Seminar 6

1. General outline of the adjective.

1. Semantic features. The adjective expresses the property of an entity. Typically,
adjectives denote states, usually permanent states, although there are also adjectives
that can denote temporary states. Adjectives are characteristically stative, but many of
them can be seen as dynamic. The stative property of an entity is a property that
cannot be conceived as a developing process, and the dynamic property of an entity is
a property that is conceived as active, or as a developing process. E.g.: Mary is
thoughtful. vs. Mary is being thoughtful today.
Mary is very thoughtful today (unemphatic). vs. Mary is being thoughtful today
(emphatic).
 
2. Morphological features. Adjectives are related either to nouns or verbs. Suffixes
changing nouns to adjectives are: - (i)al (essential), -ar (familiar), -ary (ordinary) or –
ery (quarterly), -ed (unemployed), -en (sudden), -esque (arabesque), -ful (wonderful),
-ic(al) (critical), -ish (childish), -istic (realistic), -less (poweless), -like (childlike), -ly
(early), -ous (dangerous), -ward (inward), -wide (worldwide), -y (busy). Suffixes
changing verbs to adjectives are: -able (variable) or –ible (irresistible), -ent
(excellent) or –ant (pleasant), -ed (faded), -ing (interesting), -ive (impressive), -
(at)ory (mandatory).
3. Syntactic features. In the sentence, the adjective performs the functions of an
attribute (an adjunct) and a predicative. The more typical function is that of an
attribute since the function of a predicative can also be performed by other parts of
speech.
Adjectives can sometimes be postpositive, that is, they can sometimes follow the item
they modify. Adjectives can often function as heads of noun phrases. They do not
inflect for number and for the genitive case and must take a definite determiner.
An adjective can function as a verbless clause (E.g. Anxious, he dialed the
number).
2. Classification of adjectives.
Semantic classification. All the adjectives are traditionally divided into two large
subclasses: qualitative and relative. Relative adjectives express such properties of a
substance as are determined by the direct relation of the substance to some other
substance. E.g. mathematics — mathematical precision; history — a historical event.
Qualitative adjectives, as different from relative ones, denote various qualities of
substances which admit of a quantitative estimation, i.e. of establishing their
correlative quantitative measure. The measure of a quality can be estimated as high or
low, sufficient or insufficient, optimal or excessive.
However, in actual speech the described principle of distinction is not strictly
observed. Substances can possess qualities that are incompatible with the idea of
degrees of comparison. So adjectives denoting these qualities and incapable of
forming degrees of comparison still belong to the qualitative subclass (extinct,
immobile, deaf, final, fixed, etc.) On the other hand, some relative adjectives can
form degrees of comparison. Prof. Blokh suggests that all the adjective functions may
be grammatically divided into "evaluative" and "specificative". One and the same
adjective, irrespective of its being "relative" or "qualitative", can be used either in the
evaluative function or in the specificative function. For instance, the adjective good is
basically qualitative. On the other hand, when employed as a grading term in
teaching, so together with the grading terms bad, satisfactory, excellent, it acquires
the said specificative value; in other words, it becomes a specificative, not an
evaluative unit in the grammatical sense. Conversely, the adjective wooden is
basically relative, but when used in the broader meaning "expressionless" or
"awkward" it acquires an evaluative force and can presuppose a greater or lesser
degree ("amount") of the denoted properly in the corresponding referent.  
Adjectives that characterize the referent of the noun directly are termed inherent,
those that do not are termed non-inherent. E.g.: a fresh leaf of tea– the leaf of tea is
fresh
Most adjectives are inherent, and it is especially uncommon for dynamic adjectives to
be other than inherent.
Syntactic classification. From a syntactic point of view, adjectives can be divided into
three groups:
1) adjectives which can be used attributively and predicatively (a healthy man – the
man is healthy);
2) adjectives which can be used attributively only (a complete idiot – *the idiot is
complete);
3) adjectives which can be used predicatively only (*a loath man – the man is loath to
agree with it).
Attributive adjectives constitute two groups: 1) intensifying;
 2) restrictive, or particularizing (limiter adjectives).
Intensifying adjectives constitute two groups: 1) emphasizers;
 2) amplifiers.
Emphasizers have a heightening effect on the noun (clear, definite, outright, plain,
pure, real, sheer, sure, true); amplifiers scale upwards from an assumed norm
(complete, great, firm, absolute, close, perfect, extreme, entire, total, utter).
Restrictive adjectives restrict the noun to a particular member of the class (chief,
exact, main, particular, precise, principal, sole, specific). They particularize the
reference of the noun.
3. The category of adjectival comparison.
The category of comparison is constituted by the opposition of three forms of the
adjective: the positive, the comparative, and the superlative.
There are three ways of forming degrees of comparison: synthetic, analytic, and
suppletive.
The synthetic way of forming degrees of comparison is by the inflections -er, -est; the
analytic way, by placing more and most before the adjective. The synthetic way is
generally used with monosyllabic adjectives and dissyllabic adjectives ending in -y, -
ow, -er, -le and those which have the stress on the last syllable. However, in the
dissyllabic group we can observe radical changes: adjectives formerly taking -er and -
est are tending to go over to more and most , e.g. more common, most common; more
cloudy, most cloudy; more fussy, most fussy; more cruel, most cruel; more quiet,
most quiet; more clever, most clever; more profound, most profound; more simple,
most simple; more pleasant, most pleasant.
All this goes to show that English comparison is getting more and more analytic. As
already pointed out, the third way of forming degrees of comparison is by the use of
suppletive forms: good _ better, best; bad _ worse, worst; far _farther/further,
farthest/furthest; little _ less, least; much/many _ more, most.
4.Specific nature of adjectives of participial origin.
Another major subclass of adjectives can also be formally distinguished by endings,
this time by -ed or -ing endings:    
-ed form: computerized, determined, excited, misunderstood, renowned, self-centred,
talented, unknown;
-ing form: annoying, exasperating, frightening, gratifying, misleading, thrilling, time-
consuming, worrying;
Adjectives with -ed or -ing endings are known as participal adjectives, because they
have the same endings as verb participles (he was training for the Olympics, he had
trained for the Olympics). In some cases there is a verb which corresponds to these
adjectives (to annoy, to computerize, to excite, etc), while in others there is no
corresponding verb (to renown, to self-centre, to talent). Like other adjectives,
participial adjectives can usually be modified by very, extremely, or less (very
determined, extremely self-centred, less frightening, etc). They can also take more
and most to form comparatives and superlatives (annoying, more annoying, most
annoying). Finally, most participial adjectives can be used both attributively and
predicatively:  

Attributive Predicative

That's an interesting film  That film is intresting

That was an exciting trip That trip was exciting

He's an experienced teacher That teacher is experienced

Many participial adjectives, which have no corresponding verb, are formed by

combining a noun with a participle:  
alcohol-based chemicals;
battle-hardened soldiers;  
drug-induced coma;  
energy-saving devices;  
fact-finding mission;  
purpose-built accommodation.
When participial adjectives are used predicatively, it may sometimes be difficult to
distinguish between adjectival and verbal uses:  
[1] the workers are striking. In the absence of any further context, the grammatical
status of striking is indeterminate here. The following expansions illustrate possible
adjectival [1a] and verbal [1b] readings of [1]:   [1a] the workers are very striking in
their new uniforms (=`impressive', `conspicuous')   [1b] the workers are striking
outside the factory gates (=`on strike')
Adjectival
This film is terrifying
Your comments are alarming
The defendant's answers were misleading
Verbal
This film is terrifying the children
Your comments are alarming the people
The defendant's answers were misleading the jury
Discriminating between adjectival and verbal constructions is sometimes facilitated
by the presence of additional context, such as by-agent phrases or adjective
complements. However, when none of these indicators is present, grammatical
indeterminacy remains. With -ed and -ing participial forms, there is no grammatical
indeterminacy if there is no corresponding verb. For example, in the job was time-
consuming, and the allegations were unfounded, the participial forms are adjectives.
Similarly, the problem does not arise if the main verb is not be. For example, the
participial forms in this book seems boring, and he remained offended are all
adjectives.  E.g.: John was depressed/John felt depressed.
5. Patterns of combinability of adjectives.
Adjectives are combined with several parts of speech.
1) They may combine with nouns, which they may premodify or postmodify: a black
dress, a chivalrous gentleman, the delegates present. If there are several premodifying
adjectives to one headword they have definite positional assignments. Generally
descriptive adjectives precede the limiting ones, as in a naughty little boy, a beautiful
French girl, but il there are several of each type, adjectives of different meanings
stand like, for example, a large black and white hunting dog, a small pale green oval
seed.
This order of words is of course not absolutely fixed, since many adjectives may be
either descriptive or limiting, depending on the context. The adjectives are not
separated by commas, unless they belong to the same type: a nice little old man.
However, if there is more than one adjective of the same type they are separated by
commas: nasty, irritable, selfish man (all three belong to the type of ‘judgement or
general characterization’).
In several noun-phrases of French origin (mostly legal or quasilegal) the adjective is
postpositional. Examples: attorney general heir apparent time immemorial body
politic Queen Regnant Lords Spiritual (Temporal).
These noun-phrases are very similar to compounds and some of them are spelt as a
compound, with a hyphen (knight-errant, postmaster-general). The plural ending is
attached either to the first element, or to the second: Examples: court-martials
postmaster-general, courts-martial postmasters-general.
Postmodification may be due to the structural complexity of postmodifiers (the
children easiest to teach, the climate peculiar to this country), or to the presence of
only or all in preposition (the only actor suitable, the only person visible, all the
money available).
2) Beside their usual function, that of modifying nouns, adjectives may be combined
with other words in the sentence. They may be modified by adverbials of degree, like
very, quite, that, rather, most, a lot, a sort of, a bit, enough, totally, perfectly, so... as:
very long, a bit lazy, sort of naive, far enough, a little bit tired, a most beautiful
picture, not so foolish as that, she is not that crazy.
The adverb very can combine only with adjectives denoting the gradable properties.
Thus it is possible to say very tired (tiredness may be of different degree), but it is
impossible to say very unknown, very ceaseless, very unique, as these adjectives do
not allow of gradation. With the adverb too the indefinite article is placed between
the adjective and the head-noun. With the adverb rather the article is placed after it:
E.g.: This is too difficult a problem to solve at once. This is rather a complicated
matter.
3. Predicative adjectives are combined with the link verbs to be, to seem, to appear, to
look, to turn, or notional verbs in a double predicate:
E.g.: He looks tired. She does not seem so crazy as before. She is quite healthy. She
felt faint. If sounded rather fussy. The food tasted good. The flowers smell sweet.
6. Syntactic functions of adjectives.
Syntactically adjectives may function both as 1) attributes and 2) predicatives, i.e.
parts of the predicate. Here are the examples of the attributive use: She returned in
the early morning. After careful consideration, we accepted the offer. Trying to
conceal her embarrassment she turned away her red face.
Sometimes adjectives used attributively may occur in postposition, i.e. after the noun
they describe: This is the only possible answer. — This is the only answer possible.
In some cases the postpositional use of adjectives is obligatory: I'll do everything
possible to help you.When used predicatively, adjectives are combined with link-
verbs: be, feel, get, grow, look, seem, smell, taste, turn. For instance: I was early for
work today. When driving he is always careful. They feel nervous. He looked happy.
Honey tastes sweet. She turned red with embarrassment.Such adjectives as long,
high, wide, deep, etc. find themselves in predicative position together with nouns
denoting periods of time and units for measuring height, length and so on. For
example: The garden is 20 meters long and 15 meters wide. The well is 25 meters
deep.
The most frequently recurrent link-verb is the verb to be which enters a considerable
number of set expressions of adjective + preposition type: be ready for/with, be fond
of, be late for, be jealous of, be happy about, be afraid of, be frightened of, be
dependent on, be persistent in, be grateful to/for, be angry with, be certain about/of,
be suspicious of, etc. The predicative function of the adjectival collocations is often
supported by their synonymous verbal counterparts be fond of— love, be grateful
to/for — thank, be suspicious of— suspect of.
The predicative function may be performed by double comparative forms of
adjectives in the elliptical (or predicatively incomplete sentences with missing verbal
elements): The more expensive the hotel, the better the service. (The more expensive
the hotel is...) The warmer the weather the better I feel.
Adjectives with the a- prefix like afire, afloat, agape, ajar, akin, etc. usually function
predicatively: The house was aflame. The company somehow managed to keep
afloat. The problem facing him is akin to that of ours. However, in some rare cases,
they may be used attributively: He got down to work afire with enthusiasm.
7. Peculiarities of substantivised adjectives.
Substantivized adjectives have acquired some or all of the characteristics of the noun,
but their adjectival origin is still generally felt.
Substantivized adjectives are divided into wholly substantivized and partially
substantivized adjectives. Wholly substantivized adjectives have all the
characteristics of nouns, namely the plural form, the genitive case; they are associated
with articles, i. e. they have become nouns: a native, the natives, a native's hut. Some
wholly substantivized adjectives have only the plural form: eatables, valuables,
ancients, sweets, greens.
Partially substantivized adjectives acquire only some of the characteristics of the
noun; they are used with the definite article. Partially substantivized adjectives denote
a whole class: the rich, the poor; the unemployed. They may also denote abstract
notions: the good, the evil, the beautiful, the singular, the plural, the future, the
present, the past.
Substantivized adjectives denoting nationalities fall under wholly and partially
substantivized adjectives. Wholly substantivized adjectives are: a Russian —
Russians, a German — Germans. Partially substantivized adjectives are: the English,
the French, the Chinese.
8. Morphological composition of numerals.
The Cardinals
Among the cardinals there are simple, derived, and compound words. The cardinals
from one to twelve, hundred, thousand, million are simple words; those from thirteen
to nineteen are derived from the corresponding simple ones by means of the suffix -
teen; the cardinals denoting fens are derived from the corresponding simple ones by
means of the suffix -ty.
The cardinals from twenty-one to twenty-nine, from thirty-one to thirty-nine, etc. and
those over hundred are compounds. In cardinals consisting of tens and units the two
words are hyphenated: 21 - twenty-one, 35 - thirty-five, 72 - seventy-two, etc.
In cardinals including hundreds and thousands the words denoting units and tens are
joined to those denoting hundreds, thousands, by means of the conjunction and: 103 -
one hundred and three, 225 - two hundred and twenty-five, 3038 - three thousand and
thirty-eight, 9651 - nine thousand six hundred and fifty-one.
The words for common fractions are also composite. They are formed from cardinals
denoting the numerator and substantivized ordinals denoting the denominator. If the
numerator is a numeral higher than one, the ordinal in the denominator takes the
plural form. The numerator and denominator may be joined by means of a hyphen or
without it: 1/3 - one-third (one third), 2/7 - two-sevenths (two sevenths), etc.
In mixed numbers, the numerals denoting fractions are joined to the numerals
denoting integers (whole numbers) by means of the conjunction and: 3 1/5 - three and
one-fifth, 20 3/8 - twenty and three-eighths.
In decimal fractions the numerals denoting fractions are joined to those denoting
whole numbers by means of the words point or decimal: 0.5 - zero point (decimal)
five, 2.3 - two point (decimal) three, 0,5   - zero decimal five, 0,005 - zero decimal
zero zero five.
The ordinals
Among the ordinals there are also simple, derivative and compound words. The
simple ordinals are first, second and third. The derivative ordinals are derived from
the simple and derivative cardinals by means of the suffix -th: four-fourth, ten-tenth,
sixteen-sixteenth, twenty-twentieth, etc. Before the suffix -th the final у is replaced
by ie: thirty - thirtieth, etc.
The compound ordinals are formed from composite cardinals. In this case only the
last component of the compound numeral has the form of the ordinal: twenty-first,
forty-second, sixty-seventh, one hundred and first, etc.
9. Morphological characteristics of numerals.
If we speak about morphological characteristics, the numerals do not undergo any
morphological changes, that is, they do not have morphological categories. In this,
they differ from nouns with numerical meaning. Thus, the numerals ten, hundred,
thousand do not have plural forms: two hundred and fifty, four thousand people, etc.,
whereas the corresponding homonymous nouns ten, hundred, thousand to tens,
hundreds of people, thousands of birds, etc. Numerals combine mostly with nouns
and function as their attributes, usually as premodifying attributes. If a noun has
several premodifying attributes including a cardinal or an ordinal, these come first, as
in: three tiny green leaves, seven iron men, the second pale little boy, etc.
If both a cardinal and an ordinal refer to one head-noun the ordinal comes first: In
English: the first three tall girls, the second two grey dogs, etc.
Nouns premodified by ordinals are used with the definite article: The first men in the
moon, the third month, etc. When used with the indefinite article, they lose their
numerical meaning and acquire that of a pronoun (another, one more), as in English:
a second man entered.
Postmodifying numerals combine with a limited number of nouns.
Postmodifying cardinals are combinable with some nouns denoting items of certain
sets of things: pages, paragraphs, chapters, parts of books, acts and scenes of plays,
lessons in textbooks, apartments and rooms, buses or trams (means of transport),
grammatical terms, etc.;
In such cases the cardinals have a numbering meaning and thus differ semantically
from the ordinals which have an enumerating meaning. Enumeration indicates the
order of a thing in a certain succession of things, while numbering indicates a number
constantly attached to a thing either in a certain succession or in a certain set of
things. Thus, the first room (enumeration) is not necessarily room one (numbering),
etc. Compare: the first room I looked into was room five, or the second page that he
read was page twenty-three, etc. Postmodifying ordinals occur in combinations with
certain proper names, mostly those denoting the members of well-known dynasties:
King Henry VIII — King Henry the Eighth, Peter I — Peter the First, etc. As
headwords modified by other words numerals are combinable with prepositional
phrases: the first of May, one of the men, two of them, etc.
10. Patterns of combinability of numerals.
Numerals combine mostly with nouns and function as their attributes, usually as
premodifying attributes. If a noun has several premodifying attributes including a
cardinal or an ordinal, these come first, as in: three tiny green leaves, seven iron men,
the second pale little boy, etc.
The only exception is pronoun determiners, which always begin a series of attributes:
his second beautiful wife; these four rooms; her three little children; every second
day, etc.
If both a cardinal and an ordinal refer to one head-noun the ordinal comes first: the
first three tall girls, the second two grey dogs, etc.
Nouns premodified by ordinals are used with the definite article: The first men in the
moon, the third month, etc.
When used with the indefinite article, they lose their numerical meaning and acquire
that of a pronoun (another, one more), as in: a second man entered, then a third.
Postmodifying numerals combine with a limited number of nouns. Postmodifying
cardinals are combinable with some nouns denoting items of certain sets of things:
pages, paragraphs, chapters, parts of books, acts and scenes of plays, lessons in
textbooks, apartments and rooms, buses or trams (means of transport), grammatical
terms, etc.; room two hundred and three, page ten, bus four, participle one, etc.
Postmodifying ordinals occur in combinations with certain proper names, mostly
those denoting the members of well-known dynasties: King Henry VIII - King Henry
the Eighth, Peter I - Peter the First, etc.
As headwords modified by other words numerals are combinable with:
1) prepositional phrases: the first of May, one of the men, two of them, etc.
2) pronouns: every three days, all seven, each fifth, etc.
3) adjectives: the best three of them, the last two weeks, etc.
4) particles: just five days ago, only two, only three books, he is nearly sixty, etc.
11. Syntactic function of numerals.
Ordinal numerals are used as attributes.
"No, this is my first dance," she said.
Almost immediately the band started, and her second partner seemed to spring from
the ceiling.
... the young man opposite had long since disappeared. Now the other two got out.
(subject)
Earle Fox was only fifty-four, but he felt timeless and ancient. (predicative)
And again she saw them, but not four, more like forty laughing, sneering, jeering ...
(object)
At eight the gong sounded for supper. (Mansfield) (adverbial modifier)
Cardinals are sometimes used to denote the place of an object in a series.
... but from the corner of the street until she came to No. 26 she thought of those four
flights of stairs.
Exercises.
ex. 1 Give the forms of degrees of comparison and state whether they are formed in a
synthetic, analytical or suppletive way,
a) wet - wetter - wettest (synthetic);
merry - merrier - the merriest (synthetic);
real - more real - the most real (analytical);
far - farther - the farthest (suppletive);

b) kind-hearted - more kind-hearted - the most kind-hearted (analytical);

shy - shyer - the shyest (synthetic);
little - less - the least (suppletive);
friendly - friendlier - the friendliest (synthetic);

c) certain - more certain - the most certain (analytical);

comical - more comical - the most comical (analytical);
severe - severer - the severest (synthetic);
well-off - more well-off - the most well-off (analytical);

d) sophisticated - more sophisticated - the most sophisticated (analytical);

clumsy - clumsier - the clumsiest (synthetic);
old-fashioned - more old-fashioned - the most old-fashioned (analytical);
good-looking - more good-looking - the most good-looking (analytical).
ex. 2 Give the Russian equivalents for the English word combinations:
iron rations - сухой паёк
iron foundry (ironworks) - чугунолитейный (металлургический завод)
iron industry - металлургическая промышленность
ironware (iron mongery) - скобяной товар (железные изделия)
ferrous metal - черные металлы
ferrous oxide - оксиды железа
celestial map - небесная карта
sky-force - воздушные силы
celestial food - пища богов
sky-line - линия горизонта
skyway - эстакада
celestial navigation - астронавигация
sea-cock - морской петух
dog-fish - катран (акула)
echinus - эхинус (морской еж)
sea-boy - юнга
sea-water - морская вода
naval base - военно-морская база
"sea dog" - морской пес (бывалый моряк)
Admiralty - адмиралтейство (морское министерство)
Admiralty mile
sea-hedgehog - морской еж
starfish - морская звезда
sea-horse - морской конек
sea-dye - краситель морской воды (спасательое средство)
grass-wrack - рдестовые (вид водных растений)
sea kale - морская капуста
"old salt" - морской волк (опытный моряк, рассказчик историй)
sea-cliff - прибрежная скала
sea-cow - морская корова
sea-lane - морской маршрут