organic fraction. There are also
several additional benefits associated with obtaining energy from wastes, as follows:
(i)It is possible to reduce the total amount of waste by over 60% to over 90%, depending
on the composition of the waste and the technology used;
(ii) Land for landfilling is reduced, which is already scarce in cities;
(iii) The cost of transporting waste to distant landfill sites decreases proportionately; and
(iv)In general, pollution of the environment is reduced.
Organic wastes (both biodegradable and non-biodegradable) can be recovered from
energy in two basic ways:
a) Thermo-chemical conversion- In this process, organic matter is thermally
decomposed in order to produce heat energy, fuel oil, or natural gas; and
b) Bio-chemical conversion- The process involves microbial action to enzymatically
decompose organic matter to produce methane gas or alcohol. Thermo-chemical

conversion is an effective method for treating wastes containing high percentages of
organic nonbiodegradable matter and low moisture contents.
In this category, there are two main technological options: incineration and
pyrolysis/gasification. On the other hand, bio-chemical conversion is preferred when the
waste consists of a high proportion of organic bio-degradable material (putrescibles) as
well as a high level of moisture or water, which promotes microbial growth.
Anaerobic Digestion, also known as Biomethanation, is the most commonly used
technology. The biodegradation process, also known as biomethanation, involves
segregating the organic fraction of wastes and feeding them into a closed container
(biogas digester) where they undergo biodegradation and produce methane-rich biogas.
It is estimated that 50 to 150 m3 of biogas can be produced per tonne of waste,
depending on the composition of the waste. It is possible to use biogas either for
cooking or heating applications, or for generating motive power or electricity through
dual fuel or gas engines or gas / steam turbines. Depending on the composition of the
solid sludge from anaerobic digestion, it can be used as a soil conditioner or even sold
as manure after stabilisation.
Over a period of time, waste deposited in landfills undergoes anaerobic conditions,
resulting in the organic fraction slowly volatilizing and decomposing, which is similar to
the process taken place in an Anaerobic Digestion system described previously. In this
way, landfill gas is produced, which contains approximately 45-55% methane, which
can be recovered and used as a source of energy through a network of gas collection
pipes. It is generally the case that landfill gas production begins within a few months
after wastes are disposed of and generally lasts about ten years or even longer,
depending mainly on the composition of the wastes and the availability and distribution
of moisture. According to studies conducted in other countries, the annual gas
production rate in full-size sanitary landfills ranges from 5 to 40 litres per kilogram. Over
the course of its useful life, MSW generated in major Indian cities contains a high
concentration of organic matter and is capable of generating approximately 15-25 liters
of gas per kilogram annually.
Composting, vermicomposting and incineration ofsolid wastes-

Composting is the process where biodegradable organic wastes (food and garden
waste) are converted into compost in a natural biological process. Composting can be
done by individual householders and community groups or on a commercial scale. On
the larger scale, the waste from an entire town or city could be composted if sufficient
land, labour and equipment is available. The benefits of composting are not only the
reduction of waste, but also the production of compost which is a valuable soil
improver. Soils treated with compost are better able to withstand droughts and are
more fertile because plant nutrients are returned to the soil, which reduces the need for
manufactured fertilisers. It is possible to add a certain amount of animal manure to
residential waste for composting, which may help with other waste problems in the
community and adds to the amount of useful soil improver that is made.
Figure No.34 : The composting process.
1) Separation of compostable materials: It is important to begin with an

uncontaminated input to the process. Nearly all organic wastes can be

composted, but if a composting pile attracts rodents and other scavenging
animals it may be better to exclude meat products and cooked food from the
process and just collect garden waste and raw vegetable waste.
2) Grinding or shredding: To speed up the composting process it may be necessary

to shred the raw waste before placing it in the compost pile. Shredding is
normally required if a significant proportion of the waste has particles greater
than about 50 mm. On a domestic scale this can be achieved simply by cutting
up the waste into smaller pieces.
3) Blending or proportioning of materials: Composting works best with the right

mixture of wastes so that the moisture content and the proportions of the
chemical elements carbon and nitrogen are suitable. Generally, the ideal mix for
composting is three parts (buckets, for example) of ‗brown‘ waste (such as
leaves, hay, straw, eggshells, shredded paper, card and woody material), with
one part ‗green‘ material (such as grass, food waste and animal manure). ‗Brown‘
waste contains a higher proportion of carbon and ‗green‘ waste, contains more
nitrogen and has a higher moisture content. Thus the ratio of brown waste to
green waste is 3:1.
4) Composting: Composting is normally carried out in a pile. For larger scale

composting processes, piles are in the shape of long rows of waste, normally
with a triangular cross-section (Figure 8.5). The ideal pile is 1.5–2 m wide and
about 1.5 m high. The length of the pile is determined by the space and the
amount of waste available. On the domestic scale the pile will be much smaller,
forming a rounded heap. The pile can be built up as waste becomes available,
but it is important to have enough material present to allow the biological
processes to take place reasonably quickly, so as a guide a domestic compost
heap should be at least 1 cubic metre to start the process.

Picture No.4: Composting process: mixed waste is piled in long rows.
Composting is an aerobic process, so the pile needs to be turned regularly to introduce

air. This means dismantling it, mixing the waste to introduce air and then rebuilding the
pile. The first turning-over of the heap should be done after two to three weeks and then
every three weeks or so. The composting process will be complete within three to six
months. The composting process generates heat, so it is normal to see steam coming
out of the pile.The process is complete once the pile no longer heats up after mixing
and rebuilding. The final product should be brown and crumbly and look like a good soil.
If it still contains identifiable items, the process is not complete.
xxxxxxxx--------------xxxxxxxxxxxxx

CREDIT 04 -UNIT 4-4: DISPOSAL IN LANDFILLS:
Learning Objectives
 Site selection, design, and operation of sanitary landfills,
 Secure landfills & landfill bioreactors, leachate &
 landfill gas management, landfill closure &
 Post-closure environmental monitoring and landfill remediation.
 Biological and chemical techniques for energy and other resource recovery.
4-4 DISPOSAL IN LANDFILLS - SITE SELECTION, DESIGN, AND OPERATION OF SANITARY LANDFILLS,
SECURE LANDFILLS &AMP; LANDFILL BIOREACTORS, LEACHATE &AMP; LANDFILL GAS MANAGEMENT,
LANDFILL CLOSURE &AMP; POST-CLOSURE ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND LANDFILL
REMEDIATION.
4-4 Disposal in landfills -Land disposal is the most common management strategy for
municipal solid waste. Refuse can be safely deposited in a sanitary landfill, a disposal
site that is carefully selected, designed, constructed, and operated to protect
the environment and public health. One of the most important factors relating to
landfilling is that the buried waste never comes in contact with surface water
or groundwater. Engineering design requirements include a minimum distance between
the bottom of the landfill and the seasonally high groundwater table. Most new landfills
are required to have an impermeable liner or barrier at the bottom, as well as a system
of groundwater-monitoring wells. Completed landfill sections must be capped with an
impermeable cover to keep precipitation or surface runoff away from the buried waste.
Bottom and cap liners may be made of flexible plastic membranes, layers of clay soil, or
a combination of both.
Despite advances in reuse and recycling, landfill disposal remains the primary waste
disposal way worldwide. As previously mentioned, the rate of waste generation
continues to increase, but overall landfill capacity is decreasing. Landfill contains
both household and commercial rubbish. Household waste that gets sent to landfill

consists of mostly organic waste, for example food, paper, cardboard or wood. Other
household rubbish contains plastic or tin packaging. A lot of our individual rubbish is
known as Municipal Solid Waste (MSW). Modern landfills are well-engineered and
managed facilities for the disposal of solid waste. Landfills are located, designed,
operated and monitored to ensure compliance with federal regulations. They are also
designed to protect the environment from contaminants, which may be present in the
waste stream. Modern landfills are well-engineered and managed facilities for the
disposal of solid waste. Landfills are located, designed, operated and monitored to
ensure compliance with federal regulations. They are also designed to protect the
environment from contaminants, which may be present in the waste stream.
Figure: Landfill Site
There are multiple different landfill designs, each with their own separate processes and
characteristics. Each landfill design has varying degrees of sustainability. These landfills
include open dump landfills, controlled landfills, engineered landfills, and sustainable
landfills.
a) Open Dump Landfills- Open dumping is a common practice in many developing

countries around the world and is defined as a method of disposal of solid wastes
indiscriminately without planning or control mechanisms. About 70% of countries around
the world use ―open dumping‖ as a method of disposal of municipal solid waste. Since
these open dumpsites are not regulated, they are susceptible to open burning,
scavengers, disease vectors, and elements. The characteristics of these open
dumpsites include lack of planning and control of dumpsites, inadequate or lack of

regulation of types of wastes entering the site, waterlogging and leaching resulting in
water pollution, open defecation by the public, lack of confinement of waste body, and
uncontrolled burning of waste materials leading to air pollution. Open dump landfills are
prohibited in the US. A typical open dumpsite is shown in picture number 5.
Picture No.5: Open dump landfill

These open dumpsites have no proper engineering design and therefore have no
groundwater protection or drainage controls. Environmental risks posed by these open
dump landfills need to be investigated to determine remedial actions on whether to
close or upgrade the open dump to a controlled landfill. Environmental impact
assessments (EIAs) should include flaws in site location (floodplains or groundwater),
depth of existing open dumpsite and degree of compaction, variability of wastes within
the site, and potential for mining decomposed organic materials.
b) Controlled Landfills- Controlled landfills are one level above open dump landfills, as
controlled landfills are subject to basic control mechanisms such as the presence of an
authority figure on site, control of vehicular movement and access to landfill, and basic
waste handling techniques to ensure control and consolidation of the total body of
wastes. At these sites, there is an installation of preliminary drainage control measures
and a lack of uncontrolled burning of waste, and scavenging and foraging animals are
minimized.
Although controlled landfills are more regulated than open dump landfills, they are still
not viable since they do not conform with the fundamental principles of waste

compaction and covering. Typical operational procedures include limiting the working
face area, installation of litter barrier, and provision of daily cover. Waste volume is
subject to control, as well as drainage systems and water quality.
Figure No. 35: Controlled landfill

c) Engineered Landfills- Engineered landfills are disposal sites that are constructed
through planning and adoption of engineering techniques that ensure control of waste
and avoidance of surface water through the installation of well-designed and well-
constructed surface drainage. Other characteristics include excavation and spreading of
soil materials to cover the body of wastes, compacting of wastes into smaller layers,
removal of leachate from wastes into lagoons or similar structures, venting of landfill gas
out of wastes, and most importantly planned isolation of landfills from surrounding
geology. These modern landfills are based on the concept of isolating landfills from the
environment for proper stabilization of wastes and rendering them innocuous through

biological, chemical, and physical treatments. An engineered landfill is represented by
the Mid-Michigan landfill design in Figure 2.
Figure No. 35:Engineered Landfill

Engineered landfills bioreactors are often referred to as sanitary landfills due to the high
standard of waste disposal. Sanitary landfills require a protected bottom where trash is
buried in layers and compressed as a compact solid to ensure the safety of
accumulated waste and ease of decomposition. The design, construction, and
development of these landfills require sufficient planning from inception to its after-use
stage. Location siting, construction, and operational requirements are much more
stringent than other types of landfills. Thus, sanitary or engineered landfills are
considered to have the least impact on public health and the environment.
d) Sustainable Landfills- The major driver of engineered or sanitary landfills has been
the prevention of waste saturation to minimize the likelihood of leachate leaking into the
surrounding ground. This approach has led to a very slow rate of waste degradation,
with a projected stabilization period in the order of hundred years. However,
degradation can be accelerated in principle by the controlled circulation of fluids through
the waste and thus operating such engineered landfill as a bioreactor. This approach is

more sustainable with regard to airspace, processes, control, and product utilization
with minimal negative impacts on the environment and human health.
Figure No. 36: Sustainable Landfill
Sustainable landfills often have two different approaches with regard to parameters that
control chemical and biological processes such as water content, temperature,
microflora, and compaction rates. These led to anaerobic bioreactors and aerobic bio-
cells. Anaerobic bioreactors are similar in design to an engineered landfill with the
following basic difference in their operational practice: a built-in leachate collection and
recirculation system to enhance waste stabilization, geomembrane liners, a gas
collection system, and final cover. Using this system, the methane gas that is
predominantly produced can be collected, purified, and sold. Aerobic biocell systems
utilize air circulation to maximize the rate of decomposition of waste. This latter system
generates carbon dioxide as a preferred gas. A sustainable landfill utilizing an aerobic
bio-cell design built by the Environmental Control System, Inc. (2001), in South Carolina
is shown in Figure 35.
Site selection, Design and operation of sanitary landfills-
In planning, landfill site selection occupies extremely important place. In the widest
sense, the natural, social, political, economic and technical factors have an important

role in landfill site selection, thus it follows that the selection is to be made by a
multidisciplinary team of experts. The most widely used factors for selecting a landfill
site are groundwater depth, surface water vicinity, elevation, land slope, soil
permeability, soil stability, flooding susceptibility, lithology and stratification, faults, land
use type, nearby settlements and urbanization, cultural and protected site vicinity, wind
direction, roads, railways, proximity to building materials, pipelines and power lines, and
proximity to airports. Defining landfill site selection criteria is the main step in landfill site
selection process. In the first phase, based on exclusiveness, the sites which do not
satisfy these criteria are eliminated. Positive areas within which it is possible to search
for the most suitable solutions are the result of this process. This phase represents an
activity of microzoning. After eliminating the unsuitable landfill sites, the attention is
dedicated to the nomination of landfill sites within the remaining ''conditionally suitable''
zones. In this process, local governments and professional institutions can and must be
of great importance, but soil investigations and collecting relevant data on physical-
geographical and anthropogenetic characteristic of space are indeed of utmost
importance. Given that landfill construction is considered as a non-economic activity, a
special task is to select landfill site from the aspect of the use of buildable land and its
price, as well as other natural or urban values which have an important role in relation to
rationality and planned landfill remediation or its rehabilitation, i.e. reconstruction. From
technical and technological aspects, for the planning, design, construction and
exploitation needs, it is necessary that on each landfill site the following is ensured:
i) Complete sanitary security for people living in the surrounding residential areas,
as well as personnel working at landfills
ii) Protection of land, air, ground and surface water from pollution
iii) Rational use of land, as well as save land (increased levels of waste compaction
using special machines, as well as a deposition height)
iv) Maximum number of machines and equipment for all types of works
Requirements for landfill site selection- In the waste disposal process, a controlled
disposal procedure is unavoidable, either for the disposal of genuine waste or materials
that remain after the treatment process, or, as necessary, if the main process cannot be

carried out in certain period because of interruption, defect, overhaul, or out of other
reasons. Sanitary landfills are necessary in any chosen waste management option,
because there will always be waste to be disposed of on landfills. In this sense, locating
potential landfill sites, as the most commonly used process through which a huge
amount of collected waste is treated, should be given great attention in the waste
management process, i.e. in spatial planning process. This is a very delicate and very
important process from the viewpoint of the protection of key environmental factors
(land, water and air), landscape values, as well as the protection of population health .
Out of this reason, it is also necessary to dedicate great attention to the investigation of
a character, as well as potential and real landfill impact on the environment. This
enables the elaboration and implementation of measures to eliminate or minimize
negative effects.
Sanitary landfill planning and construction is only a part of a complex solid waste
management process which encompasses the treatment of waste from its generation,
through minimization of its amount, selection, recycling, collection, transport and
disposal, to landfill recultivation and bringing of land to new use. However, although
sanitary landfills are only a part of a wider waste management process, this activity is
characterized by a very complex and long-term process which must take into account
natural and anthropogenetic characteristics of space.Sanitary landfill is available land
for solid waste disposal at which engineering methods of waste disposal are used in a
manner in which threats to the environment are minimized. The landfill site selection
and technology of devices and equipment for sanitary waste treatment and disposal
should be in the function of the protection and rational use of space.
Sanitary landfill development implies activities in several phases where certain

sequence must be obeyed. The process is usually carried out in four phases:
i) landfill site selection (site investigation process),

ii) Identification of a landfill site (through the planning documentation) and
elaboration of conditions for bringing it to the intended use,
iii) Elaboration of construction (technical) documentation,

iv) Landfill construction.
The most important step in this process is to define landfill site selection criteria. There
are two groups of criteria. The first group includes the so-called exclusion criteria that
are used in the first phase of the landfill site selection process. Exclusion criteria are
defined relative to the specific situation and they represent restriction criteria. Some of
exclusion criteria can be classified into a group of the following indicators:
i) Distance from natural elements of space (watercourses, water sources, protected

natural resources, etc.)
ii) Distance from anthropogenetic elements of space (infrastructure facilities,
settlements, protected cultural structures, etc.)
iii) Terrain morphology
iv) Hydrological and geological characteristics of space
v) Degradation of space
vi) Recommendations of local authorities in a form of intermunicipal corporation
agreements, etc.
According to exclusion criteria, areas which should not be further analyzed are
discarded, i.e. areas that will be analyzed and evaluated in consecutive phases singled
out. In the elimination phase, a single-criterion method is mainly used.After that, in
cooperation with local institutions and experts, certain number of sites are nominated for
which a multicriteria evaluation is carried out. In this context, criteria based on which
each candidate site will be evaluated in the same way are defined. This is a second
group of criteria.Site evaluation criteria are mainly classified into several basic groups.
Commonly, there are three basic groups of criteria whose definition varies from author
to author:
i) Ecological or environmental criteria,

ii) Socio-economic or social or spatial criteria,
iii) Technical and operational criteria (which usually also involve certain economic,
spatial and ecological criteria).

Any variation of groups of basic indicators is possible. Regardless of the formulation of
basic groups of criteria, they include approximately either the same or almost the same
number of indicators and criteria that are analyzed and compared in the process of
selection of the most suitable site for a landfill.
Number of landfill site selection criteria ranges from 20 to over 40. They are classified
(or not classified) into groups of criteria to which they belong, which are also similar, but
can be differently formulated.A particularly sensitive and important step in landfill site
selection that follows the choice of relevant criteria is to define value scales based on
which each individual criteria is evaluated (valued, ranked). Each criteria is assigned its
corresponding weight (value) which is determined based on expert‘s evaluation and
evaluation of participants in the process of sanitary landfill site selection. Here,
quantitative evaluation is commonly used. (e.g. scores from 1 to 10, or from 1 to 5).
Qualitative/expert assessment can also be used, where criteria can be assessed as

suitable, conditionally suitable or unsuitable. Qualitative assessment is today
increasingly less used, because the use of new technologies enable more accurate and
more sophisticated assessment under the principle of quantitative assessment. In this
case, accurate and objective data are obtained that can be compared and used for
making right decisions.When a potential site is assessed according to all given criteria,
it is possible to carry out the following two steps:
i) Adding up all obtained scores

ii) Multiplying the obtained scores by importance values (weights).
The first step in evaluating candidate sites is the simplest one and will low requirements.
The best score is obtained through adding up all obtained scores for each criterion.
Evaluation of candidate site in this case does not have different scenarios that can be of
great help to decision makers.
The second step is more complex as different scenarios can be used. For example, if
criteria for locating candidate landfill site are classified into several basic groups, then
the number of scenarios to be considered is consistent with the number of criteria

groups. Criteria from one group are favored in the first scenario, the most important
criteria in the second scenario are those from the second group, and so on. The final
option is a situation when groups of criteria are multiplied by the same importance
value, without favoring any of criteria group. By presenting the scenarios in synthesis
Table, it is easy to identify which candidate sites are the most suitable in which
scenarios. The PROMETHEE method is an example of this approach.
The basic advantage of this procedure is in that decision makers have a clear idea of
which is candidate site is the most suitable if criteria from a certain group of criteria
(ecological or economic or spatial, etc. ) are assessed as the most worthwhile criteria,
and if basic criteria groups are dealt with equally. This greatly facilitates decision
making. Regardless of which of the many methods for evaluation of potential landfill
sites are used, the question of objectivity of the procedure arises taking into account
that the selection of evaluation elements (criteria, weights), but also the very decision-
making process, is a matter of objectivity of experts and decision makers. This can be
considered as a common disadvantage of all methods for potential landfill site selection.
Therefore, the subjectivity in this process must be minimized to the utmost limit, while
objectivity must be maximized.
Preconditions for sanitary landfill construction- It is necessary to consider the

following requirements and requirements for sanitary landfill construction:
i) Spatial and urban planning requirements
ii) Spatial and regional requirements
iii) Landfill site selection
iv) Required land area
v) Transportation distances
vi) Local site conditions
vii) Topography
viii) Climate conditions
ix) Hydrogeological conditions
x) Geological conditions
xi) Geo-mechanical conditions

xii) Environmental protection
Secure landfills-Municipal solid waste disposal is subject to less strict regulations than
the disposal of hazardous solid or containerized trash. Hazardous wastes must be
disposed of in so-called secure landfills, which have a minimum distance of 3 metres
(10 feet) between the landfill's bottom and the bedrock or groundwater table beneath.
Leachate collecting systems and two impermeable liners are required for a secure
hazardous waste dump. Above each liner is a network of perforated pipes that make up
the double leachate collection system. The upper system works as a preventative
measure to keep leachate from building up in the fill, and the bottom system acts as a
backup. Pumps transport collected leachate to a treatment facility.An impermeable cap
or cover is put over a finished landfill to lessen the quantity of leachate in the fill and
lessen the possibility of environmental harm.
a) Liner system at the base and sides to prevent migration of leachate or landfill gas
(largely methane) to the surrounding environment. Typically consists of a high-
density polyethylene (HDPE) membrane, layers of clay, and sand or gravel (see
Figure 2).
b) Leachate collection and treatment facility.
c) Landfill gases collection and control facility.
d) Fenced buffer zone and green belt around the landfill facility to serve as a visual
and protective barrier.
e) On closure of a landfill cell, a final cover system at the top to prevent infiltration of
water and support surface vegetation.
f) An environmental and waste monitoring system (including a weighbridge).
g) Safety provisions and basic amenities (for example, roads, lighting
arrangements, water supply, protective gear, toilets, and health checks).
‗Landfilling‘ is the process by which residual waste is placed in a landfill in a planned

manner. It primarily consists of (a) placing incoming waste in a landfill cell using various
equipment such as tractors, dozers, and so on; (b) compaction of waste, and (c) a daily
cover (soil, debris, and so on) on the waste to prevent flies, birds, and odor.

Landfilling is a technical operation requiring appropriate expertise and equipment (such
as bulldozers or compactors). With proper compaction a lot more waste can be
disposed per unit area of land. For a well-designed and operated facility, waste can be
landfilled up to 50 meters high (internationally, landfill heights can be over 100 meters),
thus offering immense capacity for waste disposal per unit area of land. A secured
landfill is developed in phases or cells. Landfilling is carried out in a particular cell; once
filled to capacity the cell is closed and landfilling starts in a new cell. See Figure 3 for a
typical phasing plan.
Figure No. 37:Secure hazardous waste landfill
A landfill can be developed on flat plain land, sloping land (hilly area), in abandoned
quarries, or even on an existing dumpsite. While municipalities are responsible for
developing a secured landfill to meet their disposal requirements, the State Pollution
Control Boards are required to authorize the landfills‘ development as well as regulate
the operation of landfill sites to ensure that they adhere to the stipulated standards
under the Municipal Solid Waste Rules

Landfill bioreactors-In a bioreactor landfill, liquids are added in order to facilitate the
breakdown of waste by bacteria. By adding liquid and air to enhance microbial
processes, waste degradation and stabilization can be increased. In contrast to the
traditional "dry tomb" approach to municipal landfills, this bioreactor concept is a more
environmentally friendly option.
Types of Landfill bio-reactor-
a) Aerobic - In an aerobic bioreactor landfill, leachate is removed from the bottom layer,
piped to liquids storage tanks, and re-circulated into the landfill in a controlled manner.
Air is injected into the waste mass using vertical or horizontal wells to promote aerobic
activity and accelerate waste stabilization.
b) Anaerobic - In an anaerobic bioreactor landfill, moisture is added to the waste mass
in the form of re-circulated leachate and other sources to obtain optimal moisture levels.
Biodegradation occurs in the absence of oxygen (anaerobically) and produces landfill
gas. Landfill gas - primarily methane - can be captured to minimize greenhouse gas
emissions and can be used for energy projects.
c) Hybrid (Aerobic-Anaerobic) - The hybrid bioreactor landfill accelerates waste
degradation by employing a sequential aerobic-anaerobic treatment to rapidly degrade
organics in the upper sections of the landfill and collect gas from lower sections.
Operation as a hybrid result in the earlier onset of methanogenesis compared to aerobic
landfills.
In a bioreactor, waste is decomposed and stabilized more quickly. In order to promote
natural biodegradation, at least leachate is injected into the bioreactor. It is common for
bioreactors to require other liquids in addition to the leachate, such as stormwater,
wastewater, and wastewater treatment plant sludges. In contrast to a landfill that simply
recirculates leachate for liquid management, this method optimizes the microbiological
process by purposefully controlling the moisture content. A landfill that simply
recirculates leachate may not necessarily perform as a bioreactor.
One of the most important factors promoting accelerated decomposition is moisture
content. During the operation of the bioreactor, it is necessary to maintain a high
percentage of moisture near the field capacity - approximately 35 to 65 percent. Liquids

are added when necessary to keep this percentage at that level. As a result of the
moisture content of the waste as well as the biological action of naturally occurring
microbes, the waste decomposes. Both aerobic and anaerobic microbes are possible. It
has been observed that landfill gas (LFG) is produced at an earlier stage in the landfill's
life in a bioreactor than in an anaerobic unit, at a much higher rate of production than
traditional landfills.
Advantages of a landfill bioreactor-Bioreactor landfills are able to decompose and

biologically stabilize waste much more quickly than traditional "dry tomb" landfills. In this
way, it is possible to minimize long-term environmental risks as well as landfill operating
and post-closure costs. Potential advantages of bioreactors include the following:
a) "Dry tombs" decompose and stabilize biologically over many years as opposed to
decades
b) Aerobic and anaerobic conditions reduce waste toxicity and mobility
c) Costs associated with the disposal of leachate have been reduced
d) By increasing the density of waste mass, landfill space can be increased by 15 to
30 percent
e) There has been a significant increase in the generation of LFG that, when
captured, can be utilized on site or sold for energy output
f) Care post-closure is reduced
By enhancing and controlling the moisture within the landfill under aerobic and/or
anaerobic conditions, research has shown that municipal solid waste can be rapidly
degraded and made less hazardous. In a bioreactor, the quality of the leachate rapidly
improves, thereby reducing the costs associated with the disposal of the leachate. It is
also possible that the volume of the landfill may decrease with the recovery of airspace,
allowing landfill operators to maintain their landfill for a longer period of time.
In bioreactor landfills, LFG is primarily composed of methane and carbon dioxide, as
well as volatile organic chemicals and hazardous air pollutants. Research indicates that
the operation of a bioreactor may generate LFG earlier in the process and at a faster
rate than a traditional landfill. As the accelerated decomposition process depletes the

source waste more quickly than in a traditional landfill, the bioreactor LFG is also
generated over a shorter period of time. Overall, the bioreactor appears to produce
more LFG than traditional landfills.
The bioreactor has been shown to enhance the feasibility of cost-effective LFG
recovery, thus reducing fugitive emissions. Bioreactor LFG may be beneficially reused
in energy recovery projects as a result of this development. Currently, LFG is used for
energy applications in traditional and bioreactor landfills only about ten percent of the
time. A controlled bioreactor system could generate over 270 billion cubic feet of
methane per year if it were applied to 50 percent of the waste currently being landfilled.
As a result, one percent of the electrical needs of the United States are met.
Leachate sample- Water leaked from landfills is commonly a mixture of rainwater,
groundwater infiltration, or water produced by microbial decomposition processes as a
result of leaching solid wastes.A landfill's leachate is the pore water that is collected
from the landfill. A leachate of this type differs from a laboratory-prepared leachate in
both the way it is leached and its complexity.
A number of laboratory leaching methods are available that are designed to simulate a
wide range of environmental leaching events. However, all of these methods share a
common purpose – to obtain data relating to the leachability of analytes, which allows
for conservative assessment of the associated risks. The leachability of contaminants in
contaminated soils can be used to simulate natural attenuation, evaluate the risk of
contaminants reaching natural ground water and even determine the appropriate waste
disposal route if a high risk exists.
In all leachate tests, the results obtained from the analytical procedures are essentially
empirical and are therefore subject to question unless they are performed in accordance
with the protocol. Since there can be a number of complex interactions between a
solute and a solvent, it is imperative that any method be applied consistently.
As a general rule, leaching can be controlled by a number of factors:
a)Leaching mechanisms - dynamic or static, liquid/solid ratios (L/S)
b) Chemistry of contaminants of interest
c) pH, conductivity, and redox potential of the solute
d) Solvent components and chemistry

e) Physical, chemical, or biological changes over time in the material
f) Temperature of extraction
g) Duration of leaching
h) Agitation method
Possibly the most difficult aspect to evaluate is the chemistry of the contaminants of
interest. To select an appropriate leaching solvent, some methods require testing the
pH of the test material, but do not account for the speciation of the contaminants under
study. Particularly when considering contaminants with redox properties, such as
hexavalent chromium, this may be of interest. Adsorption and desorption rates are also
influenced by the primary component of the sample. When it comes to inorganics and
heavy metals, the clay content may be a determining factor - for example, zeolites have
been shown to be effective 'contaminant sponges' in balancing pond reed beds.
Perhaps the most difficult aspect of evaluating contaminants of interest is their
chemistry, but it may also be the most influential. It is necessary to test the pH of the
test material in order to select the appropriate leaching solvent; however, the speciation
of the contaminants of interest is not considered. In particular, this may be of interest
when redox active contaminants, such as hexavalent chromium, are taken into account.
Adsorption or desorption rates are also influenced by the primary component of the
sample. In some cases, a high organic matter content may not be conducive to the
leaching of organic components, while clay content may be an important factor for
inorganics or heavy metals. Zeolites are known to be effective 'contaminant sponges'
when it comes to balancing the reed beds of ponds.
A leachate is essentially prepared and analyzed in four steps:
a) Preparation of the sample - which may include proprietary analysis, particle size
reduction, etc.
b) In the case of sample leaching, the leaching matrix used, the mode of contact
with the solid material, the agitation method, are all important factors.
c) Leachate preparation - centrifugation, decantation, or filtration of the leachate to
obtain the eluate and any preservation of the sample
d) The leachate eluate will be analyzed chemically in the final step of the process

Landfill Gas management:
Landfill gas contains methane and carbon dioxide plus small amounts of some other
gases. Methane being inflammable can cause fires or explosions. Accordingly, at most
secured landfills this gas is collected and either burnt in a controlled manner or used to
generate electricity. The gas is released over a long period of time as the waste
degrades. Consequently, gas emissions from landfill sites must be monitored for many
years even after the sites have stopped accepting waste. Cover (flexible barrier).
Another important detrimental effect of uncontrolled landfills on the environment is the
generation of LFG. The primary LFG emissions are methane and carbon dioxide.
However, gases such as hydrogen sulfide and mercury vapor can be emitted at low
concentrations, while a mixture of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) comprises
approximately 0.5% of gases emitted. The extraction of LFGs is crucial because the
gases are an explosive hazard. Furthermore, exposure to these gases can pose a
threat to the surrounding population.
Companies can extract these gases since landfills are prime candidates for gas
recovery and allows companies to execute gas-to-energy projects. This means that the
gas generated by the landfill can be taken, converted, and then utilized to generate
electricity in the form of heat or steam. For landfill sites that do not have gas-to-energy
projects, there are gas flare stations that are used to burn off the flammable gas that is
released by pressure relief valves. Although there are other toxic gases emitted from
landfills, methane and carbon dioxide are the primary emissions, with methane being
the most environmentally damaging. Methane gas is naturally produced during the
process of organic matter decay (food, wood, textiles, garden waste, etc.) from
bioreactors. The United States Environmental Protection Agency reported that the
methane expelled during the decomposition of organic matter, if unmanaged within the
landfill, has the potential of trapping solar radiation 20 times more effectively than
carbon dioxide. The outcome from the release of these gases from the landfill is
increased global temperatures. Aside from methane gas, other household and
agricultural chemicals like bleach and ammonia can generate toxic gases that can
greatly impact the air quality within the landfill vicinity. Dust, particulate matter, and

other nonchemical contaminants can also be expelled into the atmosphere, contributing
to poor air quality. As stated above, methane is flammable and LFGs combined with a
large amount of landfill waste can easily lead to a fire outbreak if not properly contained.
Once fires are ignited, it can be challenging to extinguish them, resulting in further air
pollution and destruction of neighboring habitats. Combustion of the landfill worsens the
situation, as the burning of the chemicals adds more chemical load into the area. The
Environmental Defense Fund states that methane is ―84 times more potent than carbon
dioxide in the short term.‖ LFG needs to be constantly monitored and extracted, as the
production of toxic gases and odors can significantly impact air quality (United States
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA).
As part of their Landfill Methane Outreach Program, the USEPA stated that
―instead of escaping into the air, LFG can be captured, converted, and used as a
renewable energy resource.‖ By converting LFG, there is a reduction of odor and lower
emissions of other hazards associated with LFG. This utilization prevents methane from
migrating into the atmosphere, where it could contribute to local smog and global
climate change. Besides a reduction in environmental pollution, using LFG as an energy
source can also produce jobs and increase revenue. The agency stated that generating
power from the emitted methane is a clean, positive action taken by landfills and is a
renewable solution (USEPA, 2018).
(Gas collection No dust, litter No pests, rodents Leachate collection Clean surface water
Concept of Waste Containment No leachate Liner (flexible barrier) No infiltration
Isolated waste No erosion 4 Biomedical Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules,
1998, and Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989).
Reducing Gas Emissions
Other approaches considered more sustainable with regard to airspace,

processes, control, and product utilization with minimal negative effects on the
environment and human health include integrating engineered landfills with anaerobic
bioreactors or aerobic biocells. These systems will help reduce methane gas emissions
by capturing, purifying, and redirecting the gas to be used toward energy projects.

As mentioned in an earlier section, methane is one of the primary greenhouse gases
emitted from landfills. A journalist at the Technical University of Denmark, Jensen,
writes that compared with carbon dioxide, methane is 25 times more detrimental. Thus,
it is important to mitigate its effects. A common method utilized to reduce the release of
methane is using soil to cover up landfill sites. However, not all gas is contained with
this method. This biocover technology functions by ―sealing the surfaces of old landfills
to prevent methane from penetrating them. Instead—by means of a gas drainage
system—the gas is distributed through so-called ‗biowindows,‘ which are most
comparable to a compost bed. Here, the natural microorganisms of the compost
transform methane into CO2.‖After implementing this technology at a Danish landfill site,
they found that they were able to reduce methane production from 10 kg/hr to just
1 kg/hr. This technology has proven effective in managing one greenhouse gas and has
the potential to be utilized worldwide, greatly reducing methane emissions at landfill
sites.
Landfill Gas Control Measures

This material presents an overview of common landfill gas control technologies. These
technologies include means to collect gases, control and treat gases, and use gases to
benefit the community (e.g., to generate electricity or heat buildings). A landfill might
need gas control measures for several reasons, including government regulations, odor
problems, or uncontrolled releases of gases that could pose safety and health concerns.
As an environmental health professional, you are not expected to be able to design and
implement a landfill gas control plan. However, you should have a basic understanding
of the control options that are available to help prevent or control exposures to landfill
gas.
Control measures implemented at a landfill:

Many landfills install gas control measures because of regulatory requirements. The
federal government has developed laws and regulations that govern the operation and
maintenance of landfills. These regulations have been developed to reduce health and
environmental impacts from landfill gas emissions through the reduction of ozone
precursors (volatile organic compounds and nitrogen oxides), methane, NMOCs, and

odorous compounds. States may also have statespecific landfill regulations, which must
be as strict as or stricter than the federal regulations. The boxes on the next page
review some of the applicable regulations.
Sulfide emissions are a common source of landfill odor complaints. At older landfills or
at smaller landfills exempt from federal and state regulations, uncontrolled releases of
landfill gases can pose potential safety and health concerns (e.g., explosion hazards).
In such cases, the landfill might implement landfill gas control measures, even if they
are not required by federal or state regulations. Some landfills have also implemented
voluntary gas collection and control or treatment systems to recover landfill gas for
energy production.
Components of a landfill gas control plan:

The goal of a landfill gas control plan is to prevent people from being exposed to landfill
gas emissions. This goal can be achieved by either collecting or treating landfill gas at
the landfill or by preventing landfill gas from entering buildings and homes in the
community. Technologies used to control landfill gas at the landfill or in the community
can be applied separately or in combination. Note that the NSPS/ EG requires a gas
collection and control system design plan for landfills that meet the criteria presented on
the next page. The NSPS rule specifies the type of information that must be included
and the criteria the collection and control systems must meet.
Federal Requirements Under Subtitle D of Resource Conservation and

Recovery Act (RCRA) for Landfill Gas Migration Control
Since October 1979, federal regulations promulgated under Subtitle D of RCRA—

which regulates the siting, design, construction, operation, monitoring, and closure
of MSW landfills—have required controls on migration of methane in landfill gas.
These regulations do not address other components of landfill gas. In 1991, EPA
issued standards for landfill design and performance that apply to MSW landfills
active on or after October 9, 1993. The standards require methane monitoring and
establish performance standards for methane migration control. Monitoring

requirements must be met at landfills not only during their operation, but also for a
period of 30 years after closure.
Landfills affected by RCRA Subtitle D are required to control gas by establishing a

program to periodically check for methane emissions and prevent off-site migration.
Landfill owners and operators must ensure that the concentration of methane gas
does not exceed:
 25% of the EL for methane in the facilities' structures (1.25% by volume)
 The LEL for methane at the facility boundary (5% by volume)
Permitted limits on methane levels reflect the fact that methane is explosive within
the range of 5% to 15% concentration in air. If methane emissions exceed the
permitted limits, corrective action (i. e., installation of a landfill gas collection
system) must be taken. The Subtitle D RCRA regulations for MSW landfills can be
found in 40 CFR Part 258, which can be viewed through EPA's Office of Solid
Waste Web page.
Federal Requirements Under the Clean Air Act (CAA) Regulations (NSPS/EG)
Under NSPS/EG of the CAA, EPA requires affected landfills to collect and control
landfill gas. The NSPS/EG target reductions in the emissions of landfill gas due to
odor, possible health effects, and safety concerns. The rules use NMOCs (which
contribute to local smog formation) as a surrogate for total landfill gas to determine
if control is required. Landfills meeting certain design capacity and emissions
criteria are required to collect landfill gas and either flare it or use it for energy.
Landfills that meet both of the following criteria must collect and control landfill gas
emissions.
 Capacity: design capacity greater than or equal to 2.5 Mg and 2.5 million

cubic meters.
 Emissions: annual NMOC emission rate greater than or equal to 50 Mg.
The basic requirements are the same for both existing and new landfills. Existing
landfills are defined as landfills that received waste after November 8, 1987, and
began construction before May 30, 1991. These are regulated through the EG. New
landfills are defined as landfills that began construction, reconstruction, or
modification on or after May 30, 1991. These are subject to the NSPS. The CAA
regulations (NSPS/EG) for MSW landfills can be found in 40 CFR Part 60, Subparts
Cc and WWW, available on the Internet
at http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_00/40cfr60_00.html. State plans and
a federal plan to implement the EG for existing landfills can be found in 40 CFR
Part 62.You can also view all Federal Register notices and summary information
at http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/landfill/landflpg.html.
Landfill gas collection
Landfill gas can be collected by either a passive or an active collection system. A typical
collection system, either passive or active, is composed of a series of gas collection
wells placed throughout the landfill. The number and spacing of the wells depend on
landfill-specific characteristics, such as waste volume, density, depth, and area. As gas
is generated in the landfill, the collection wells offer preferred pathways for gas
migration, as discussed in Chapter Two. Most collection systems are designed with a
degree of redundancy to ensure continued operation and protect against system failure.
Redundancy in a system may include extra gas collection wells in case one well fails.
The system-specific components for passive and active gas collection systems are
discussed below.
 Passive Gas Collection Systems. Passive gas collection systems (Figure) use
existing variations in landfill pressure and gas concentrations to vent landfill gas
into the atmosphere or a control system. Passive collection systems can be
installed during active operation of a landfill or after closure. Passive systems use
collection wells, also referred to as extraction wells, to collect landfill gas. The
collection wells are typically constructed of perforated or slotted plastic and are
installed vertically throughout the landfill to depths ranging from 50% to 90% of the
waste thickness. If groundwater is encountered within the waste, wells end at the
groundwater table. Vertical wells are typically installed after the landfill, or a
portion of a landfill, has been closed. A passive collection system may also include
horizontal wells located below the ground surface to serve as conduits for gas
movement within the landfill. Horizontal wells may be appropriate for landfills that
need to recover gas promptly (e.g, landfills with subsurface gas migration
problems), for deep landfills, or for active landfills. Sometimes, the collection wells
vent directly to the atmosphere. Often, the collection wells convey the gas to
treatment or control systems (e.g., flares).
The efficiency of a passive collection system partly depends on how well the gas
is contained within the landfill. Gas containment can be controlled and altered by
the landfill collection system design. Gas can be contained by using liners on the
top, sides, and bottom of the landfill. An impermeable liner (e. g., clay or
geosynthetic membranes) will trap landfill gas and can be used to create preferred
gas migration pathways. For example, installing an impermeable barrier at the top
of a landfill will limit uncontrolled venting to the atmosphere by causing the gas to
vent through collection wells rather than the cover.
The efficiency of a passive collection system also depends on environmental

conditions, which may or may not be controlled by the system design. When the
pressure in the landfill is inadequate to push the gas to the venting device or
control device, passive systems fail to remove landfill gas effectively. High
barometric pressure, as discussed in Chapter Two, sometimes results in outside
air entering the landfill through passive vents that are not routing gas to control
devices. For these reasons, passive collection systems are not considered reliable
enough for use in areas with a high risk of gas migration, especially where
methane can collect to explosive levels in buildings and confined spaces.

It is fairly common for landfills to flare gas due to odor concerns, for example,
even if not the landfill is not subject to regulatory requirements. Passive gas
collection systems may be used to comply with the NSPS/ EG only at landfills
where cells are lined in accordance with Subtitle D of RCRA to prevent gas
migration.
Figure: Passive Gas Collection System
 Active Gas Collection. Well-designed active collection systems (Figure 5-2) are
considered the most effective means of landfill gas collection (EPA 1991). Active
gas collection systems include vertical and horizontal gas collection wells similar
to passive collection systems. Unlike the gas collection wells in a passive system,
however, wells in the active system should have valves to regulate gas flow and to
serve as a sampling port. Sampling allows the system operator to measure gas
generation, composition, and pressure.
Active gas collection systems include vacuums or pumps to move gas out of the
landfill and piping that connects the collection wells to the vacuum. Vacuums or
pumps pull gas from the landfill by creating low pressure within the gas collection
wells. The low pressure in the wells creates a preferred migration pathway for the

landfill gas. The size, type, and number of vacuums required in an active system
to pull the gas from the landfill depend on the amount of gas being produced. With
information about landfill gas generation, composition, and pressure, a landfill
operator can assess gas production and distribution changes and modify the
pumping system and collection well valves to most efficiently run an active gas
collection system. The system design should account for future gas management
needs, such as those associated with landfill expansion. The box on the next page
describes components of an effective active gas collection system.
Figure: Active Gas Collection System
How Is an Effective Active Gas System Designed?
An effective active gas collection system incorporates the following design

elements (EPA 1991):
 Gas-moving equipment, including vacuums and piping, capable of handling

the maximum landfill gasgeneration rate.
 Collection wells placed to capture gas from all areas of the landfill. The
number and spacing between each extraction well depends on the waste
type, depth, and compaction; the pressure gradients created by the vacuums;
and the moisture content of the gas.
 The ability to monitor and adjust flow from individual extraction wells.
Inclusion of a valve, pressure gauge, condenser, and sampling port at each
collection well allows a landfill operator to monitor and adjust pressure and to
measure gas generation and content
Methods available to treat landfill gas after collection:
Some passive gas collection systems simply vent landfill gas to the atmosphere without
any treatment before release. This may be appropriate if only a small quantity of gas is
produced and no people live or work nearby. More commonly, however, the collected
landfill gas is controlled and treated to reduce potential safety and health hazards.
Common methods to treat landfill gas include combustion and non-combustion
technologies, as well as odor control technologies. They are as follows
1) Combustion: It is the most common technique for controlling and treating landfill
gas. Combustion technologies such as flares, incinerators, boilers, gas turbines, and
internal combustion engines thermally destroy the compounds in landfill gas. Over 98%
destruction of organic compounds is typically achieved. Methane is converted to carbon
dioxide, resulting in a large greenhouse gas impact reduction. Combustion or flaring is
most efficient when the landfill gas contains at least 20% methane by volume. At this
methane concentration, the landfill gas will readily form a combustible mixture with
ambient air, so that only an ignition source is needed for operation. At landfills with less
than 20% methane by volume, supplemental fuel (e. g., natural gas) is required to

operate flares, greatly increasing operating costs. When combustion is used, two
different types of flares can be chosen: open or enclosed flares.
2) Open flame flares (e. g., candle or pipe flares): The simplest flaring technology,
consist of a pipe through which the gas is pumped, a pilot light to spark the gas, and a
means to regulate the gas flow. The simplicity of the design and operation of an open
flame flare is an advantage of this technology. Disadvantages include inefficient
combustion, aesthetic complaints, and monitoring difficulties. Sometimes, open flame
flares are partially covered to hide the flame from view and improve monitoring
accuracy.
3) Enclosed flame flares: There are more complex and expensive than open flame
flares. Nevertheless, most flares designed today are enclosed, because this design
eliminates some of the disadvantages associated with open flame flares. Enclosed
flame flares consist of multiple burners enclosed within fire- resistant walls that extend
above the flame. Unlike open flame flares, the amount of gas and air entering an
enclosed flame flare can be controlled, making combustion more reliable and more
efficient.
4) Other enclosed combustion technologies: such as boilers, process heaters, gas

turbines, and internal combustion engines can be used not only to efficiently destroy
organic compounds in landfill gas, but also to generate useful energy or electricity, as
described later in this chapter.
Some public concerns have been raised about whether the combustion of landfill gas
may create toxic chemicals. Combustion can create acid gases such as SO 2 and NO X .
The generation of dioxins has also been questioned. EPA investigated the issue of
dioxin formation and concluded that the existing data from several landfills did not
provide evidence showing significant dioxin formation during landfill gas combustion.
Because of the potential imminent health threat from other components of landfill gas,
landfill gas destruction in a properly designed and operated control device, such as a
flare or energy recovery unit, is preferable to uncontrolled release of landfill gas.

Scientists continue to review new information on by- product emissions from landfill gas
control devices as it becomes available.
Non-combustion: Such technologies were developed in the 1990s as an alternative to
combustion, which produces compounds that contribute to smog, including nitrogen
oxides, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter. Non-combustion
technologies fall into two groups: energy recovery technologies and gas-to-product
conversion technologies. Regardless of which non-combustion technology is used, the
landfill gas must first undergo pretreatment to remove impurities such as water,
NMOCs, and carbon dioxide. Numerous pretreatment methods are available to address
the impurities of concern for a specific landfill. After pretreatment, the purified landfill
gas is treated by non-combustion technology options.
Energy recovery technologies use landfill gas to produce energy directly. Currently,
the phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) is the only commercially available non-combustion
energy recovery technology. Other types of fuel cells (molten carbonate, solid oxide,
and solid polymer) are still under development. The PAFC system consists of landfill
gas collection and pretreatment, a fuel cell processing system, fuel cell stacks, and a
power conditioning system. Several chemical reactions occur within this system to
create water, electricity, heat, and waste gases. The waste gases are destroyed in a
flare.
Gas-to-product conversion technologies focus on converting landfill gas into
commercial products, such as compressed natural gas, methanol, purified carbon
dioxide and methane, or liquefied natural gas. The processes used to produce each of
these products vary, but each includes landfill gas collection, pretreatment and chemical
reactions and/ or purification techniques. Some of the processes use flares to destroy
gaseous wastes.
Odor Control Technologies:

Odor control technologies prevent odor-causing gases from leaving the landfill.
Installing a landfill cover will prevent odors from newly deposited waste or from gases
produced during bacterial decomposition. Covering a landfill daily with soil can help
reduce odors from newly deposited wastes. More extensive covers are installed at

landfill closure to prevent moisture from infiltrating the refuse and encouraging bacterial
growth and decomposition. Vegetative growth on the landfill cover also reduces odors.
Flaring is another technique that can eliminate landfill gas odors by thermally destroying
the odor-causing gases. Venting landfill gas through a filter is another technology used
to reduce odors. Landfill gas is collected and vented through a filter of bacterial slime.
As long as oxygen is present, bacteria will decompose landfill gas under aerobic
conditions, producing carbon dioxide and water. See the example below of odor
controls used at a landfill in California.
Odor Control at the Calabasas Landfill
The Calabasas Landfill, serving 1.4 million people in the Los Angeles area,
received approximately 17 million tons of waste from its inception in 1961 through
December 1995, when the County of Los Angeles passed an ordinance limiting its
use.
Beginning in the mid-1980s, an active landfill gas collection system was installed in
phases. The system consists of a network of vertical wells and horizontal trenches
placed throughout the refuse fill. A vacuum is applied to the system of wells and
trenches to draw the gas into the collection system. The collected gas is routed to a
flare station and combusted in flares.
The gas collection system, along with rejection of odorous loads and application of
daily cover, is a primary means of controlling odor at the landfill. As a result of these
measures, the facility received only one odor complaint during 1995 (NPS 1997).
Methods available to control landfill gas if it reaches nearby structures.
Under certain conditions, landfill gas migrating underground from the landfill to the
surrounding community could present safety and health hazards, such as explosion or
asphyxiation hazards. Once landfill gas reaches a building or home, it can enter the
structure through a number of available pathways.

To prevent landfill gas from entering buildings, controlling the gas at the source (the
landfill) is the preferred approach. However, several simple community-based or
structure-based controls are available to reduce the gas entry pathways and limit indoor
migration of gas. If a landfill gas problem is anticipated before construction, control
strategies can be incorporated into the building design. If not, alterations to the finished
structure might be needed. The two basic approaches to preventing gases from
entering a structure include controlling the gas pressure and eliminating available entry
pathways or leaks. Regardless of the methods used to prevent or reduce landfill gas
entry, continuous methane monitors with appropriate alarms should be strategically
placed in buildings where accumulation of explosive levels of landfills gases is possible.
The methane monitors and engineering controls should have a frequent safety check
and maintenance program to ensure proper function. The box below details the
limitations of different landfill gas control options.
 Gas Pressure Controls. If gas pressure is lower inside a building or structure

than it is in the surrounding soils, gas will flow into the building or structure.
Controlling gas pressure, therefore, can prevent gas migration indoors. Some
techniques to control gas pressure include passive or active venting to reduce gas
concentrations under the house, venting around the perimeter of the house, and
crawl- space venting. Some of these techniques, however, may require pumps
with maintenance and energy requirements.
 Leakage Area Controls. Another strategy to prevent gas from entering a building
or structure is to reduce or eliminate entry pathways. Gas can leak into a building
or structure through cracks, gaps, drainage pipes, fireplace air vents, and air
conditioning or duct work. Improving plumbing and caulking in a basement to
reduce cracks and gaps will reduce entry pathways. These options, however, may
only partially address indoor gas migration. Another control option is to install a
low-permeability liner around the basement or underground portion of the building.

What Are the Limitations of the Landfill Gas Control Options?
Landfill Gas Collection Technologies

Active venting
 Effectiveness depends on proper placement of system to gas source.
 Improper operation and monitoring potentially creates aerobic conditions that

may lead to piping deformation and subsurface fires.
 Requires monitoring and maintenance.
Passive venting
 Most effective using shallow trenches.
 Not completely effective for petroleum-based vapors.
Community Control Technologies

Gas Pressure Controls
 Crawl space venting requires maintenance, and performance data are limited.
 Passive venting is effective only with low underground gas concentrations.
 Active venting may require maintenance.
Leakage Area Controls
 Plumbing corrections may only partially remedy the problem.
 Use of sealing, caulking, and liners has had limited success gas migration.
Another control option is to install a low-permeability liner around the
basement or underground portion of the building.
 Are there any beneficial uses for collected landfill gas?

Beneficial uses for collected landfill gas:
Landfill gas is the single largest source of man-made methane emissions in the United
States, contributing to almost 40% of methane emissions each year (EPA 1996).
Consequently, a growing trend at landfills across the country is to use recovered
methane gas from landfills as an energy source. Collecting landfill gas for energy use
greatly reduces the risk of explosions, provides financial benefits for the community,
conserves other energy resources, and potentially reduces the risk of global climate
change.
Currently in the United States, approximately 325 landfill gas energy recovery projects
prevent emissions of over 150 billion cubic feet of methane per year (or more than 300
billion cubic feet of landfill gas). Approximately 220 of these projects generate electricity,
producing a total of more than 900 megawatts per year. Another 68 projects are under
construction in 2001, and more than 150 additional projects are in the planning stages.
Previous studies by EPA and the Electric Power Research Institute estimate that up to
750 of the landfills in the United States could profitably recover and use their methane
emissions.
What landfills can be used for gas recovery and how is energy generated from
landfill gas?
The feasibility of installing a landfill gas recovery system depends on factors such as
landfill gas generation rates, the availability of users, and the potential environmental
impacts. Many different landfill types with varying gas production rates and composition
can support energy recovery projects. There are, however, several guidelines to
consider when assessing the feasibility of generating energy from landfill gas. The
box on the following page lists some of these guidelines.
If feasible, energy recovery can be implemented by use of combustion- or
noncombustion- based technologies. Combustion-based technologies that recover
energy include boilers, process heaters, gas turbines, and internal combustion engines.
For example, landfill gas can be piped to a nearby industry, commercial business,
school or government building where it is combusted in a boiler to provide steam for an

industrial process or heat for a building. It may be combusted in an industrial process
heater to provide heat for a chemical reaction. Turbines and internal combustion
engines can combust landfill gas to generate electricity. The electricity can be used to
meet power needs at the landfill or a nearby facility, or the electricity may be sold to the
power grid.
The choice of which type of combustion device to use (e. g., boiler, gas turbine, internal
combustion engine) depends on what users are located near the landfill, site-specific
technical and economic considerations, and sometimes environmental impacts. For
example, internal combustion engines are often less costly than gas turbines for smaller
landfills. However, these engines may emit more NOx , which contributes to ozone
formation. If the landfill is in a nonattainment area for ozone, then NOx emissions may
be a barrier to using an internal combustion engine.
Information on typical emissions from various combustion devices can be found in

EPA's compilation of air pollutant emission factors (AP- 42). Information on these
technologies can also be found in the background document for the NSPS/EG (EPA
1991) and on the Landfill Methane Outreach Program (LMOP) Web site
at http://www.epa.gov/lmop.
What Are Some Factors Important For Landfill Gas Recovery?
Landfill gas recovery systems cite the following factors as guidelines important for
economically feasible landfill gas recovery projects. However, new technologies are
becoming available that have allowed successful projects at smaller landfills. For
example, smaller landfills can generate enough gas to heat an on- site greenhouse
or to use a microturbine to generate a small amount of electricity. Various federal
and state incentives (e. g., grants, loans, tax credits, renewable energy purchase
requirements) can also enhance the economic feasibility of landfill gas recovery
projects.

 The amount of waste in place at a landfill is greater than approximately 1
million tons.
 The waste is greater than 35 feet deep and is stable enough for well
installation.
 The landfill area is greater than 35 acres.
 The landfill is composed of refuse that can generate large quantities of landfill
gas composed of 35% or more of methane. An industry guideline states that
gas recovery is economically viable at landfills with gas generation rates of 1
million cubic feet per day (EPA 1996).
 If a landfill is still open, active landfill operation will continue for several more
years.
 If a landfill is already closed, a short time (no more than a few years) has
elapsed since closure.
 The climate is conducive to gas production (very cold or very dry climates can
inhibit gas production).
 The energy user is located nearby or in an area accessible to the landfill.
Noncombustion energy recovery systems are also available, but are not used as widely.
Fuel cells are a promising new technology for producing energy from landfill gas that
does not involve combustion. This technology has been demonstrated and in the future
may become more economically competitive with other options. One option that does
not involve combustion of landfill gas at or near the landfill is purifying the landfill gas to
remove constituents other than methane, producing a high British thermal unit (Btu) gas
that can be sold as pipeline quality natural gas. While the high Btu gas is eventually
combusted, it would not contribute to any emissions near the landfill. Another option is
using compressed landfill gas as a vehicle fuel.

Both combustion and noncombustion energy recovery systems have three basic
components: (1) a gas collection system; (2) a gas processing, treatment, and
conversion system; and (3) a means to transport the gas or final product to the user.
(Figure given below). Gas is collected from the landfill by the use of active vents. It is
then transported to a central point for processing. Processing requirements vary,
depending on the gas composition and the intended use, but typically include a series of
chemical reactions or filters to remove impurities. For direct use of landfill gas in boilers,
minimal treatment is required. For landfill gas injection into a natural gas pipeline,
extensive treatment is necessary to remove carbon dioxide. At a minimum, the gas is
filtered to remove any particles and water that may be suspended in the gas stream.
Some examples of successful landfill gas to energy projects are presented in the box
below. For more information about landfill gas-to-energy projects, visit the EPA's Landfill
Methane Outreach Program (LMOP) Web site at http://www.epa.gov/lmop.
Figure4-3: Landfill Gas Recovery System
Reusing Landfill Gas: Success Stories
Below are some examples of how gas collected from landfills is being reused for

power.
 In Raleigh, North Carolina, Ajinomoto Pharmaceutical Company has used

landfill gas as fuel in boilers at its facility since 1989. The steam produced by
the boilers is used to heat the facility and warm pharmaceutical cultures. This
project has prevented pollution equivalent to removing more than 23,000 cars
from the road.
 In Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Lucent Technologies saves $100,000 a year on

fuel bills by using landfill gas to generate steam for space heating and hot
water.
 The City of Riverview, Michigan, works with the local utility, Detroit Energy, to
recover landfill gas and create electricity with two gas turbines. The project
generates enough power to meet the energy needs of more than 3,700
homes.
 The Los Angeles County Sanitation District in California has succeeded in

turning landfill gas into a clean alternative vehicle fuel. Landfill gas is
compressed to produce enough fuel per day to run an 11-vehicle fleet,
ranging from passenger vans to large on- road tractors.
 Pattonville High School in Maryland Heights, Missouri, is located within 1 mile

of a municipal solid waste landfill. The landfill supplies methane gas to heat
the 4, 000- square- foot high school, saving the Pattonville School District
thousands of dollars in annual heating costs. Pattonville High School was the
first high school to use landfill gas as its source of heat (CNN 1997)
Landfill closure &amp-
As part of the Landfill Closure and Remediation Program, municipally owned and/or
operated landfills must be closed, maintained and monitored for a long period of time as
well as remediated after closure in order to address issues that have developed since

the landfill was closed. Through the Program, municipalities can receive
reimbursements for eligible closure and remediation projects. Moreover, the Program
oversees the development of solar panels and recreational fields after the closure of
landfills.
In the aftermath of closing a site, a clean-up process should be conducted, and any
waste piles, burnable materials, debris, and windblown paper should be consolidated
and disposed of in a final disposal cell. Environmentally sensitive areas should have an
extra focus on removing waste that has been piled too steeply, in or near wetlands,
along drainage ways, or in areas that impede the drainage of surface water. It is
recommended that sites be closed in order to prevent improper disposal of waste.
Depending on the circumstances, waste materials may need to be relocated to higher
portions of the site or placed in appropriate areas so as to facilitate sloping of the closed
site. It is important to promote surface water drainage from landfills in order to prevent
water from entering and passing through garbage. Surface water runoff is promoted
when the filled areas are sloped in a manner that prevents ponding or severe erosion of
the final cover. There is a strong correlation between slope and land length in relation to
soil erosion on slopes. On the filled portions of the landfill site, there should be a slope
of at least two percent, but no more than eight percent. It is possible to use slopes of up
to 12 percent when slopes are short and adjacent slopes do not concentrate or increase
runoff. The following measures should be taken to minimize soil erosion, such as
terraces, waterways, diversions, etc.
An inert waste landfill site should be covered with at least 24 inches of clay-rich soil
after slopes have been formed and all waste has been buried, compacted, and covered.
Municipal solid waste landfills should be covered with at least 36 inches of clay-rich soil.
It is recommended that this final layer of clay-rich soil be applied in layers. To minimize
surface water infiltration, first or deepest piles should be compacted in six-inch lifts, with
12 inches for inert waste landfills and 18 inches for municipal solid waste landfills. In
order to ensure the soil material is properly placed, it may be necessary to conduct a
compaction test on this "barrier layer.". Over the compacted clay layer, additional soil
material should be placed to protect it from erosion, plant roots, vehicular traffic,

freezing and thawing. As well as providing a rooting depth for the final vegetative cover,
this "buffer layer" is also used as a rooting medium. It may be necessary to add
additional layers depending on the site conditions. It is recommended that the site be
covered with at least six inches of topsoil or suitable plant growth material. It is
recommended that the topsoil be tested for soil nutrients. It is suggested that soil pH,
nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, conductivity, bulk density, and organic matter be
measured. In order to increase the fertility of the topsoil, appropriate fertilizers and
organic matter may be added. It is then possible to revegetate the site.
Post-closure environmental monitoring and landfill remediation- A mixture of

adapted grasses should be revegetated when possible on the site. If you would like to
determine an appropriate native grass mixture, you should contact your local Soil
Conservation Service office. Cover crops, seed mixtures, and application rates are
outlined in the Department's guidelines. The clay barrier layer on the landfill site should
be protected by not planting deep-rooted plants such as alfalfa or clover, as the roots
may allow water to penetrate deeper into the soil. Erosive soil can be controlled by
stubble mulch tillage or mulching. The landfill site may be planted with trees, however,
tree plantings should not be placed on top of the landfill or in positions that would result
in excessive snow drifting over the landfill. The planting of trees enhances the aesthetic
appearance of the landfill site, as well as improving the site's potential for long-term use
as wildlife habitat, scenic areas, golf courses, etc. In the absence of extensive site
engineering, closed landfills are not suitable for construction of buildings or permanent
structures. It is recommended that vehicular traffic over closed landfills be prohibited in
order to prevent soil erosion and the destruction of vegetation. A closed landfill should
not be used for the cultivation of crops or for the grazing of livestock. After site closure,
a monthly inspection of the landfill facility should be conducted to ensure that vegetation
has been reestablished and to monitor any erosion or settling of the final cover. For up
to thirty years after the landfill is closed, it should be monitored less frequently.
Depending on the situation, additional covering may need to be applied, erosion control
structures may need to be installed, or the vegetative cover may need to be reseeded. It
may be necessary for some landfills to install groundwater monitoring wells to detect
and monitor any leachate migration from the closed landfill. As part of the site closure

process, it is imperative that the wells are maintained and protected. Ground water wells
may need to be monitored regularly by the landfill operator or owner. There are many
areas of the country where closed landfills produce explosive gasses, including
methane. As a result of the semiarid climate in North Dakota, methane generation has
not been an issue. However, in areas with high water tables or where surface water
penetrates into waste, methane generation can be an issue. In order to prevent
methane leaks from closed landfills, building sites should be prohibited around or on the
landfill site. The owner or operator should consult the Department if methane generation
may present a problem. The owner or operator of the landfill should contact the
Department if they observe any seepage, springs, or wet spots. Furthermore, some
communities may wish to keep a small portion of the landfill site open for the disposal of
inert waste (trees, concrete, etc.). Permits for inert waste disposal sites will be required
from the Department. In order to protect the environment and the closed landfill, any
further disposal must be conducted in an area well away from the closed landfill. In
order to accommodate the needs of local communities, the Department may specify that
the site may continue to be used as an inert waste landfill facility for a limited time
period. A landfill site closure can be a complex and detailed process that requires
patience and persistence. Closing the site will not guarantee that environmental hazards
will not arise in the short or long term. For the purpose of minimizing any environmental
degradation, the owner or operator may wish to consider more extensive engineering of
the site.
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and Bob Fesmire
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School of Architecture, Science and Technology

Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University

EVS031 Environmental Monitoring and Energy Studies Page 1

Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University

This work by YCMOU is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

EVS031 Environmental Monitoring and Energy Studies Page 2

EVS031 Environmental Monitoring and Energy Studies Page 3

- Dr. Sunanda More

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UNITS AND DETAILED SYLLABUS

CR Unit Content Page No.

1 1-2 Methods of assessment of environmental quality, short term studies, 10-12

1 1-4 Environmental Impact Assessment Techniques - Ad - hoc method, checklist 40-47

3 3-2 Biofuel production (bio-ethanol and biodiesel), Biomass, 121-130

3 3-3 Production of biodegradable materials, concept of green building and 131-141

EVS031 Environmental Monitoring and Energy Studies Page 5

EVS031 Environmental Monitoring and Energy Studies Page 6

CREDIT 01 -UNIT 01-1: ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ASSESSMENT AND

 What is environmental quality?

 Quality of environment for life on earth and man

 Deterioration of environmental quality with reference to anthropogenic impact.

1-1 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ASSESSMENT AND MONITORING: WHAT IS

1-1 Environmental Quality Assessment and Monitoring:

What is environmental quality?

Environmental Quality is a set of properties and characteristics of the environment,

Generally, environmental quality is defined as the level and competitiveness of all

EVS031 Environmental Monitoring and Energy Studies Page 7

EVS031 Environmental Monitoring and Energy Studies Page 8

Forms of Environmental Quality:

ii. Water as an Environmental Quality:

iii. Forests as an Environmental Quality:

iv. Land as an Environmental Quality:

EVS031 Environmental Monitoring and Energy Studies Page 9

Quality of environment for life on earth and man-

EVS031 Environmental Monitoring and Energy Studies Page 10

Figure 1: Different sources of Environmental Deterioration

Degradation of the environment is primarily caused by human activities. As a result of

EVS031 Environmental Monitoring and Energy Studies Page 11

There is a blanket covering us everywhere, the environment. Environmental factors

EVS031 Environmental Monitoring and Energy Studies Page 12

EVS031 Environmental Monitoring and Energy Studies Page 13

5. Water pollution- Several bodies of water are contaminated by water pollution,

EVS031 Environmental Monitoring and Energy Studies Page 14

 Methods of assessment of environmental quality

 Short term studies

 Surveys rapid assessment continuous short and long term monitoring

1-2 METHODS OF ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY, SHORT TERM

1-2: Methods of assessment of environmental quality

It provides information to national policymakers, international forums, and the public on

EVS031 Environmental Monitoring and Energy Studies Page 15

2) Surveys rapid assessment-It usually involves answering standardized questions in

A generic rapid assessment possesses four characteristics identified by Macintyre

EVS031 Environmental Monitoring and Energy Studies Page 16

3) Continuous short and long term monitoring-Long-term and short-term continuous

EVS031 Environmental Monitoring and Energy Studies Page 17

 Need, scope and objectives of EIA.

 Types of environmental impacts.

 Steps involved in conducting the EIA studies.

1-3 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT: NEED OF EIA, SCOPE AND

1-3: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

EVS031 Environmental Monitoring and Energy Studies Page 18

EVS031 Environmental Monitoring and Energy Studies Page 19